HNSA Ships to Visit: Knowledge Base: About HNSA: Support HNSA:

87
ENGINE-ROOM TOOLS, PART 2
91. Machine Screws.-The term "machine screw" is generally used to designate
the small screws that are used in tapped holes for the assembly of metal parts.
The types of machine screws that are ordinarily encountered are shown in Fig.
78. Most of these screws are made of steel or brass, some being plated to resist
corrosion. They are also made of stainless steel.
FIG. 78. MACHINE SCREWS.
88
There is a great variety of diameters, lengths, and head shapes manufactured.
The thread diameter, length in inches, head shape, material from which made,
and the type of nish, must therefore be included in a complete description of a
machine screw.
Occasionally machine screws with specially shaped heads, as shown in Fig. 79,
are used aboard ship. Most of these screws require special tools for driving and
removing. In some cases the tools are included in a kit that comes with the
machine on which the screws are used.
FIG. 79. SPECIAL MACHINE SCREWS.
Machine screws are driven and removed with a screwdriver or wrench,
depending on the type of screw head. Hexagon, or hex, heads are turned with
socket wrenches; slotted heads are turned with plain screwdrivers; socket heads
require an Allen-type wrench; and Phillips heads require special Phillips
screwdrivers. Holes for llister-head screws must be counterbored so that the
head of the screw is ush with or below the surface.
92. Cap Screws.-Cap screws, sometimes called "tap bolts," perform the same
functions as machine screws. They are generally used without nuts and are
screwed into tapped holes. Their sizes range up to 1 inch in diameter and 6
inches in length.
Cap screws may have square, hex, at, button, or llister heads, as illustrated in
Fig. 78. Fillister heads are best for use on moving
89
parts because such heads are sunk into counterbored holes. Hex heads are
usually used where the metal parts do not move.
The strongest cap screws are made of alloy steel. Cap screws made of stainless
steel are often specied on machinery exposed to salt water, which would soon
corrode and "freeze" the threads of ordinary steel screws.
Some cap screws have small holes through their heads. A length of wire, called a
safety wire, is passed through the holes in all of the screws in a group and is
fastened at the ends, thus preventing the cap screws from coming loose.
93. Sheet-Metal Screws.-The screws shown in Fig. 80 are used to hold together
sections of sheet metal, ber, plastic, etc., and are known as sheet-metal screws.
They are especially useful aboard ship when applying sheet-metal covering over
insulation. Type A has a sharp point and resembles a wood screw, except that
the threads extend to the head of the screw. Type Z screws have blunt points
and may be used with heavier material. A special "self-tapping" sheet-metal
screw has a tap end that cuts threads as the screw is inserted.
Holes for sheet-metal screws should be drilled or punched to about the same
diameter as the core of the screw used. The screws are available in a variety of
head shapes, as shown in the illustration.
FIG. 80. SHEET METAL SCREWS.
90
FIG. 81. COMMON TYPES OF BOLTS.
94. Machine Bolts.-Machine bolts, Fig. 81, are made in a variety of diameters,
lengths, thread pitches, and head shapes. They are furnished in three grades:
machine nished, semi-nished, and rough. Diameters range from 3/16 inch to 3/4
inch, and lengths from 1/2 inch to 30 inches. The larger bolts are usually made
up to t as needed instead of carrying them in stock.
Machine bolts are used to hold together frames and structures, particularly
those which must be easily dismantled. Some bolts have holes drilled near the
end of. the threaded part for cotter pins or safety wire. The nuts used on
machine bolts may be either square or hexagonal, and the bolt heads also may
be of either type. Washers are usually used with these bolts.
95. Stove Bolts.-Stove bolts are small, and were developed for use on stoves, as
the name suggests. They can be used for many other jobs, however, where
great accuracy and strength are not required and where there is no great
amount of vibration to shake the nuts loose. Stove bolts have special coarse
threads which make a free t with the threads of the square nuts used on them.
96. Carriage Bolts.-Carriage bolts usually have round heads, with short square
shanks just under their heads. This square portion prevents the bolt from
turning. Their chief use is in wood structures, but they may be used with metal.
Square nuts and at washers are used on carriage bolts and are supplied with
them.
97. Studs.-Studs, or stud bolts, have both ends threaded, but one end takes a
nut while the other is screwed into a tapped hole.
91
The use of a stud is really a safety precaution, because the nut may still be
removed, even if the end that is screwed into the casting is "frozen." Because
studs are commonly used in castings, they generally have coarse threads.
98. Stud Driver.-A stud driver, Fig. 82, is used to screw studs into place or to
remove them without damaging the threads. It is also very useful when working
on studs in inaccessible places. The driver consists of a square or hexagonal
piece of steel or other metal which has one end drilled and tapped to receive
the stud and the other end drilled and tapped for a setscrew.
FIG. 82. STUD DRIVER.
If the stud is to be installed in a hole, the stud should be screwed into the driver,
and the setscrew tightened rmly against the stud. However, if the stud is
already started in the hole, screw the driver on the stud and tighten the
setscrew. In both of these operations the stud and stud driver are locked
together, and a wrench is then used on the body of the driver to turn the stud.
If a stud driver is not handy when needed, a substitute can be made by screwing
2 nuts on the stud, and locking them together by applying a separate wrench to
each nut. To unscrew the stud, a wrench should be applied to the inside nut. If
the stud is being tightened, a wrench is applied to the outside nut.
99. Screw Extractor.-At times a screw or stud will break o in a hole and must
be extracted. The best method of doing this is to use a screw extractor, or "easy
out." First drill a hole in the broken screw or stud a little smaller than its body
diameter, so that the thread will not be damaged. Then insert the extractor in
the drilled hole, tapping it lightly. (Extractors are marked with the size drill
92
with which they are to be used.) The screw extractor is tapered and has sharp
ridges, and when a wrench is applied and the extractor turned
counterclockwise, the ridges will grip the broken part so that it can be screwed
out of the hole. A screw extractor inserted in a broken stud is shown in Fig. 83.
FIG. 83. USE OF SCREW EXTRACTOR.
100. Nuts.-Several kinds of nuts are shown in Fig. 84. These must always be
used with some kind of bolt or stud, so that the two pieces, nut and bolt or nut
and stud, exert holding force by the strength of their threads. The combination
is suited to assemblies that may have to be removed or taken apart.
Square and hexagonal nuts are standard, but they are supplemented by special
nuts. One of these is the jam nut, or locknut, used above a standard hex nut to
lock it in position. It is about half as thick as the standard nut, and has a washer
face.
Castellated nuts are slotted so that a cotter pin may be pushed
93
FIG. 84. NUTS.
through the slots and a hole in the bolt. This provides a positive method of
preventing the nut from working loose. They are usually used with machine
bolts.
Wing nuts are especially useful where there is frequent occasion for hand
adjustment. Cap or acorn nuts are used where appearance is an important
consideration. They are usually made of brass, which is then chromium-plated.
Thumb nuts are knurled, so that they may be turned by hand for easy assembly
and disassembly.
Elastic stop nuts are used where it is imperative that the nut does not come
loose. These nuts have a ber or composition washer built into them. When the
nut is tightened, the washer is compressed automatically against the screw
threads to provide holding tension.
101. Washers.-Washers are often placed under nuts or bolt heads to protect the
pieces being fastened or to make tightening up easier. Three kinds of washers
are shown in Fig. 85.
Flat washers are used to back up bolt heads and nuts and provide larger bearing
surfaces. They also prevent damage to the surfaces of the metal parts through
which a bolt passes.
FIG. 85. WASHERS.
94
Split lock washers are used under nuts to prevent loosening by vibration. The
ends of these spring-hardened washers dig into both the nut and the work to
prevent slippage.
Shakeproof lock washers have teeth or lugs that can grip both the work and the
nut. After the nut has been tightened on this type of washer, half of the lugs are
bent against the nut and the other half bent in the opposite direction against the
work, if possible, thus obtaining the locking action. Several patented designs,
shapes and sizes are obtainable.
102. Threads.-Threads are helical ridges cut into screws, nuts, bolts, or in the
walls of a hole, so that the action of turning gives an endwise as well as a rotary
motion. A thread is either an outside (male) thread, or an inside (female) thread.
An understanding of the terms used in connection with screw threads is
extremely important. The following denitions are therefore given, and refer to
Fig. 86.
Angle of thread. The angle of thread is the angle included between the sides of
the thread, measured in an axial plane.
Half angle of thread. The angle included between a side of the thread and the
normal (90 from the axis), measured in an axial plane.
Lead. The distance a screw thread advances axially in one turn.
Major diameter. The largest diameter of the thread of the screw or nut.
Minor diameter, or root diameter. The smallest diameter of the thread of the
screw or nut.
Pitch diameter. On a straight screw thread, the diameter of an imaginary
cylinder, the surface of which would pass through the threads at such points as
to make equal the width of the threads and the width of the spaces cut by the
surface of the cylinder.
Pitch. The pitch of a thread is the measured distance from the crest of one
thread to the crest of the next adjacent thread. The number of threads per inch,
such as 8, 10, 12, etc., is equal to 1 divided by the pitch, in inches. The diameter
and the pitch (or number of threads per inch) must be known in specifying or
cutting threads.
103. Threads having major diameters of less than 1/4 inch are used on machine
screws. The diameters range from 0.060 inch for
95
FIG. 86. SCREW THREAD TERMS.
size "0," to 0.216 inch for size 12, and vary 0.013 inch from one size to the next.
Threads having major diameters of 1/4 inch to 5/8 inch vary in diameter by 1/16
inch from size to the next. Threads with diameters of 5/8 inch to 1 1/4 inches
vary in diameter by 1/8 inch. Table I includes data concerning standard threads
up to 1 1/4 inches in diameter.
104. Thread Forms.-The four most common types of screw threads are the
V-thread, the American National thread, the Square thread, and the Acme
thread. The same rules for diameter and pitch apply to all types of threads.
The sharp V-thread, Fig. 87, has serious disadvantages and is
96
TABLE I.
AMERICAN NATIONAL THREADS
(Thread and Tap Drill Sizes)
Size and
Threads
per inch
Thr'd
series
Major
diameter
(inches)
Root
diameter
(inches)
Tap drill to
produce approx.
75% full thread
Decimal
equivalent
of tap drill
0-80 N. F. 0.0600 0.0438 3/64 0.0469
64 N. C. 0.0730 0.0527 53 0.0595
72 N. F. 0.0730 0.0550 53 0.0595
2-56 N. C. 0.0860 0.0628 50 0.0700
64 N. F. 0.0860 0.0657 50 0.0700
3-48 N. C. 0.0990 0.0719 47 0.0785
56 N. F. 0.0990 0.0758 45 0.0820
4-40 N. C. 0.1120 0.0795 43 0.0890
48 N. F. 0.1120 0.0849 42 0.0935
5-40 N. C. 0.1250 0.0925 38 0.1015
44 N. F. 0.1250 0.0955 37 0.1040
6-32 N. C. 0.1380 0.0974 36 0.1065
40 N. F. 0.1380 0.1055 33 0.1130
8-32 N. C. 0.1640 0.1234 29 0.1360
36 N. F. 0.1640 0.1279 29 0.1360
10-24 N. C. 0.1900 0.1359 25 0.1495
32 N. F. 0.1900 0.1494 21 0.1590
12-24 N.C. 0.2160 0.1619 16 0.1770
28 N. F. 0.2160 0.1696 14 0.1820
1/4-20 N. C. 0.2500 0.1850 7 0.2010
28 N. F. 0.2500 0.2036 3 0.2130
5/16-18 N. C. 0.3125 0.2403 F 0.2570
24 N. F. 0.3125 0.2584 I 0.2720
3/8-16 N. C. 0.3750 0.2938 5/16 0.3125
24 N. F. 0.3750 0.3209 Q 0.3320
7/16-14 N. C. 0.4375 0.3447 U 0.3680
20 N. F. 0.4375 0.3726 25/64 0.3906
1/2-13 N. C. 0.5000 0.4001 27/64 0.4219
20 N. F. 0.5000 0.4351 29/64 0.4531
9/16-12 N. C. 0.5625 0.4542 31/64 0.4844
18 N. F. 0.5625 0.4903 33/64 0.5156
5/8-11 N. C. 0.6250 0.5069 17/32 0.5312
18 N. F. 0.6250 0.5528 37/64 0.5781
3/4-10 N. C. 0.7500 0.6201 21/32 0.6562
16 N. F. 0.7500 0.6688 11/16 0.6875
7/8-9 N. C. 0.8750 0.7307 49/64 0.7656
14 N. F. 0.8750 0.7822 13/16 0.8125
1-8 N. C. 1.0090 0.8376 7/8 0.8750
14 N. F. 1.0000 0.9072 15/16 0.9375
97
FIG. 87. SHARP V AND AMERICAN NATIONAL THREADS.
seldom used. The sharp crests and roots are hard to cut accurately; the crests
are easily dented and chipped; and the roots become clogged with dirt and bits
of metal.
The American National thread, also shown in Fig. 87, resembles the sharp
V-thread, except that the crests and roots are at. The length of this at portion,
of both crest and root, is 1/8 of the pitch distance. Because of the design,
American National threads are not easily damaged and the roots are easily
cleaned. This type of thread is the one generally used on the many bolts and
nuts found in a ship's installation.
America National threads are standardized into 2 series, National Coarse (N.C.)
and National Fine (N.F.). The coarse thread
Fig. 88. SQUARE AND ACME THREADS.
98
series is used for rough work on heavy materials, while the ne thread series is
used on small bolts, machine screws, adjusting mechanisms, etc.
The Square thread, shown in Fig. 88, is strong and ecient. It is used on the
tightening screws of vises, clamps, and jacks.
The Acme thread is a heavy-duty thread whose sides form an angle of 29
degrees with each other. This type of thread can withstand heavy strains and
loads, and is easier to machine than Square threads.
105. Most threads are right-hand threads, that is, they advance when turned
clockwise. Left-hand threads, however, are required by some machines and
installations. They advance when turned counterclockwise. Left-hand threads
are often labeled so that they will not be turned the wrong way. Right-hand taps
and dies cannot be used to cut left-hand threads; a special left-hand tap and die
is necessary.
106. The t of threads depends on the clearance between the threads of mating
parts, the four dierent ts being as follows:
No. 1.-Loose t; No. 2.-Free t; No. 3.-Medium t; No. 4.-Close t.
The No. 1 and No. 2 ts have considerable play and are used on stove bolts and
bolts used for rough construction.
The No. 3 t is the one specied for machine parts, engine bolts and most
threaded parts. If a matching bolt and nut have very little play and can just be
turned with the ngers, the threads probably have a No. 3 thread. However, if it
is necessary to use a wrench without much pressure, it is a No. 4 close t. This t
is used for the threaded parts of mechanisms that must be extremely accurate.
Thread ts are often stated on blueprints, together with the thread's major
diameter, the threads per inch, and thread series. Such a note would appear as
-3/8-16 N.C.-3. The rst number indicates the diameter, in inches; the second
number, the number of threads per inch; and the last number, the thread t.
The number of threads per inch of a bolt or screw may be determined by using
a screw pitch gage, shown in Fig. 89. This gage
99
FIG. 89. SCREW PITCH GAGE.
has a number of pivoted, knife-like blades whose edges are cut to represent the
various thread pitches. To use the gage, select and try the blades in turn until
one ts the thread exactly, then read the number stamped on that blade.
107. Taps and Dies.-Taps and dies are tools used for cutting screw threads.
Taps are used to cut inside threads and dies to cut outside threads.
Taps and dies can be classied under the following headings: 1. Type of thread
formed, such as N.F. or N.C.; 2. Diameter of the screw formed or hole tapped; 3.
Number of threads per inch.
The two kinds of taps in common use are known as standard hand taps and
machine screw taps. Standard hand taps are made for cutting threads from 1/16
inch up to 4 inches in diameter; machine screw tap diameters are designated by
numbers ranging from No. 0 (smallest) to No. 30 (largest) to t the
corresponding sizes of machine screws.
In order that there may be enough metal in the hole to provide material into
which the threads can be cut, the hole must be drilled smaller than the major
diameter of the tap threads. The size of the drill to be used can be computed by
taking 75% of the dierence between the major and minor diameters, and
subtract this amount from the major diameter. The resultant thread is
100
known as a "75% thread," and is generally used because it is only 5% less
ecient than a full depth thread.
The most convenient method of determining the size of tap drill to be used is to
consult a tabulation of thread and tap drill sizes such as that given in Table I.
108. Sets of taps.-Hand taps are usually provided in sets of three for each
diameter and thread combination, as shown in Fig. 90. Each set contains a taper
tap, a plug tap, and a bottoming tap. The taps in each set are identical in diameter
and cross section.
FIG. 90. TAPS.
The taper tap may be used for internal threading where the work permits the
tap to be run entirely through. When the taper tap cannot be run through the
work, the diameter will be so small near the bottom of the tapped hole that the
screw or bolt will not screw down as far as it should. In this case a plug tap is
used after the taper tap is removed. If full diameter threads are desired all the
way to the bottom of the hole, the plug tap is followed by a bottoming tap,
which is the same diameter its entire length.
109. Use of Taps.-Taps are held in tap wrenches while they are being used.
There are two types of wrenches, the T-handle for small taps and restricted
spaces, and the adjustable tap wrench for general use and larger taps. Examples
of tap wrenches are shown in Fig. 91.
101
FIG. 91. TAP WRENCHES.
When starting to tap a hole, secure the work in a vise, if possible. The best
arrangement is one in which the tap can be operated in the vertical position. It is
also very important to start the tap straight and keep it so throughout the work,
because taps, especially small ones, will break if bent or strained. After a tap
starts to cut, it is not fed into the hole with much pressure, as its threads will
tend to pull it in at the proper rate. Also, a tap should not be turned
continuously. The best method is to turn it forward about 1/4 turn, and then
turn it back until the chips break loose, before continuing to turn it forward. This
process should be repeated for each 1/4 turn forward.
Taps work better if they are kept cool. When tapping steel or bronze, the tap
should be well lubricated, preferably with lard oil. The oil also helps the chips to
ow out of the hole and from the utes of the tap.
102
Cast iron is drilled, tapped, and reamed dry. Soft metals, such as brass, can also
be tapped dry.
It should be noted that some small taps, up to the 3/8-inch size, have large
shanks which should not be turned beyond the surface of the work being
tapped, as these shanks exert a reaming action which would cut out the threads.
110. Removal of Broken Tap.-Taps will sometimes break o, even when used
with care. There are two ways of satisfactorily removing the broken part of a tap
from a hole: (1) by means of a tap extractor; (2) by using a chisel or punch.
A tap extractor having 4 "ngers" that slip along the utes of the tap is shown in
Fig. 92. This tool is turned with a wrench, which must be used carefully to
prevent damage to the long thin ngers of the extractor.
FIG. 92. USE OF TAP EXTRACTOR.
Broken taps can often be removed by using a blunt cold chisel or a taper punch,
as shown in Fig. 93. If done carefully, this will frequently start the tap. The job
can then be completed with a tap extractor as previously described. Taps often
shatter when they break; the broken pieces should be picked from the hole with
a small prick punch or a magnetized scriber before any attempt is made to
remove the tap. Removing a broken tap by any method is often a long, tedious
job which requires time, skill, and patience. It is therefore wise to avoid
breakage by being as careful as possible.
111. Cutting Outside Threads.-Outside threads are usually cut by the use of
some type of die held in a die stock for turning leverage. The complete assembly
of a stock and solid die is shown in Fig. 94. Solid dies are not adjustable.
Round dies similar to the one shown in Fig. 94, but with an adjustable slot, are
usually found aboard ship. By adjusting the
103
FIG. 93. REMOVING BROKEN TAP WITH PUNCH.
width of the split or slot, the diameter and t of the thread can be controlled.
Some of the dies are equipped with guides, which help to start the cut and keep
the threads straight.
Dies for larger diameters are made in two parts, and are removable,
replaceable, and adjustable. The two parts slide in a groove and are adjusted
with a screw. Two types of adjustable dies are shown in Fig. 95.
The procedure for using dies correctly is similar to that for
FIG. 94. STOCK AND DIE.
104
FIG. 95. ADJUSTABLE DIES.
tapping. The work should be held rmly in a vise, and any burr on the end of the
piece to be threaded should be removed. The die will start the cut more readily
if the end of the piece of material is chamfered slightly to provide a starting
place for the die. The chamfer can be cut with a le or a grinder. To start the
thread, place the large side of the opening in the die over the work and press
down rmly on the stock. Die threads are tapered from one face only, so be sure
to start the cut with that face. Reverse the die only when it is necessary to cut
full threads up to a square shoulder. When cutting the thread, turn the die
forward for part of a revolution and then turn it back slightly so as to release the
chips before making the next forward turn.
It is usually best to adjust the die to cut oversize threads at rst, as threads can
always be made smaller, but cannot be made larger. Examine the nished
threads for imperfections. Each thread should be a full thread.
112. Pipe Fittings.-Aboard ship it is often necessary to cut, thread, bend and t
together various lengths of pipes. It is therefore important to be thoroughly
familiar with the commonly used ttings, examples of which are shown in Fig.
96.
Pipes up to 2 inches in diameter are usually joined with pipe ttings. The pipe
ttings are tapped and threaded with pipe threads, which taper 3/4 inch per foot
of thread. Larger pipe is usually joined either by bolted anges or by welding.
Additional information concerning pipe ttings will be found in Marine
Pipe-tting.
105
FIG. 96. PIPE FITTINGS.
113. Cutting Pipe.-Pipe can be cut with a hacksaw, but a pipe cutter is more
satisfactory and should be used, if available. The use of a pipe cutter and pipe
vise is shown in Fig. 97. The cutter has a special alloy steel cutting wheel and two
pressure rollers.
When measuring pipe it is necessary to allow sucient length for thread to
enter each tting. The amount to be allowed for the thread depends on the
nominal diameter, or size, of the pipe,
FIG. 97. PIPE CUTTER AND PIPE VISE.
106
TABLE II.
Pipe Diameter, Inches
Nominal
Diameter and
Marked
Size of Tap
Actual
Outside
Actual
Inside
Threads
per
Inch
Size of
Tap Drill
(Reamer
not used)
Length
Allowed
for Thread,
Each Fitting
Inches
1/8 0.405 0.269 27 R 5/16
1/4 0.540 0.364 18 7/16 7/16
3/8 0.675 0.493 18 37/64 7/16
1/2 0.840 0.622 14 23/32 9/16
3/4 1.050 0.824 14 59/64 9/16
1 1.315 1.049 11 1/2 1 5/32 11/16
1 1/4 1.660 1.380 11 1/2 1 1/2 11/16
1 1/2 1.900 1.610 11 1/2 1 47/64 11/16
2 2.375 2.067 11 1/2 2 7/32 3/4
2 1/2 2.875 2.469 8 2 41/64 1 1/16
3 3.500 3.068 8 3 1/4 1 1/8
3 1/2 4.000 3.548 8 3 3/4 1 3/16
4 4.500 4.026 8 4 1/4 1 3/16
5 5.563 5.047 8 5 5/16 1 5/16
6 6.625 6.065 8 6 23/64
and is given in Table II. When the correct measurement has been determined,
the location of the cut should be marked clearly on the pipe with a le or scriber.
The pipe should be secured rmly in the pipe vise, as shown in Fig. 97, and the
cutter slipped over the end. Set the cutter with the cutting wheel on the mark
previously made, and then rotate the cutter around the pipe, gradually taking up
on the cutting wheel, by turning the handle of the cutter, until the pipe is cut
through. In order to keep the wheel tracking properly, the cutter must be kept
perpendicular to the work at all times.
The operation of the pipe cutter leaves a shoulder on the outside of the end of
the pipe and a burr on the inside. Always remove both. If the burr on the inside
is not removed, the ragged edges will catch dirt and other solid matter and will
block the ow. A pipe reamer, Fig. 98, is used for the purpose.
114. Threading Pipe.-Special dies, called pipe dies, are used to
cut pipe threads. As with bolt and screw threads, most pipe threads are cut for
right-hand turning, but left-hand pipe dies are available, as some installations
require a left-hand thread.
Most pipe dies can be adjusted to cut slightly dierent depths of threads. When
an adjustable die is used, the thread is cut to about 1/2 depth at rst, then the
die is readjusted to nish cutting the thread to the full depth.
107
FIG. 98. PIPE REAMER.
To cut a pipe thread, secure the pipe in a pipe vise, and place the stock and die
on it as indicated in Fig. 99, This type of die has a guide clamp, as shown in the
illustration. The clamp ts over the pipe and is tightened in position with a
screw. As the die stock is revolved, the clamp draws the die on the pipe, the die
cutting the thread as it is turned. The clamp also helps to keep the threads
straight.
The number of threads cut should not be greater than the number of threads of
the die, and the cut is complete when the end of the pipe is ush with the back
surface of the die. The work should be backed up frequently as with the other
forms of thread cutting, so as to clear the chips. Oil should be used freely during
the thread cutting process.
115. Pipe Wrenches.-Threaded joints should be screwed together by hand and
then tightened with a pipe wrench, often
108
FIG. 99. THREADING PIPE.
called a "Stinson." The pipe should be held in a pipe vise during assembly, if
possible, but if it is not feasible to use a vise, the pipe may be held with another
pipe wrench. A pipe wrench is shown in Fig. 100.
FIG. 100. PIPE WRENCH.
The pipe wrench is designed for use on pipe and screwed end ttings only and
should never be used on hexagon or square nuts. The jaws of the pipe wrench
exert a squeezing action, and the teeth of the jaws tend to cut into the metal
that is gripped. The harder the wrench is pulled, the tighter it squeezes, and this
squeezing action can do great damage. Many inexperienced men have learned
that a pipe wrench can scar or crush a pipe tting or other piece of equipment.
It is never advisable to grip the open end of a piece of pipe or a tting with a
pipe wrench without rst protecting the end of the pipe with a tting, or the
tting with
109
FIG. 101. DIRECTION OF PULL ON PIPE WRENCH.
a piece of pipe. This strengthens the work and enables it to withstand the stress
impressed by the wrench.
No instructions are necessary on which way to pull on a pipe wrench because it
works only in one direction, as shown in Fig. 101. The pipe wrench will be found
to function best when the bite is taken midway of the jaw teeth, and when the
size of the wrench is properly chosen for the job. Jaw teeth should be kept clean
and sharp, and the springs should be kept in good operating condition to allow
quick one-hand grip and release. A few drops of oil applied to the adjusting nut
will help to keep the wrench in good working order.
Pipe wrenches are made in sizes ranging from 6 to 48 inches. The correct
wrench sizes for use with various sizes of pipe are given in the following:
Pipe Wrench Size (inches) Pipe Size (inches)
6 1/4
10 3/8 and 1/2
14 3/4
18 1 and 1 1/4
24 1 1/2 and 2
36 and 48 2 1/2 and up
116. Chain Pipe Wrenches.-Chain pipe wrenches, also known as "chain tongs,"
are wrenches of the chain strap and lever type. Two examples of this wrench are
shown in Fig. 102. They are generally designed for use on large diameter piping,
although they are also made in sizes suitable for handling small pipe.
When using this type of wrench, the best gripping position is midway on the jaw
teeth. The wrench is also designed so that the handle will bend under a heavy
load before the chain will break. The bending of the handle should therefore be
taken as a warning that maximum load has been applied.
110
FIG. 102. CHAIN PIPE WRENCHES.
On the type of wrenches that have at link chains, an occasional inspection
should be made of the rst two or three rivets and links adjacent to the anchor
link, as the load is greatest at that point. Badly bowed or curved rivets indicate
that the chain has been loaded almost to breaking strength and is probably
unsafe. On cable-link chains the links give warning by stretching and pulling
"rigid" if the breaking point is approached.
117. Rivets.-Rivets, although not threaded, are classied as metal fasteners, the
pressure of their heads, instead of threads, exerting the holding force. Rivets are
commonly used for permanent fastening and are not practical for any assembly
that has to be taken apart. Rivet holes must be drilled or punched and must be
carefully spaced and aligned. The thickness of the parts to be riveted and the
load to be applied determine the proper diameter and length of the hole.
Tinner's rivets are used on thin metal sheets. They have at heads, are made of
soft iron or steel, and are usually coated with tin as a protection against
corrosion. The weight, in lbs, of 1,000 rivets, denotes the size of rivets, as shown
in Fig. 103. The length of a rivet is proportional to its weight and diameter.
The use of a rivet set is necessary with tinner's rivets. After the rivet has been
inserted in the holes in the pieces of material being riveted together, the set is
placed over the headless end of the rivet and is used to press the sheets of
metal together and against the rivet head. The recessed hole for this purpose in
the set is indicated by the broken lines in Fig. 103. The set is then removed
111
FIG. 103. TINNER'S RIVETS AND RIVET SET.
and the rivet is upset (headed upon the headless end) with a riveting hammer.
After this is done, the set is used to round the upset end. Rivet sets are provided
in several sizes.
Structural rivets, shown in Fig. 104, may be used to fasten the plates of a tank or
boiler and the structural members of a ship. They are used on many types of
steel frameworks and structures, and are usually heated for driving. This causes
the rivets to contract as they cool and helps to hold the riveted members tightly
together. The rivets also drive easier when hot. Structural rivet diameters vary
from 1/4 inch to 1 1/4 inches, but even larger sizes are used for thick sections.
The length of a rivet should be approximately 1 1/2 times the diameter of the
rivet, plus the grip (combined thickness of the riveted sheets).
The terms used in Fig. 104 should be noted. The landing, or distance from the
center of the rivet to the edge of the material, should not be less than times the
diameter of the rivet. The space between rivets should be from 3 to 8 diameters
of the rivet used, measured from center-to-center.
While one end of a rivet is being hammered, the other end must be supported
by an anvil or some other suitable means. The force of the blow should always
be proportioned to suit the size of the rivet.
A rivet may be removed by cutting o the rivet head with a
112
FIG. 104. STRUCTURAL RIVETS.
cold chisel and punching out the body of the rivet. In case of a large rivet, rst
cut a groove through the center of the rivet head, as shown in Fig. 105 (A). Then
cut o the rivet head as shown in view (B). A small rivet is easy to remove if the
head is drilled before the chisel is used. The hole should be drilled through the
head only, and the weakened head then cut o with a chisel.
FIG. 105. CUTTING OFF RIVET.
118. Reamers.-A very slight variation in the nominal diameter of a drilled hole is
of little importance in some cases, but where greater accuracy is required, the
holes are reamed, that is, the hole is rst drilled somewhat smaller than the
exact desired diameter, and is then reamed out to the proper size with a
reamer. The principal reason for the reamer being able to do better work than
the drill is that it is not used to originate holes, and its action is, therefore, not
dependent upon a somewhat uncertain guiding point. Other reasons are that it
nearly always has more than
113
two cutting edges, and when properly used should have very little metal to
remove.
Reamers are made either of carbon tool steel or high-speed steel. The cutting
blades of a high-speed steel reamer lose their original keenness sooner than
those of a carbon steel reamer. However, after the rst super-keenness is gone,
the reamer is still serviceable, and the high-speed tool will last much longer than
the carbon steel type.
The two types of hand reamers in general use are straight and taper reamers.
Four types of straight reamers are shown in Fig. 106. The solid reamer is one
solid piece throughout. The expansion reamer is hollow and has longitudinal cuts
in some of its utes. By means of a tapered screw plug its diameter can be
expanded
FIG. 106. TYPES OF STRAIGHT REAMERS.
a few thousandths of an inch. Both solid and expansion reamers are made with
straight and spiral utes, and the cutting edges or lands between the utes are
usually regularly spaced. However, some solid reamers have irregularly spaced
lands to avoid "chatter," which causes roughness in the nish of the work.
The blades of the adjustable reamer are separate from the body and are tted
into grooves in the threaded shank of the tool. Adjusting nuts t on these
threads, and when the nuts are turned back and forth, the blades are moved
along the tapered grooves,
114
thus increasing or decreasing the diameter of the reamer. It is advisable to use a
solid reamer for most work because it is the most rugged and accurate of the
straight reamers.
119. Use of Reamer.-Reamer blades are hardened to such an extent that they
are brittle, so reamers should be handled carefully to prevent chipping the
blades. Always rotate a reamer in the cutting direction.
Another important factor in the use of a straight hand reamer is to have the
hole the correct size to begin with, and then to be sure that the reamer is
started straight in the hole. One method of getting the reamer started straight,
by checking it from side to side with a square, is shown in Fig. 107.
Straight reamers have a slight taper on 1/4 to 3/4 inch of the end, so that they
will start into the hole easily. One form of reamer has a shallow screw thread at
the entering end. This thread takes hold of the metal and draws down into the
work.
FIG. 107. USING SQUARE TO START REAMER STRAIGHT.
115
A reamer is turned by means of a wrench, or it can be set up in a vise and the
work turned around it. The reamer should be turned slowly until the operator is
sure that it is straight in the hole, and then should be turned with a steady, rm
pressure until it has been put all the way through the hole. The leading end is
subjected to the greatest amount of wear because it does the greatest amount
of work. If, therefore, only this leading end is put through, the hole will not be of
a uniform diameter throughout.
120. Taper Reamers.-Taper reamers are used to nish tapered holes for the
insertion of tapered pins or other tapered parts. A solid taper reamer and taper
pin are shown in Fig. 108.
FIG. 108. TAPER REAMER AND PIN.
Taper reamers are made with a standard taper of 1/4 inch per foot, the various
sizes being arranged so that each overlaps the next size by about 1/2 inch, that
is, a No. 8 taper reamer could be inserted about 1/2 inch into a hole that had
been reamed with a No. 7 reamer.
When using taper reamers, it is very important that the drilled hole be the right
size, generally just large enough to allow about 1/2 inch of the reamer's length
to enter it. A table similar to Table III should be consulted for the correct size of
drill and other pertinent dimensions. However, if such a table is not available, no
choice remains except the "cut and try" method, taking extreme care not to
ream the hole too large or too deep. When starting the taper reamer, always
keep it as straight as possible.
121. Machine Reamers.-The machine reamer is usually inserted in a chuck or a
socket mounted in the spindle of a portable electric
116
or air motor. Machine reamers are also made either solid or adjustable, and
each of these groups may be subdivided into straight or taper reamers.
Machine reamers dier from hand reamers in that nearly all the cutting is done
by the beveled ends of the teeth, which act as a series of single cutting tools,
each taking a small part of the total cut. The hand reamer is constructed so that
all of its cutting is done by the sides of the teeth. Machine reamers are often
used where holes are to be nished to a fair degree of accuracy and with a fair
nish, but when extreme accuracy and a ne nish is required, hand reamers
are used.
For general use, an expansion type of machine reamer is the most practical. This
type is furnished in standard sizes from 1/4 inch to 1 inch, increasing in
diameter by 32nds. Each reamer has a maximum expansion of 1/32 inch, so a
set covers any reaming job from 1/4 to 1 inch.
Internal hones are much like adjustable reamers. The principal dierence is that
hones have abrasive blades. Large hones are rotated by electric drills or special
motors for such jobs as truing the walls of engine cylinders.
122. Care of Reamers.-As stated previously, a reamer must never be turned in
any way except to the right, or clockwise, even when removing it from the work.
Do not use too much feed (pressure) because the reamer may hit a hard spot in
the metal and break. This is especially likely with small reamers. When using a
lubricant on the reamer, it is good practice to remove the tool from the work
frequently and wipe away the chips which stick to the utes. If the chips should
clog, they would be likely to damage the nish on the walls of the hole.
Remember that an adjustable reamer must be kept absolutely clean to do
accurate work. Handle reamers carefully; if they are dropped or thrown against
other tools, their sharp edges will be nicked and dulled. If the hole is too small,
enlarge it with a drill before reaming it.
123. Preventing Chatter in Reamers.-When a hand reamer chatters, even
when fed with the proper pressure, it is generally a sign that it has not been
sharpened correctly for the particular metal being reamed. When chattering
occurs, replace the reamer being used with another one. If it is not replaced, the
walls of the hole will be rough, and work and time will be wasted.
117
TABLE III.
Taper Reamers and Pins
Size
No.
Dia. of
Small
End of
Reamer
(Inches)
Dia. of
Large
End of
Reamer
(Inches)
Length
of
Flute
(Inches)
Total
Length
of
Reamer
(Inches)
Size
Drill
for
Reamer
(Inches)
Longest
Limit
Length
of Pin
(Inches)
Dia. of
Large
End of
Pin
(Inches)
Approx.
Fractional
Size at
Large End
of Pin
(inches)
0 0.135 0.162 1 5/16 2 28 1 0.156 5/32
1 0.146 0.179 1 9/16 2 3/8 25 1 1/4 0.172 11/64
2 0.162 0.200 1 13/16 2 11/16 19 1 1/2 0.193 3/16
3 0.183 0.226 2 1/16 3 12 1 3/4 0.219 7/32
4 0.208 0.257 2 3/8 3 7/16 3 2 0.250 1/4
5 0.240 0.300 2 7/8 4 1/8 1/4 2 1/4 0.289 19/64
6 0.279 0.354 3 5/8 5 9/32 3 1/4 0.341 11/32
7 0.331 0.423 4 7/16 6 1/16 11/32 3 3/4 0.409 13/32
8 0.398 0.507 5 1/4 7 1/16 13/32 4 1/2 0.492 1/2
9 0.492 0.609 6 1/8 8 1/8 31/64 5 1/4 0.591 19/32
10 0.581 0.727 7 9 1/2 19/32 6 0.706 23/32
11 0.706 0.878 8 1/4 11 1/4 23/32 7 1/4 0.857 55/64
12 0.842 1.050 10 13 3/8 55/64 8 3/4 1.013 1 1/64
13 1.009 1.259 12 16 1 1/64 10 3/4 1.233 1 15/64
Taper equals 1/4 inch per foot or 0.0208 inch per inch.
These reamer sizes are so proportioned that each overlaps the size smaller
about 1/2 inch.
118
Resharpening reamers is usually a factory operation; the average person should
not attempt it, although sometimes, if the edges of the reamer are only slightly
dull, they can be restored by using a ne stone on the utes. If the reamer is
adjustable, it may be possible to insert new blades in it.
124. Scrapers.-Scrapers are made in many forms, the type to be used
depending on the particular job to be done. Several commonly used types are
shown in Fig. 109. Flat scrapers should be used for scraping or removing high
spots from at surfaces only; bearing scrapers are used for truing up bearing
surfaces; and the 3-corner scraper is commonly used for removing burrs or
sharp internal edges from soft bushings, etc.
FIG. 109. SCRAPERS.
125. Flat scrapers.-To scrape a at surface, select a scraper with the length and
width suitable to the work. Use a fairly light pressure to hold the scraper against
the work, although the harder the material being scraped the more pressure
required. The right way to hold a at scraper is shown in Fig. 110.
If there are holes in the work, avoid pushing the scraper across them; instead
work around their sides. When scraping near the edge of a piece, scrape toward
the edge, or at an angle to it. Do not scrape parallel to it.
119
FIG. 110. USING FLAT SCRAPER.
126. Scraping a Bearing.-It is often necessary aboard ship to ret a bearing.
This operation must be done very carefully, as the metal of the bearing must be
shaped so as to t its pin or journal with the correct clearance and without high
spots.
When it is believed that a bearing needs retting, the bearing bolts are loosened
and the bearing halves removed, the exact procedure depending on the
construction. The bearing metal is examined, and if burnished or discolored
spots are present, showing contact and heating of the bearing metal, these high
spots must be removed.
Each bearing half is also tested by applying a thin coating of Prussian blue to the
shaft and then placing a bearing half on the shaft and rotating it back and forth
several times. When the bearing is removed from the shaft, the spots of blue on
the bearing metal indicate the areas of contact. These high spots are removed
by the process known as "scraping in," which means that a bearing scraper is
used to scrape o the contacting areas, the bearing being retested and scraped
in until uniform distribution of the blue spots indicates that the bearing bears
evenly over the desired surface.
Since the scraping of a bearing usually involves the removal of a comparatively
small quantity of soft bearing metal, and the cutting edges of the scraper are
ground to a keen edge, only a light scraping pressure is needed. If too much
pressure is applied, not only will too much metal be removed, but in addition
the scraper will tend to "chatter" and leave a rough uneven surface.
When scraping a bearing, the handle of the scraper is held rmly with one hand
and the blade of the scraper carefully guided
120
with the other hand. The scraper can be pushed away or pulled toward the
workman, depending on the location of the high spot, the position in which the
bearing is held, or where the workman is standing in relation to the bearing.
When scraping, however, always scrape in a crosswise direction, following the
curve of the metal. Do not scrape lengthwise. Also be careful not to gouge or
chip excess metal when scraping at the edges of oil grooves or other openings.
In general, as explained previously, it is best to remove only a small amount of
metal and then recheck the location of the high spots before continuing with the
scraping. The work is usually not considered complete until the blue spots are
distributed over a combined area equivalent to about 75 per cent of the total
bearing surface.
Remember that scraping increases the running clearance of the bearing. If too
much metal is removed, the clearance will be increased above the desired
amount and this will necessitate the removal of shims to reduce the clearance.
Removal of shims might possibly create a new series of high spots and the
tting and scraping would have to be done all over again.
127. 3-Corner Scrapers.-When using a 3-corner scraper, use the same motion
as though .handling a bearing scraper. As a rule, the 3-corner scraper is used on
material requiring fairly rm pressure, but only a small amount of metal should
be removed at each stroke.
FIG. 111. CARBON SCRAPER.
128. Carbon Scrapers.-The carbon scraper, Fig. 111, is a tool commonly used
for cleaning carbon deposits from cylinder heads, pistons, and chambers of
small engines. This scraper has a dull edge to lessen the danger of scoring the
piston or cylinder wall.
129. Care of Scrapers.-Keep scrapers (except the carbon scraper) sharp at all
times, or they will not leave a smooth surface and will require more pressure
than is necessary. The usual method
121
of sharpening is rst to grind the tool on a wheel, and then to nish the
operation on an oilstone. In scraping any surface, apply the pressure to the
scraper on the cutting stroke only, otherwise the tool will soon become dull.
When using scrapers observe the following precautions:
(1) Keep the hands free from grease, oil, or perspiration.
(2) Keep the hands high enough from the work to avoid striking a
corner of it while working; these corners are often sharp and can give
the hand a disagreeable and perhaps dangerous cut. Be especially
careful of the bearing scraper; its edges are very sharp.
FIG. 112. GASKET CUTTER, FLY CUTTER, AND HOLE SAW.
130. Gasket Cutters.-A gasket cutter, Fig. 112, is used to cut round gaskets from
sheets of gasket material, such as cork, rubber, leather, asbestos, composition,
etc. The tool has two adjustable knives; one makes the inside hole, the other
cuts the outside of the gasket. The sizes of the gaskets are therefore limited only
by the size of the cutter available. When cutting a gasket, the material is spread
out on a piece of wood, the outside and inside diameters of the gasket are
determined, and the knives are adjusted at the correct position. With the shank
of the tool held in a brace, the
122
pivot point is inserted through the gasket into the wood and the cutter rotated
carefully until the knives cut through the gasket material.
To make bolt or stud holes in the gasket after it has been cut, mark their
location accurately on the gasket, and then use a gasket punch to cut the holes.
The preparation of a gasket, especially for an irregularly shaped surface, can
often be facilitated by holding the gasket material in place on the joint area and
carefully tapping the outline of all openings with the ball peen of a machinist's
hammer. If this is done skillfully, the edges of the stud holes and other
apertures will cut the gasket to t as the peening is carried out. Best results can
usually be achieved by this method when the piece of material from which the
gasket is made is only slightly larger than the joint. A larger piece of material
might be bulky and inconvenient and tend to slip while being worked on, thus
ruining the job. Try to use the gasket material, however, so that there is little
waste.
131. Fly Cutters.-Fly cutters, Fig. 112, are designed to cut holes in sheets of soft
metal, such as brass, aluminum, soft steel, etc. They may also be used to cut
holes in sheets of ber, bakelite, plastic, and similar materials. One type of y
cutter has one cutting bar and the other has two cutting bars. The tool is used in
much the same way as a gasket cutter.
132. Hole Saws.-For making large round holes in wood or metal, a set of hole
saws is useful. These tools, one of which is shown in Fig. 112, are not adjustable,
but are made in all common sizes. They are also available in two types, a
coarse-tooth saw for cutting wood, cast iron, bakelite, and other thick, coarse
material, and a ne-tooth saw for cutting sheet metal, steel, porcelain and other
ne, thin material. They can be used in a hand or electric drill.
133. Forging Tools.-Some vises have a small anvil, as explained previously, but a
larger anvil is also a very handy piece of equipment to have aboard ship. The
face or main working surface of the typical anvil shown in Fig. 113 is made of
tough steel. A square hole extends through the anvil top to hold the hardie,
which is used for cutting metal bars and rods. The metal to be cut is placed
123
FIG. 113. ANVIL. AND HARDIE.
over the hardie and struck with a hammer or sledge. The end of the anvil
opposite the hardie hole has a pointed or cone-shaped horn, over which curved
portions of bars and rods may be formed.
The top surface of the anvil should be treated with care so as to avoid dents and
scratches. Its primary purpose is to provide a working surface that will support
the metal while it is being pounded into shape. This surface forms or shapes
part of the object being forged, so the smoother it is, the better the job. It is
therefore not advisable to use a chisel, for example, to cut metal on the anvil,
unless the surface is protected against injury.
Sledges are used for heavy forging. Swages are used in matching pairs to shape
round or oval objects. Fullers are used to shape round inside corners and inside
angles. The set hammer and the atter are used to smooth and nish at
surfaces. These tools are shown in Fig. 114.
Tongs are used for handling hot pieces of metal. Their jaws dier according to
use, otherwise the many varieties are much alike.
The hot chisel is really a special hammer with a chisel edge. It is used only when
hot metal is to be cut. To use it, place the metal on the anvil, set the hot chisel
cutting edge in place, and strike the other end of the head with a hammer or
maul. If the cut is to be completely through the piece of stock, place a piece of
scrap metal under the work to prevent damage to the anvil. The cold chisel is
heavier and stronger than the hot chisel. It also has a handle so that it can be
held in place while it is pounded on.
Punches are used to punch holes in hot metal. In addition to the round punch
shown in Fig. 115, there are also square,
124
FIG. 114. FORGING HAMMERS.
rectangular, half-round and oval punches. They too are used only on hot metal.
134. Hoists.-Quite frequently it is necessary to lift various parts of an engine or
other piece of equipment, and in some cases a complete unit must be lifted.
There are many devices employed to do heavy lifting, but one of the most
common is the hoist, generally known as a "chain falls." Of the several types of
hoists, the
FIG. 115. FORGING TOOLS.
125
dierential, the spur-geared, the screw-geared, and the ratchet lever types are
found most frequently aboard ship.
135. Dierential Chain Hoist.-The dierential chain hoist, Fig. 116, is a simple
chain hoist, designed for service where comparatively light loads are
occasionally handled. It consists of a pair of pocketed chain wheels above and a
single wheel below. The endless chain passes over one upper sheave, down
around the bottom block, and then over the other upper sheave.
FIG. 116. DIFFERENTIAL CHAIN HOIST.
The dierential hoist is light and easily handled and has few parts. Because of its
reliability and simplicity it is especially valuable for ordinary hoisting purposes
where more powerful hoists are not required. This type of hoist is made with
capacities of 1/4 ton to 2 tons.
136. Spur-Geared Chain Hoist.-The hoist shown in Fig. 117 is of the
spur-geared reduction type. This unit may be constructed with either single or
double chain, and is a fast, powerful and durable mechanism. It can handle
loads up to 40 tons, depending upon its construction.
126
FIG. 117. SPUR-GEARED CHAIN HOIST.
1. top hook
2. brake dust guard
3. crosshead
4. suspension plates
5. automatic load brake
6. load sheave
7. driving pinion
8. ball bearings
9. load chain
10. gear system
11. hand chain guide
12. thrust bearing
13. hand chain
14. load hook
Heavy suspension plates connect the top hook crosshead and the load sheave
of the spur-geared hoist. These plates also directly support the saddle used in
the double-chain arrangement, eliminating the need for a top yoke, and
reducing weight and headroom.
The load sheave is mounted on ball bearings which are enclosed to protect
them from grit and dust. The automatic load brake, which holds the load in any
position, is also protected by a dust guard. A continuous pull on the hand chain
is required to lower the load.
137. Screw-Geared Chain Hoist.-Where the higher speed of a spur-geared hoist
is not required, the screw-geared hoist, Fig. 118, is recommended. It is well
adapted for portable use, and though light, is powerful and durable. It holds the
load securely, and will not lower except as the hand chain is pulled. This is an
excellent hoist for temporary and occasional service, as it may be moved readily
to meet an emergency. It is also adaptable for horizontal work. The worm gear
makes this hoist compact for lifting loads in cramped places and close up to the
overhead.
The screw-geared hoist is operated on the worm wheel and screw principle. The
hand chain drives a sprocket wheel directly keyed to the worm shaft. The worm
meshes in the worm wheel, which in turn drives the shaft holding the two load
sheaves.
The hoist is operated by a comparatively light chain pull. With
127
FIG. 118. SCREW-GEARED CHAIN HOIST.
a 1-ton hoist, for example, one man with an approximate pull of 87 pounds can
lift 2,000 pounds. However, the relatively large overhaul of hand chain required
to lift the load makes it proportionately slow in operation. The capacity of this
type of hoist ranges from 1/2 ton to 5 tons.
138. Ratchet Lever Hoist.-The ratchet lever hoist, Fig. 119, is designed to
function as a general purpose tool for pulling and hoisting, having the
characteristics of light weight and minimum distance between hooks. It also has
self-actuated load brakes, a ratchet or universal action to permit use in
congested quarters, and is compact and ecient.
The ratchet lever hoist operates by means of a ratchet, which actuates a lifting
sprocket. The ratchet action permits short strokes on the handle with the load
supported on the brake at any point of the lifting action. When lowering the
load, the handle is operated in the same way as when lifting. The change from
hoisting
128
FIG. 119. RATCHET LEVER HOISTS.
to lowering is easily accomplished and controlled by a small thumb turn on the
handle.
The capacity of the ratchet lever hoist is from 3/4 ton to 6 tons, depending upon
the number of chains. In Fig. 119, for example, the 1-chain hoist has a capacity
of 3/4 ton to 1 1/2 tons; the 2-chain hoist, 3 tons; and the 4-chain hoist, 6 tons.
139. Whatever the type of hoisting device used, care must be taken to safeguard
the operator and other personnel working on or near the hoisting operation,
and for this reason the following precautions should be observed :
1. Be sure that the lifting gear is heavy enough to carry the load.
2. Be sure that none of the links in the chains are twisted.
3. Be sure that the hitch is made in the correct manner, so that nothing can slip
when the load is picked up.
4. Do not start the lift until everything is clear.
5. Keep all personnel clear of the piece being lifted, so that if anything should
slip or break no one will be injured.
129
6. Keep all personnel out from under the piece that is being lifted.
7. When the load might swing, as would occur at sea, be sure to have suitable
stay lines to hold the piece in position.
8. After a lift has been made, it is not good practice to leave the load hanging on
the hoist without some other support. Blocking should be used to assume most
of the load, thus keeping only a moderate strain on the hoist.
9. When a piece of machinery has been lifted and moved to another position,
always make sure to set it down on a secure foundation. It is often advisable to
lash it down securely to prevent accidental movement.
140. Tube Expanders.-It is often necessary aboard ship to expand or "roll in"
tubes in boilers, condensers, coolers, etc., a process that involves the use of a
tube expander. A typical tube expander for use on the generating tubes of a
boiler is shown disassembled in Fig. 120. An expander that would be used for
rolling and belling
a. expander cage
b. straight and belling rolls
c. mandrels, various diameters
FIG. 120. EXPANDER FOR BOILER GENERATING TUBES.
both ends of the short nipples that connect the headers to the drums in some
boilers, is shown in Fig. 121.
As shown in the illustration, a tube expander consists of a cage containing the
rolls, a slightly tapered mandrel which expands the rolls, and a wrench for
turning the expander. Both straight and belling rolls are used in the expanders
shown in Figs. 120 and 121, making it possible to expand and bell a tube in one
operation.
130
a. expander cage e. driving link, short
b. belling rolls f. universal joint
c. mandrels, various diameters g. driving link, long
d. coupling h. ratchet wrench
i. straight rolls
FIG. 121. BOILER TUBE EXPANDER FOR FORWARD AND REVERSE ROLLING.
It is necessary to have an expander for each tube diameter. Three dierent sizes
of expanders as used in a boiler are shown in Fig. 122; a small expander that
would be used on condenser tubes is shown in Fig. 123; and expanders in
position for rolling and belling both ends of a mud-drum nipple are shown in
Fig. 124.
141. Use of Tube Expander.-To expand a tube, place the expander in the tube
so that the rolls bear on the portion of the tube which is in the tube sheet. The
mandrel should be inserted just far enough to press the rolls rmly against the
tube and hold the expander in place. A wrench is then applied to the expander
mandrel and the expander is turned clockwise. The progress of the rolling must
be watched carefully, and rolling stopped when the tube is expanded enough to
obtain a tight joint. Particular attention should be paid to the action of the
belling rolls, when tted, for if the expander is started too far in the tube it will
make too large a bell before the tube is tightened. When belling rolls are being
used and it is observed that the tube has sucient bell,
131
FIG. 122. BOILER TUBE EXPANDERS.
the rolling should be stopped. If the tube is not expanded tightly in the tube
sheet, the expander should be backed out slightly before the rolling is
completed, thus avoiding over-belling. If the tube tightens in the seat rst and
does not have sucient bell, move the mandrel outward slightly, set the
expander farther into the tube, and continue the rolling as previously explained.
Tubes should be expanded just enough to obtain a tight joint that will not leak
when a hydrostatic test is applied. Excessive rolling will cause a reduction of the
tube wall thickness and
132
FIG. 123. CONDENSER TUBE EXPANDER.
produce weak joints. It also tends to enlarge the tube holes, making it dicult to
maintain tight joints. If a tube hole should be excessively enlarged, a ferrule
might have to be installed in the tube sheet to return the hole to normal size.
When using an expander, the rolls and mandrel should be well lubricated with
fairly heavy lubricating oil. After each use, clean the expander and lubricate it
again, if necessary, before rolling the next tube. Maintain the rolls in good
condition and do not attempt to use chipped or cracked rolls. Always clean and
oil the expander when storing it for future use.
FIG. 124. EXPANDING AND BELLING MUD-DRUM NIPPLES.
142. Coupling and Gear Puller.-A 3-jaw puller, suitable for removing couplings,
gears, etc., from shafts, is shown in Fig. 125. This tool is designed to exert a
strong, uniform pull, and is arranged for convenient use. Spring tension helps to
hold the jaws
133
1. puller jaws 5. puller wrench
2. stud 6. special puller plate
3. yoke 7. cap screws
4. locking nut 8. screw-point protector
FIG. 125. COUPLING AND GEAR PULLER.
on the work, and when the locking nut is screwed down against the yoke the
jaws are locked in position, causing the puller to maintain its grip until the
locking nut is backed o. This arrangement permits both hands to be used for
the actual pulling of the gear or coupling.
In order to use the puller, the jaws are hooked over the coupling or gear, and
the centering tip of the stud is centered in the counter-
134
sink in the end of the shaft. For shafts without countersinks a special
screw-point protector is used to prevent damage to the centering tip. By
applying a wrench to the hexagon head of the stud and turning the stud
clockwise, a strong pull is exerted on the part being removed. Always use a
wrench that is a good t on the hexagon end of the stud, as otherwise the
corners of the hex may be rounded o and the usefulness of the tool impaired.
A socket wrench is preferable.
When the stud is turned, the resulting pull tends to remove the work from the
shaft, although sometimes it may be necessary to assist by tapping with a soft
hammer or a hammer and a piece of wood. Be sure to tap at the hub of the
coupling or gear, and not at the circumference. Tap evenly all around the hub,
so that the work will not become cocked and jammed on the shaft.
Before starting to remove a coupling or gear from a shaft, it is advisable to
examine for nicks and burrs that section of shaft over which the part must slide,
removing such imperfections as may be observed. In some cases a lm of oil or
grease or a thin coating of white lead applied ahead of the work will facilitate its
removal. If the part has rusted to the shaft, the use of penetrating oil may be
needed to break up the corrosion.
A special circular plate is provided with the tool shown in Fig. 125 so that the
puller may be used on a ber gear or similar part, where pulling directly on the
material might cause damage. The plate can be attached by the cap screws to
the part to be removed, and the puller is then applied to the plate.
It should be noted that the jaws of the puller are reversible, permitting their use
through an opening for inside pulls on bushings, sleeves, etc. When used in this
way, a piece of stock of sucient length for the stud to bear against would have
to be placed in the opening. The yoke of the puller is also made with 2 sets of
jaw slots, allowing the jaws to be moved closer to the center for better gripping
power on small jobs.
If a suitable puller is not available, it is possible to make a satisfactory tool from
material available aboard ship, the material to be used depending in part on the
job to be done. For extra heavy work the puller would have to be made from
heavier and stronger stock.
A puller such as shown in Fig. 126 can be made from scrap metal and will
accomplish the work adequately. Remember that the center piece must be wide
and heavy enough to allow a hole to be
135
drilled and threaded. To make the stud, a piece of stock of suitable length is
threaded, and then one end squared so that a wrench will t on it. The two jaws
should be cut from heavy enough material so that they will not bend when the
force is applied. The adjusting holes may be cut as desired.
FIG. 126. HEAVY-DUTY PULLER.
143. Portable Lamps.-Portable electric lamps, also called "extensions," are
often used when work is being done aboard ship. Before plugging in an
extension, the plug and cable should he inspected carefully, especially that
portion of the cable which enters the handle of the lamp. If frayed insulation is
noted, it should be reinforced with friction tape. If broken insulation is observed,
the cable should be repaired or discarded. The lamp should always be protected
by an ecient guard.
When using an extension, make sure that the cable does not drop or lie in
water. When working in conned spaces, do not lie on the cable or let it become
wound around the body. Be especially careful when working in damp areas or
when perspiring heavily. It is always a reasonable precaution to wear leather
gloves and to keep the footgear dry.
144. Fuse Pullers.-The fuse puller shown in Fig. 127 is designed for easy and
safe removal of electric fuses. It is made of laminated ber or laminated plastic,
as either material eliminates danger of shock and injury to the workman.
136
FIG. 127. FUSE PULLER.
A fuse puller should always be used when pulling or replacing cartridge fuses, as
removal by hand is dangerous, and improper removal also may bend and
damage the fuse clips. Fuse pullers are available in various sizes, and will handle
fuses from 1/4 inch to 3 inches in diameter.
145. Hand Fire Extinguishers.-It is logical to include hand re extinguishers in a
lesson that deals with engine-room tools, because they actually are the tools
that are immediately at hand to combat re aboard ship. When the existence of
a re in its early stages is noted, the prompt use of some kind of hand re
extinguisher is of the utmost importance. This is especially true aboard ship
where re is always a grave danger. Inammable cargo and fuel are likely to be
present in large quantities; narrow alleyways tend to create drafts that help to
spread a blaze more rapidly; and outside help may be far away. To extinguish a
small re before it can develop into a major disaster, someone must act
promptly and eciently with the right kind of equipment.
Hand re extinguishers are necessary even though other types of re ghting
equipment are provided, and it is essential that they be intelligently handled
during the excitement of a re, so that the maximum of re extinguishment can
be accomplished in the minimum of time. While the contents and methods of
operation of the various types of appliances are generally apparent from their
nature and are indicated prominently on each extinguisher, it is important that
all hands learn about them in advance. It is too late to begin to study re
extinguishers after the re has started.
146. Classication of Fires.-For all practical purposes there are 3 general
classes of res:
Class A res are res in ordinary combustible materials, such as wood, paper,
rubbish, etc., where the quenching and cooling eects of quantities of water, or
solutions containing large percentages of water, are of primary importance.
137
Class B res are res in ammable liquids, greases, etc., where a blanketing
eect is essential.
Class C res are res in electrical equipment, where the use of a non-conducting
extinguishing agent is required.
Several types of hand re extinguishers, the class of re that each is designed to
extinguish, and the method of extinguishment, are listed in the following
tabulation:
Type of
Extinguisher
Class of
Fire
Method of
Extinguishment
Soda-Acid A Cooling
Anti-freeze A Cooling
Foam A,B Smothering
Carbon Tetrachloride A,B,C Smothering
Carbon Dioxide A,B,C Smothering and cooling
147. Soda-Acid Extinguisher.-Soda-acid extinguishers, one of which is shown in
Fig. 128, are made in two principal sizes, the smaller one having a liquid capacity
of 1 3/4 to 1 1/2 gallons, and the other containing 2 1/2 gallons. The chemicals
used in this extinguisher are (1) a powdered chemical (bicarbonate of soda)
designed to be dissolved in water contained in the extinguisher shell, and (2) a
liquid chemical (sulphuric acid) contained in a loosely stoppered bottle that is
held in a vertical position in the apparatus. The extinguisher is kept and carried
vertically until it is to be used to extinguish a re. It is then inverted, which
causes the contents of the bottle to mix with the soda solution. Pressure is
created by the chemical reaction and a stream of chemical is expelled through
the hose. The extinguisher is usually most eective when used close to the re,
but the stream can be directed, if necessary, from a distance of 30 to 40 feet
horizontally.
Soda-acid extinguishers are eective on incipient res in ordinary combustible
materials. They are not eective on res in ammable liquids and greases. Their
use on res in electrical equipment such as switchboards, panels, motors, etc., is
not recommended.
Soda-acid extinguishers should be kept full (to lling mark) at all times, and
should be recharged with fresh solution annually as well as immediately after
any use. All parts should be washed thoroughly with water and the water
drained through the hose
138
FIG. 128. SODA-ACID EXTINGUISHER.
before recharging. The extinguishers should be examined at regular intervals to
make sure that they have not been tampered with or removed from their
designated places. They should also be inspected to see that they are properly
lled and that the orice of the hose is not clogged. In addition, at least once
yearly when emptying and recharging, all parts of the extinguishers, including
the gasket and hose, should be examined carefully for deterioration or injury.
Extinguishers or parts which are not in good condition should be replaced.
Recharging of extinguishers should always be done under capable supervision,
and the date of recharging and signature of the person who performed it should
be entered on the tag attached to the extinguisher. It is also important that acid
bottles and their corresponding stoppers, when replaced, should be exact
duplicates of those originally provided, as otherwise the discharge may be
impaired or the extinguisher rendered inoperative.
When preparing the soda solution, the powdered chemical should be
thoroughly dissolved in water outside the extinguisher in accordance with
instructions on the extinguisher or as provided by the manufacturer of the
chemical. The water should be lukewarm but never hot. A quantity of chemical
charges supplied for use in the extinguishers must be kept on hand so that each
unit may be recharged promptly after each use.
In localities where continued temperatures lower than 40F
139
may prevail, soda-acid extinguishers must be situated so as to be protected
against freezing. Anti-freeze ingredients such as common salt, calcium chloride,
etc., must not be used in extinguishers of this type, as such substances may
either reduce the eectiveness of the discharge or change its nature, or may
cause corrosion and make the unit dangerous for use. 148. Water or
Anti-Freeze Solution Extinguishers.-Approved hand re extinguishers
designed to contain either water or an anti-freeze solution are made in two
sizes, with liquid capacity of approximately a gallons and 5 gallons, respectively.
The antifreeze solution is prepared from a calcium chloride base with other
components added to prevent corrosion and deposits on the
FIG. 129. WATER OR ANTI-FREEZE SOLUTION EXTINGUISHER (PUMP-TYPE).
140
operating parts of the extinguishers. This type of apparatus is eective in the
same cases as the soda-acid extinguisher, that is, Class A res where water can
be used eectively.
These extinguishers are often pump-operated, as shown in Fig. 129, and can be
discharged intermittently, with the force, length and duration of the stream
being dependent on the operator. It is not feasible, however, to operate this
particular type of extinguisher while carrying it about.
The same general precautions concerning inspection and recharging that are
recommended for soda-acid extinguishers must be enforced, and when located
where low temperatures may be encountered, water-type extinguishers must be
protected from freezing unless charged with the anti-freeze solution. The
operation of the pumps should also be tested by operating them several
strokes, discharging the solution back into the extinguisher. A few drops of light
lubricating oil should be placed on the pump rod packing.
Some water-type extinguishers contain a carbon-dioxide cartridge instead of a
pump. When this extinguisher is inverted, the cartridge is perforated, releasing
gas which builds up a pressure in the extinguisher and causes it to discharge. All
cartridges should be removed and examined when cartridge-operated
extinguishers are inspected, and should be weighed on an accurate scale to
detect loss of pressure by leakage. It is recommended that a new cartridge be
used to replace any which shows a loss of 1/2 ounce or more from the original
weight stamped on it.
When recharging extinguishers with anti-freeze solution, the chemical should be
thoroughly dissolved in water outside the extinguisher, in strict accordance with
instructions provided by the manufacturer of the extinguisher or chemical. The
water should be warm and the solution should be poured through a ne
strainer when placing it in the extinguisher.
Common salt or other unspecied chemicals should not be used in anti-freeze
solution extinguishers, as they may corrode or otherwise be made dangerous
for use. Cartridges other than those furnished by the manufacturer should not
be used in cartridge-operated extinguishers.
149. Foam Extinguishers.-Foam extinguishers are made in sizes up to 5 gallons.
The chemicals used are bicarbonate of soda and a foam stabilizing agent
dissolved in water, for the outer compartment,
141
and aluminum sulphate dissolved in water for the inner cylinder. The
extinguishing agent is a foam which results from the reaction of the two
chemical solutions. A typical foam extinguisher is shown in Fig. 130.
FIG. 130. FOAM EXTINGUISHER.
Foam extinguishers are designed to be carried to the re by means of the top
handle and must be inverted for use. When the chemicals mix as a result of the
extinguisher being inverted, foam is produced and a pressure created within the
container, causing a stream of foam to be expelled through the hose. This
stream can be directed eectively from a distance as great as 30 to 40 feet
horizontally.
On ammable liquid res, the best results are obtained when the discharge
from a foam-type extinguisher is played against the wall of the enclosure
containing the liquid, just above the burning surface, so as to permit the natural
spread of the foam over the burning liquid. If this cannot be done, the operator
should stand far enough away from the re to allow the foam to fall lightly upon
the burning surface. The stream should never be directed into the burning
liquid. Where possible, the operator should walk around the re while directing
the stream, so as to obtain maximum coverage during the discharge period.
For res in ordinary combustible materials the force of the stream may be used,
or the foam may be used to coat the burning
142
surface, according to the conditions. The use of these extinguishers on res in
electrical equipment is not recommended.
Foam extinguishers should be recharged annually as well as immediately after
use. When recharging them, all parts should be washed thoroughly with water
and the water drained through the hose. This ensures that the hose and nozzle
are not clogged. Foam extinguishers must also be inspected periodically as
explained previously in connection with other kinds of extinguishers, particular
care again being taken to make sure that the hose and nozzle are clear. If the
discharge of a foam extinguisher should be clogged when an attempt is made to
use it, the pressure can cause an explosion and very possibly injure the person
using the extinguisher.
When recharging foam extinguishers, the chemicals should be thoroughly
dissolved in water outside the extinguisher, in exact accordance with
instructions provided by the manufacturer. Lukewarm water should be used. A
quantity of chemical charges supplied by the manufacturer for use in such
extinguishers should be kept on hand so that recharging may be done promptly
after each use.
Where low temperatures may be expected, foam extinguishers must be located
so as to be protected against freezing. Anti-freeze ingredients such as common
salt, calcium chloride, etc., must not be used.
150. Vaporizing Liquid (Carbon Tetrachloride) Extinguishers.-Carbon
tetrachloride extinguishers are made in several sizes up to a liquid capacity of 3
1/2 gallons. The extinguishing agent used is a non-conducting liquid having a
carbon-tetrachloride base combined with other chemicals which depress the
freezing point to 50 below zero and help to avoid corrosion, etc. An
extinguisher of this type is shown in Fig. 131.
When the self-contained pump of this extinguisher is operated, the pumping
action expels a stream of liquid which is vaporized into a gas by the heat of the
re. In case of a re in ordinary combustible materials, the stream should be
directed at the base of the ames. On ammable liquid res, best results are
obtained when the discharge from the extinguisher is played against the inside
of the enclosure containing the liquid, just above the burning surface, the same
general procedure being followed as in the use of a foam extinguisher.
143
FIG. 131. CARBON TETRACHLORIDE EXTINGUISHER.
Carbon tetrachloride extinguishers are eective on incipient res in electrical
equipment, where the use of a non-conducting extinguishing agent is essential.
When using these extinguishers, however, especially in conned and poorly
ventilated spaces, precautions should be taken to avoid breathing for extended
periods the vapors or gases liberated, as toxic eects may be experienced.
The extinguishers should be kept lled at all times and should be relled
immediately after use. They do not need to be protected against freezing, when
charged with the specied liquid. Caution: Do not use water for any purpose in
extinguishers of this type.
At least once yearly, carbon tetrachloride extinguishers must be examined as to
condition of the pump and for deterioration or injury due to misuse. At these
inspections all pumps should be tested by discharging a portion of the liquid
with the stream directed alternately upward and downward. Extinguishers
which are not in good condition should be replaced; others should be relled by
pouring in enough liquid to replace that which was discharged. The date of
recharging and the signature of the person who performed it should be placed
on the tag attached to each extinguisher.
A quantity of the special re extinguishing liquid supplied for use in the
extinguishers should always be kept on hand. No liquid other than that
furnished by the extinguisher manufacturers should be used in the
extinguishers, as it might make the extinguisher inoperative or dangerous for
use.
144
151. Carbon Dioxide (CO2) Extinguishers.-Carbon dioxide extinguishers, Fig.
132, are made in several principal sizes, ranging from 2 1/2 to 25 pounds of
carbon dioxide. To use this type of extinguisher the valve is opened and the gas
discharged upon the re through the hose and cone. The discharge has a range
of approximately 8 feet.
FIG. 132. CARBON DIOXIDE EXTINGUISHER.
The discharge of a carbon dioxide extinguisher should be directed at the base of
the ames in all types of res, and should be applied to the burned surface even
after the ames are extinguished. This tends to deposit carbon dioxide snow as
a coating on the hot surfaces and any glowing material, thus reducing the
chances of a reash.
On ammable liquid res, best results are obtained when the discharge from
the extinguisher is employed to sweep the ame o the burning surface,
applying the discharge rst at the near edge of the re and gradually
progressing forward, moving the discharge cone very slowly from side to side.
Carbon dioxide extinguishers are eective on res in electrical
145
equipment, but are not suitable for use on deep-seated res of wood, paper and
rubbish, as such res require the quenching eect of water for complete
extinguishment.
When using these extinguishers, the same precautions should be taken to avoid
breathing the liberated gases as are recommended in the case of carbon
tetrachloride.
At least once yearly the extinguishers should be examined as to weight and for
deterioration, as reweighing is the only method of determining whether or not a
carbon dioxide extinguisher is fully charged. They should be weighed on an
accurate scale, and any unit that shows a loss of 10% or more of the rated
capacity stamped on it should be recharged. Unless recharging facilities are
maintained on board ship, it will be necessary to send depleted extinguishers
ashore for recharging. All extinguishers should be relled as soon as possible
after use, even though only partly discharged.
Carbon dioxide extinguishers do not need to be protected against freezing.
146
This page blank.
147
ENGINE-ROOM TOOLS, PART 2
EXAMINATION QUESTIONS
Instructions:-Study the lesson very carefully before considering the examination
questions. Then read each question slowly and be sure that you understand it.
When answering the questions, always take sucient time, prepare the answers
in your own words, and do your best work. In arranging your answers, please
leave space between them so that the instructor will be able to write in helpful
explanation, should you make an error or overlook an important point. After the
answers are completed, check them again very carefully; make sure that all questions
are taken care of; correct each error that you nd; and mail your work to us.
1. What is the advantage of llister heads on cap screws?
2. (a) What is the purpose of "safety wire"?
(b) How it is used?
3. Explain how to use a stud driver.
4. Explain how to remove a small stud that is broken o in the hole.
5. Explain how to use "shakeproof washers."
6. If the note (5/16-24 N.F.-4) were observed on a blueprint, what would it mean?
7. What size tap drill should be used when drilling a hole which is to be tapped:
(a) For a 7/8-inch stud (N.C. thread)?
(b) For 1-inch pipe?
8. Briey describe the procedure followed when tapping a threaded hole in
steel.
9. Explain how to prepare a piece of steel rod for cutting a thread with a stock
and die.
148
10. The distance between the faces of two 1-inch pipe ttings is 3 ft. 1 1/2 in.
What length of pipe should be cut and threaded so as to connect the two
ttings?
11. What should always be done after cutting a piece of pipe?
12. Give 4 precautions that should be taken when using a reamer.
13. It is necessary to install a standard taper pin, the large diameter of which is
approximately 23/32 in.
(a) What size drill should be used?
(b) What size taper reamer should be used?
14. (a) Explain how to test the extent and distribution of bearing area of a
bearing.
(b) If the bearing area is not uniformly distributed to the proper extent, what
should be done? Explain in detail.
15. Explain how to make a full gasket for a joint on the water end of a pump,
using sheet gasket material. (A full gasket is one that covers all of the joint
surface.)
16. Explain the general precautions that should be taken when using a hoist.
17. Explain how to pull a small gear from a shaft.
18. What precautions should be taken when using a portable electric lamp?
19. If a re is discovered in a motor in operation, the motor should be shut
down immediately, if possible.
(a) What kinds of re extinguishers are recommended for use on this type of
re?
(b) What precautions should be taken when using either of these extinguishers?
20. A ship is expected to pass through a region where low temperatures may be
encountered.
(a) What types of re extinguishers must be protected against freezing?
(b) How is each type protected?
Tools Home
Page
Next Part
Copyright 2008-2010, Historic Naval Ships Association.
All Rights Reserved.
Legal Notices and Privacy Policy
Version 3.04