Squaring the Circle Presentation

Copyright January 1, 2011 By Christopher Ricci

Email Address Ricci!"!!2##2#$yahoo"com
%ntroduction
% ne&er cared much 'or academics" % graduated 'rom (igh School )y the s*in o' my teeth" % pro)a)ly
+ould,&e 'ailed e&en at that had it not )een 'or the perse&erance o' my dear mother" -ndou)tedly, o'
all the su).ects % too* in school % despised mathematics the most" %' someone +ould,&e told me )ac*
then that % +ould one day endea&or to sol&e a pro)lem this comple/, % certainly +ould not ha&e
)elie&ed them" 0ran*ly, % couldn,t care less +hether or not the circle could )e squared 1 +ould not
ha&e )othered +ith it at all had it not )een 'or a single statement % heard a)out se&en years ago" % +as
tal*ing +ith an old 'riend o' mine 1 he )rought this su).ect to my attention" (e asserted that e&en 2od
(imsel' could not square the circle using only compass 1 straightedge" Something mo&ed +ithin me the
&ery moment he spo*e those +ords" %t +as li*e the 3ord +as reminding me that 4+ith men this is
impossi)le5 )ut +ith 2od all things are possi)le"4 67att" 1892:;" %t +as li*e (e had ta*en that audacious
statement as a challenge to (is omniscience 1 +as going to pro&e him +rong5 4'or +ith 2od nothing
<including the squaring o' the circle= shall )e impossi)le"4 63u*e 19>?;" A'terall, (e created the compass
and straightedge 1 the circle and square@ % mean, can this tri&ial tas* )e any more impossi)le than
splitting the Red Sea or ma*ing the sun stand still in the s*yA B' course not" Chere is 1 can )e no
dou)t a)out it9 2od is certainly capa)le o' accomplishing this" And i' 2od can do it then Jesus Christ
could do it too" 0or all po+er on earth +as deli&ered unto him, 63u*e 109225 John >9>D;" And i' Christ
could do it, then +e can do it" 6Eith Fi&ine assistance o' course;" Jesus said that i' +e had 'aith as
miniscule as a mustard seed +e could mo&e mountains, 67att" 21921;" And through this 'aith +e could
do e&en greater things than he did, 6John 1!912;" Surely, squaring the circle cannot )e any more
impossi)le than +al*ing on +ater, healing the sic*, restoring sight to the )lind, or raising the dead@ So %
em)ar*ed on this .ourney se&en years ago in 'ull 'aith that 2od +ould glori'y (is (oly Game" % prayed
'er&ently along the +ay 'or a solution 1 the 'ollo+ing demonstration is the ans+er % recei&ed"
Prelude
%t ne&er 'ails, e&ery time % contemplate the circum'erence o' a circle % am reminded o' the
mathematical num)erline" %n it +e ha&e positi&e 1 negati&e num)ers tra&eling in'initely in opposite
directions" Chey +ill ne&er collide so long as they tra&el this +ay" But don,t they also tra&el in'initely
to+ard each otherA Che negati&e num)ers can tra&el endlessly 6or decimally; to+ard the positi&e, +hile
the positi&e num)ers can tra&el endlessly 6or decimally; to+ard the negati&e" Go matter ho+ close they
get they +ill ne&er actually meet" Because to do so trans'orms the negati&e num)ers into the positi&e 1
the positi&e num)ers into the negati&e" And no matter ho+ much the &alue o' Hero is crushed )et+een
them it +ill al+ays )e there5 'or it is intuiti&ely o)&ious that something cannot )ecome nothing" Go
matter ho+ small something gets it can al+ays )e cut in hal'" Che &alue o' Hero, there'ore, )ecomes an
in'inity +ithin itsel' e&en though it has circumscri)ed limitations"
Chis is precisely +hy the &alue o' pi has ne&er )een ascertained" Chere is no )eginning or ending to the
geometrical shape o' a circle" 0or as soon as +e assign a )eginning to it 1 dra+ a per'ect arc )ac*
upon itsel', it can ne&er meet +ith the point o' origin again" As the &alue o' pi in'initely increases the
gap )et+een the starting point 1 the point o' destination in'initely decreases" But they +ill ne&er
actually collide" Because to do so trans'orms the )eginning o' the arc into the ending 1 the ending o'
the arc into the )eginning" Ehat +e really ha&e then is a ray )ent into an arc +hich has a )eginning
6only )ecause +e,&e assigned one to it;, )ut no ending, 'or it can ne&er meet +ith the point o' origin
again" 0or the point o' destination to merge +ith the point o' origin is to go too 'ar" Che ray o&erlaps
itsel'5 Alpha o&erta*es Bmega5 the t+o )ecome one5 either a point is lost or a single point has )een
counted t+ice" But 'or these t+o points not to merge at all doesn,t go 'ar enough 1 lea&es the circle
incomplete" Chis presents a mindI)oggling prodigy9 %t sho+s that it is possi)le to ha&e a ray
tra&el %G0%G%CE3J to+ard a point that is directly in its path, and yet GEKER collide +ith it" %t,s li*e the
3ord is e&en a)le to ta*e eternity, an utterly )oundless e/panse, place it inside a )ottle 1 simply pop a
cor* in the top" %t retains its in'inite, limitless nature despite the 'act that itLs con'ined +ithin a limited
'inite space" 6Chis seems to support the assertions o' a gro+ing num)er o' physicists regarding multiple
dimensions 1 parallel uni&erses" % thin* it also has a lot to do +ith predestination" But % +onLt del&e into
that no+;" %tLs li*e the 3ord sees all o' eternity all at once as i' encapsulated in a child,s sno+ glo)e
e&en though there is no )eginning or end to it" 0riends, %,ll tell ya, the 3ord ne&er ceases to amaHe me@
Che 'rustration man e/periences o&er the &alue o' pi lies +ithin the square" 7an can measure the
square" But he )ecomes 'rustrated )ecause he cannot do the same thing +ith a circle" (e is 'rustrated
'or nothing )ecause it stems 'rom the presumption that he could measure the square in the 'irst place"
Che 'act is man cannot measure the perimeter o' a square 'or the &ery same reason he cannot
measure the circum'erence o' a circle" %n 'act, pi +ill pose the same pro)lem +ith all enclosed
geometrical 'igures 'or they are .ust circles )ent 6not )ro*en; into &arious arcs 1 angles" Surely, i' +e
ta*e a square s+imming pool 1 'ill it +ith +ater, the sides +ill )o+ out equidistant 'rom the center
point 1 'orm a per'ect circle" E&en though this is &ery easy to &isualiHe 1 is most certainly true, it is not
possi)le to duplicate the phenomenon geometrically" 6So they say;" Chat,s )ecause in order to
accurately measure any enclosed 'igure +e +ould need to esta)lish a starting point and the moment
+e do, +e 4)rea*4 the line 1 it can ne&er )e 4reconnected4 )ecause pi stands in the +ay" %ne&ita)ly, +e
run into the &ery same situation descri)ed in the a)o&e num)erline analogy"
Co demonstrate my point, try to thin* o' it this +ay" Jou ha&e one large square that is di&ided into 1:
squares" Chere are 'our ro+s o' 'our squares" (ence, there are 'our squares per side o' the large
square" Che perimeter o' the large square is ! sides / ! squares per side 1:" But i' you consider
these smaller squares as our unit o' measurement, you +ill 'ind that our calculations 'or the perimeter
are incorrect" Jou +ill 'ind that there are only 12 squares around the perimeter5 not 1:" %n multiplying
the 'our sides )y the num)er o' squares on each side +e,&e counted the corner squares t+ice"
E&ery child +ho has e&er tried to )uild a square )o/ has 'ound this out" Che child cuts out a square
piece o' ply+ood 'or the )ottom" And then he cuts 'our )oards 'or the sides5 each equal to the side
length o' the ply+ood square" But as he desparately struggles to assem)le the thing he )egins to
realiHe that there is something +rong" Che square he has constructed 'rom the 'our )oards is larger
than the square piece o' ply+ood" B)&iously, this is )ecause he did not ta*e into account the +idth o'
the )oards" Go+ this is a &ery 'undamental mista*e" But it is per'ectly analogous to the situation a)o&e"
Che +ay +e measure squares is 'undamentally 'la+ed 'or in multiplying the measurement o' one side
)y the num)er o' sides, +eL&e counted the corner points t+ice" Surely then, i' +e )egin to )uild
thereupon the 'inished structure is )ound to collapse5 'or it is 'ounded upon error"
% guess +hat %,m trying to say is that it is essential that +e 'ind a +ay to thrust the square into the
same transcendental +orld as the circle5 'or there,s no dou)t it )elongs there" %n our quest to
accomplish this 'eat it must )e remem)ered that the square is a 4slice4 o' a cu)e 1 is Euclidean in
nature5 +hile the circle is a 4slice4 o' a sphere 1 is spherical in nature" Ehen +e ta*e the t+o o' them
and lay them side )y side +ithin 6not upon; a 'lat sur'ace, +e,&e un+ittingly per'ormed a mathematical
'unction" B)&iously, the square is per'ectly at home there" But +e,&e done in.ustice to the circle9 Ee,&e
deported it 'rom its com'orta)le home in spherical geometry, stripped it o' its dou)le cur&ature, 1
thrust it into 'latland5 a +orld utterly 'oreign to it" %' +e hope to recti'y andMor square the circle in a
literal sense +e need to )alance the equation" Ee need to gi&e to the square +hat +e too* 'rom the
circle" And +e need to do it +ithout the square )eing a+are o' it" %n other +ords, the square must
inherit an intimate relationship +ith pi, a *ind o' marriage +ith the circle" And this must )e
accomplished +ithout ma*ing any &isi)le changes to the diagram" Chat +ay it can still )e dra+n +ith
the primiti&e instruments at our disposal5 namely, a straightedge 1 unmar*ed compass" Chis is
essentially +hat %,&e done" Consider no+, i' you +ill, the 'ollo+ing proposal"

Chis presentation naturally di&ides itsel' into Chree Parts" C
hey are9
N Part Bne9 Squaring the Circle precisely in Area on Riemannian 7ani'olds
using Plane 2eometry"
* Part Two: [Plates 1-14] Squaring the Circle with the
Golden Mean on Euclidean Maniolds!
* Part Three: [Plates 1"-#$] Circle %ectiication on %ie&annian
Maniolds using Plane Geo&etr'!


Part Bne
Squaring the Circle precisely on Riemannian 7ani'olds
Base Fiagram
7y )ase diagram consists o' three circles on a 'lat sheet o' paper9 Che top one is la)eled Circle <A=5 the
middle one is Circle <B=5 and the )ottom one is Circle <C=" %nscri)ed +ithin these circles are three o' the
most elementary shapes in all o' geometry5 a circle, a triangle, and a square respecti&ely" All si/ o'
these 'igures are related geometrically 1 can )e dra+n +ith compass 1 straightedge" Che technique 'or
their construction +ill )e outlined in 'orthcoming diagrams" Chis diagram is all % need to pro&e that the
circle can )e squared precisely on Riemannian mani'olds using only the primiti&e tools o' plane
geometry"
Circle <B= Construction
Step O19 % +ill )egin the demonstration )y constructing the equilateral triangle inscri)ed +ithin Circle
<B=, and ma*e all su)sequent constructions 'rom there"
1;" 0irst, +e dra+ a random line segment and la)el the endpoints <A= 1 <B= accordingly"
2;" Anchor the compass on point <A=, e/tend it out to point <B=, and s+eep a green arc
countercloc*+ise"
>;" Anchor the compass at point <B=, e/tend it out to point <A=, and s+eep a yello+ arc cloc*+ise such
that it intersects the green arc" 3a)el the point o' intersection +ith the letter <C="
!;" Join points <AC= 1 <BC= as sho+n" Chis completes the equilateral triangle"
Step O29 Go+, +e must determine the circumradius 6i"e", the radius o' Circle <B= around the triangle;"
1;" Anchor the compass on point <A=, e/tend it out to point <C=, and s+eep the )lue arc
countercloc*+ise"
2;" Anchor the compass on point <C=, e/tend it out to point <A=, and s+eep the pin* arc such that it
intersects the )lue arc" 3a)el the point o' intersection +ith letter <0="
>;" Anchor the compass on point <A=, e/tend it out to point <B=, and s+eep the orange arc cloc*+ise"
!;" Anchor the compass on point <B=, e/tend it out to point <A=, and s+eep the yello+ arc such that it
intersects the orange arc" 3a)el the point o' intersection +ith letter <E="
D;" Join points <0B= and points <CE= +ith a line segment as sho+n" 3a)el the point o' intersection +ith
the letter <F=" Chis is the midpoint o' Circle <B="
Step O>9 Complete Circle <B= around the equilateral triangle using line segment <FC= as a radius"
Circle <A= Construction
Step O19 Co construct Circle <A= % +ill need to inscri)e a square in Circle <B=" % prepare to do this )y
isolating Circle <B= 1 erasing the inscri)ed triangle 'or the time )eing to reduce clutter"
1;" Begin +ith Circle <B= +ith diameter la)eled <AC= 1 midpoint la)eled +ith letter <B="
2;" Anchor the compass on point <C=, e/tend it out to point <B=, and s+eep a yello+ arc such that it
intersects the circum'erence o' orange Circle <B=" 3a)el the points o' intersection +ith the letters <F= 1
<E= accordingly"
>;" Fra+ the green line segment connecting points <F= 1 <E=" 3a)el the point +here the green line
intersects the diameter +ith the letter <P= as sho+n"
!;" Anchor the compass on point <P=, e/tend it out to point <B=, and s+eep the pin* arc such that it
intersects the green line" 3a)el the t+o points <0= 1 <2= respecti&ely"
Step O29 Complete the inscri)ed square"
1;" Fra+ a line through points <B= 1 <0= such that it intersects the circum'erence o' orange Circle <B="
3a)el the points o' intersection +ith the letters <%= 1 <J= as sho+n"
2;" Fra+ a line through points <B= 1 <2= such that it intersects the circum'erence o' orange Circle <B="
3a)el the points o' intersection +ith the letters <(= 1 <Q= as sho+n"
>;" Complete the square )y connecting points <(=, <%=, <J=, 1 <Q=5 sho+n here as dotted )lac* lines"
Step O>9 Complete Circle <A="
1;" Anchor the compass on point <B=, e/tend it out to the midpoint o' the square,s sides, and dra+
Circle <A=5 colored red in the diagram" Circle <A= is no+ complete" Since it is 'ormed +ithin the inscri)ed
square, Circle <A= is e/actly hal' the siHe o' Circle <B="
2;" % no+ utiliHe the diagonals o' the )lac* square to inscri)e a )lue square" Chis square is not part o'
my )ase diagram, )ut it +ill )e utiliHed to construct the small circle inside Circle <A=, as +ell as to
construct the )ottom circle o' the )ase diagram9 Circle <C="
N Go+ % +ill construct the smaller circle inside Circle <A=" Again, % +ill erase all unnecessary 'igures to
reduce clutter" % )egin +ith Circle <A= 1 the )lue inscri)ed square produced a)o&e"
1;" Step O19 0irst, ma*e one typical phi construction using a line segment 'rom the midpoint o' the )lue
square,s )aseline <P= to the square,s &erte/ <J= as a radius" 3a)el the endpoint +ith the letter <R= as
sho+n"
Step O29 Anchor the compass on point <B=, e/tend it out to point <R=, and dra+ the pin* circle"
Step O>9 E/tend the diagonals o' the )lue square out+ardly such that they intersect the circum'erence
o' the pin* circle" 3a)el the points o' intersection +ith the letters <Q=, <3=, <7=, and <G= accordingly"
Connect these 'our points to complete an inscri)ed square"
Steps !I:9 Complete the smaller circle +ithin Circle <A=" Again, %,&e erased the )lue square here in order
to reduce clutter"
Step O!9 Fra+ the green circle inside the )lac* square as descri)ed earlier"
Step OD9 %nscri)e the yello+ square using the diagonals o' the )lac* square"
Step O:9 Fra+ the orange circle inside the yello+ square" Chis completes the construction 'or the
smaller circle inside Circle <A= depicted in the )ase diagram" Circle <A= is e/actly 1"> times the siHe o'
this smaller circle"
Circle <C= Construction
% )egin +ith Circle <A= 1 the inscri)ed )lue square" 0rom hence'orth % +ill consider Circle <A= as a -nit
Circle 6radius 15 area pi;, and ma*e all su)sequent calculations 'rom that" (ence, the )lue square
+ould ha&e side lengths o' square root 2" Gotice here, % ha&e rotated the diagram !D degrees" Chis is
not necessary, )ut it does ma*e it much easier to descri)e 1 e/plain" 0rom this diagram +e +ill )egin
the process o' constructing Circle <C=5 located at the )ottom o' the )ase diagram"
Step O19 Fra+ a line through the &ertices o' the )lue square 1 la)el all the points as sho+n5
<BAC=" E/tend the diameter <BC= out+ardly to point <P=" Ge/t, e/tend a right angle line segment do+n
to point <J= as sho+n" Chis is a relati&ely simple tas* 1 can )e accomplished in only 'our mo&es, so %
+on,t )other +ith it,s construction"
Step O2 o' Circle <C= construction"
Anchor the compass on point <C=, e/tend it out to point <F=, and s+eep a green arc countercloc*+ise
such that it intersects the e/tended diameter line <BP=, and la)el the point o' intersection +ith the
letter <E=" 3ine segment <AE= +ill ha&e a total length equal to the Sil&er Ratio 61 S sq"rt"2
2"!1!21>D:2;"
Step O>9 Anchor the compass on point <A=, e/tend it out to point <E=, and s+eep an orange arc
cloc*+ise until it intersects +ith &ertical line e/tension <BJ=" 3a)el the point o' intersection +ith the
letter <0="
Step O!9 Che Sil&er Criangle9 Che name o' this right triangle is o)&iously deri&ed 'rom the 'act that it,s
hypotenuse is equal in length to the Sil&er 7ean" (ere +e use the Pythagorean Cheorem to calculate
the length o' segment <B0=" A squared I C squared B squared" Che length o' line segment <B0= is
equal to the square root o' that" (ence, the length o' this line segment is 2"18?>:#22?"
Step OD9 Anchor the compass on point <B=, e/tend it out to point <0=, and dra+ the pin* arc
countercloc*+ise such that it intersects the e/tended diameter <BP=" 3a)el the point o' intersection +ith
the letter <2= accordingly" 3ine segment <B2= and line segment <B0= are no+ )oth equal in length,
62"18?>:#22?;"
Step O:9 Go+ % +ill complete the square +ithin +hich Circle <C= +ill )e dra+n" % ha&e determined t+o
sides o' this square in pre&ious steps" Che remaining t+o sides are constructed as 'ollo+s"
1;" Anchor the compass on point <0=, e/tend it out to point <B=, and s+eep a green arc cloc*+ise"
2;" Anchor the compass on point <2=, e/tend it out to point <B=, and s+eep a purple arc
countercloc*+ise such that the t+o arcs intersect at point <(="
>;" Connect points <2(= 1 points <0(= +ith line segments as depicted" Go+ +e ha&e a completed
square +ith side lengths o' 2"18?>:#22?5 +hich is the square root o' the Sil&er 7ean squared"
Step O?9 Complete Circle <C= o' the )ase diagram" Join the &ertices o' the square constructed in the
pre&ious 'rame +ith St" Andre+,s Cross to determine the center point5 la)el it +ith the letter <%=" Anchor
the compass there, e/tend it out to the midpoint o' the square, and dra+ the orange circle" Chis
completes the construction o' Circle <C="
Step O#9 Complete the inscri)ed square +ithin Circle <C= as illustrated on the )ase diagram" (ere, +e
simply repeat the procedure outlined in pre&ious 'rames" Join the 'our points +here the diagonals o'
the larger square intersect the circum'erence o' the orange Circle <C= +ith line segments" Che inscri)ed
square is no+ complete" % o'ten re'er to this as the 4Sil&er Square4 since it,s area in 'latland is equal to
the Sil&er 7ean"
Go+, % ha&e constructed all si/ 'igures represented in the )ase diagram" Considering Circle <A= as a unit
circle, the 'ollo+ing calculations +ill result"
Circle <A= -nit Circle9 %t has a diameter length o' 25 Radius 15 Area pi" Circle <A= is e/actly 1">
times the siHe o' the smaller circle" Che smaller inscri)ed circle has a circum'erence o' D"!!1>8#08>" As
'ar as this smaller circle is concerned, this is the only measurement o' any importance to us here
)ecause it is una''ected )y the mani'old5 it remains constant +hether it is em)edded +ithin a Euclidean
or spherical sur'ace"
Circle <B= is t+ice the siHe o' Circle <A=" %t has a diameter length o' sq"rt" # 62"#2#!2?12D;5 Radius
Che square root o' 2 61"!1!21>D:2;5 %t,s Area 2 pi"
Circle <C= has a diameter length o' the square root o' those t+o diameters added together9 Che sq"rt"
o' 62 S sq"rt" #; 2"18?>:#22?5 Radius 1"08#:#!15 %tLs area 1M2pi / Sil&er 7ean >"?822>?:"
Change in 7ani'old
Go+, % change the Euclidean mani'old to a smooth Riemannian mani'old o' positi&e Ricci cur&ature 1
e/empli'y this )y dar*ening the )ac*ground +ith a )lac* magic mar*er" Please note9 Che )ase diagram
itsel' has not changed5 in 'act this is a photocopy" All si/ 'igures remain the same 1 can still )e dra+n
+ith the primiti&e instruments o' Plane 2eometry5 namely, an unmar*ed compass 1 straightedge"
Co demonstrate +hat %,m tal*ing a)out imagine you +al* outside in the middle o' the night 1 gaHe up
into the pitch )lac* s*y and notice three 'ull moons5 each +ith itLs o+n unique shape inscri)ed +ithin
itLs equator circum'erence9 %n other +ords, the image you see in the night s*y is e/actly li*e the one
appearing here on your screen"
Ca*ing into consideration the a'orementioned calculations, the circle is squared in )oth Euclidean 1
Spherical 2eometry" -nder these conditions )oth the inscri)ed triangle and the inscri)ed square
encompass the same amount o' C-RKEF sur'ace area as that +hich is )ound )y the smaller inscri)ed
circle on (emisphere <A=5 +ith that )eing pi e/actly5
6>"1!1D82:D>D#8?8>2>#!:2:!>>#>2?8D02##!18?1:8>88>?D10D#208""";" Also, the amount o' cur&ed
sur'ace area )ound )y the inscri)ed square 1 triangle is e/actly equal to the amount o' 03AC sur'ace
area )ound )y the 'lat equator Circle <A=5 +hich is also pi e/actly"
Se&eral other neat things can )e o)ser&ed here" Since +e are dealing +ith hemispheres rather than 'lat
circles, their respecti&e areas ha&e no+ dou)led in siHe" Che area o' (emisphere <A= is no+ 2pi5 the
inscri)ed circle di&iding the hemisphereLs sur'ace into t+o separate sectors e/actly equal to pi each"
Che area o' hemisphere <B= is no+ !pi5 the inscri)ed triangle di&iding itLs sur'ace into 'our separate
sectors +ith each one )eing e/actly equal to pi" (emisphere <C= is especially intriguing9 Che area )ound
)y the square is pi e/actly" Che area o' each o' the 'our separate sectors lying outside the perimeter o'
that square are equal to the 0orm 0actor Ratio 61"110?20?>!;" (ence, the t+o great geometries
6Spherical 1 Euclidean; are )rought together in the same diagram9 Bne 03AC side length o' the square
61"DD>??>8?!; multiplied )y the total amount o' positi&ely C-RKEF sur'ace area lying outside the
perimeter o' that square 6!"!!2##2#; Che e/act length o' the equator circum'erence o' the
hemisphere upon +hich it rests@
%,m pretty sure this can )e accomplished +ith other inscri)ed polygons as +ell 6pentagons, he/agons,
octagons, etc;" 0or e/ample9 A pentagon em)edded in the mani'old o' Sphere <A= +ill enclose a total
amount o' cur&ed sur'ace area equal to 62piI>;" But the math )egins to get really complicated a'ter
that" Fealing +ith so many irrational num)ers in com)ination +ith transcendental num)ers ma*es the
proo' e/tremely di''icult"
Chis procedure can also )e used to 4recti'y4 the circle" By that % mean it can )e used to construct a
square 1 a circle +hich are e/actly equal in perimeter" Please re'er to Part Chree o' this demonstration
'or additional details"
Part C+o
Squaring the Circle +ith Phi
%,ll need to employ a num)er o' di''erent geometrical shapes here" All o' them are easily constructed in
quic* succession using only compass 1 unmar*ed straightedge" (ence, %,&e decided to s+eep through
the dra+ing process 'irst 1 produce all the required shapes in ad&ance" Chat +ay they +ill )e
assem)led collecti&ely into a single )ase diagram <Plate O8=5 and their respecti&e dimensions +ill )e
delineated on <Plate O10=" Chis +ill help to mo&e things along much more smoothly since % +on,t ha&e
to interrupt the demonstration each time % need to utiliHe a di''erent shape" % can simply re&ert to the
)ase diagram 1 e/tract the desired 'igures as the need 'or them arises"
Plate O19 Bpen the compass to any random length 1 dra+ the Blac* Circle" Assign the letter 6P; to the
center point"
All su)sequent shapes produced herea'ter are intimately related to this initial circle since their creation
is completely dependent upon it" %t is also +orth mentioning that this e/hi)it could not )egin +ith the
construction o' a square instead" Chat,s )ecause a square cannot )e created &ia compass 1
straightedge +ithout the circle as the starting point" Chis is reminiscent o' the 3ord,s relationship +ith
man" %n the +orld o' Sacred 2eometry it is uni&ersally accepted that the circle represents 2od 1 the
spiritual +orld, since they are )oth in'inite5 ha&ing no )eginning or ending" And the square represents
man 1 the mortal +orld due to his o)&ious restrictions 1 insepara)le connection to the temporal earth"
Consequently, 2od is A)solute5 the Brigin 1 Creator o' all things" 3i*e+ise, 2od 6the Circle; is
preeminent 1 +ithout (im, man 6the square; cannot e/ist" Che pro)lem o' squaring the circle is as
much theosophical as it is geometrical5 i' not more so" %t al+ays has )een, is no+, and al+ays +ill )e a
deeply spiritual one so there,s really no +ay around it9 Che su).ect o' Sacred 2eometry is ine&ita)le
+hen discussing this particular topic5 thus ma*ing it a recurring theme throughout the course o' this
demonstraion"
According to most ma.or religious sects 6including Je+s, 7uslims, (indu, Catholics, and most Protestant
denominations;, the su).ect 'alls under a )ranch o' sacred geometry +hich deals +ith the notion o' an
immortal 2od in hea&en 6i"e", the Circle; merging or reconciling (imsel' +ith mortal man on earth 6i"e",
the square;" B' course in this particular case Christ +ould )e the 2olden 7ean5 'or he is the
quintessential element +hich ma*es this holy union possi)le" Ehat a +onder'ul analogy9 As Euclid so
eloquently put it9 4As the +hole line is to the greater segment, so is the greater to the less"T E&en
so, As Almighty 2od is to Christ, so is Christ to man"4 And .ust as the 2olden Ratio is generated )y the
com)ination o' a circle 1 a square, e&en so, Christ +as concei&ed )y the %mmaculate Conception o' the
(oly Spirit 1 the Kirgin 7ary" (e represents the con&ergence o' the eternal +ith the temporal5
the sacred +ith the secular5 the immortal +ith the mortal" Che Fi&ine and human nature are com)ined
in a single person5 Christ Jesus" Chis theme has )een incorporated into the &ery architecture o' many
religious sites5 especially Christian Churches 1 Cathedrals" 0or more on this see plates 18I2? 'or
additional details"
Plate O29 %nscri)e the Blue Square"
% am not going to )other +ith the details o' this construction since %,&e already e/plained the procedure
'or creating an inscri)ed square in Part Bne o' this demonstration" %t can )e accomplished +ith
compass 1 straightedge in ele&en mo&es" %' you consider the Blac* Circle 1 itLs diameter as )eing
already dra+n 6in Plate O1;, then this can )e done in only nine mo&es" Chis in'ormation is common
*no+ledge 1 can )e 'ound on many math related +e)sites" Bnce this 'irst square has )een completed,
itLs diagonals can then )e e/tended out+ardly to pro&ide the anchoring points 'or the &ertices o' all
su)sequent squares"
P3ACE O>9 7a*e one standard phi construction o'' the right side o' the Blue Square"3a)el the endpoint
+ith the letter 6J;"
(ere, +e ha&e the 'irst o' three 2olden 7ean constructions" Chis is a &ery special ratio 1 +ill )e
discussed se&eral times throughout the course o' this demonstration" %t can )e 'ound throughout all o'
creation5 'rom atoms to solar systems to gala/ies" 2ary 7eisner is host to an e/cellent +e)site that
delineates many remar*a)le e/amples o' this9 http9MM+++"goldennum)er"netMsquaringItheI
circleM" Qepler compared this ratio to a Uprecious .e+elT and said it +as one o' geometryLs greatest
treasures" A 'riend o' 3eonardo da Kinci, 3uca Pacioli, called it the Fi&ine Proportion" Surely, he +as
Fi&inely inspired at the time he settled on that name9 0or there can )e no dou)t that it +as considered
the Fi&ine Proportion long )e'ore he +as e&en )orn"
P3ACE O!9 -sing line segment PJ as a radius, dra+ the Pin* Circle"
P3ACE OD9 %nscri)e the Jello+ Square"
P3ACE O:9 Fra+ a 2reen Circle inside the Jello+ Square"
P3ACE O?9 Fra+ the Red Square inside the 2reen Circle"
P3ACE O#9 7a*e on standard phi construction o'' the le't side o' the Red Square"3a)el the endpoint
+ith the letter 6B;"
P3ACE O89 -sing line segment PB as a radius, dra+ the Brange Circle"
Go+ +e all ha&e all the shapes required 'or the presentation" Che dimensions 'or each indi&idual shape
are delineated on the ne/t page"
Plate O109 (ere % treat the Red Square as a unit square9 6Sides 15 Area 1;" All other calculations
are deduced 'rom that" Che category highlighted purple 62eodesic Circles; +ill come into play a little
later 6Plates >2I>>;" Cheir construction has not )een pro&ided )ecause it,s not really important at this
time"
P3ACE O119 Squaring the Circle +ith Phi9 Che ne/t 'our plates descri)e an elegant technique 'or
squaring the circle )y traditional methods" (ere % employ the Fi&ine Proportion, or 2olden 7ean" 0irst,
+e need to isolate the 'ollo+ing three shapes9 CheBlue Square, the Red Square, 1 the Brange Circle"
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Chis simple compass 1 straightedge method re'lects the same ratio generated )y the +ellI*no+n
equation, Phi SquaredMD PiM:" Che &alue o' the 'irst di&ided )y the &alue o' the second
1"00001D>18" Ehen +or*ed in re&erse this yields a &ery tight appro/imation 'or pi9 <Phi SquaredMD / :
>"1!1:!=" B)&iously, the &alue o' one +ill ne&er per'ectly match the &alue o' the other due to the
transcendental nature o' Pi 6not to mention the irrationality o' Phi;" Chere +ill al+ays )e a discrepency
+hen one inter.ects Pi into the solution to a quadratic equation 1 mine is no e/ception" But it is minor"
Alge)raically, as opposed to geometrically, one can only hope to come close 1 this one comes a)out as
close as it gets" 6% +ill e/plain that statement a little later;" % am not saying no)ody has come closer,
)ut as yet % donLt *no+ o' anyone" %', indeed, there are any, they are certainly &ery 'e+ 1 'ar )et+een5
especially in utiliHing the 2olden 7ean to accomplish the tas*" Qepler,s 2olden Criangle can )e used to
o)tain a &alue o' >"1!!:0D: 'or pi, )ut that,s still not as accurate as this"
Che Fi&ine Proportion is the limiting 'actor 'or the 0i)onacci sequence 1 can )e used to o)tain &ery
good appro/imations 'or pi" %,&e included a couple interesting results )elo+9
0i)onacci Gum)ers 0, 1, 1, 2, >, D, #, 1>, 21, >!, DD, #8, 1!!, 2>>, >??, :10, 8#?"""
DDM>! / >!M21 / :MD 22M? 6>"1!2#;"
#8MDD / DDM>! / :MD 2:?M#D 6>"1!11?;"
1!!M#8 / #8MDD / :MD 1>8#M!!D 6>"1!1D?>;"
2>>M1!! / 1!!M#8 / :MD >??M120 6>"1!1::;"
:10M>?? / >??M2>> / :MD ?>2M2>> 6>"1!1:>;V""
As +e continue this e/ercise the ratios +ill ultimately con&erge on the &ery same ratio generated )y the
'orthcoming diagrams, 6>"1!1:!;" %t might also )e note+orthy to mention that i' +e ta*e the square
root o' the 1?th 0i)onacci Gum)er 68#?; and di&ide that )y 10 >"1!1:D5 +hich is e/tremely close to
our appro/imation" (ere,s another9 6> S 1M10 o' 1?M12 >??M120;5 +hich yields >"1!1:: 'or pi"
P3ACE O129 7a*e one standard phi construction 'rom the Blue Square" Continue the arc all the +ay
around in one 'ull rotation to complete the 2olden Circle"
///////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////
-n)elie&a)ly, % cannot 'ind anything resem)ling the diagrams pro&ided here" Che math is all o&er the
place5 especially in analogies dealing +ith the 2reat Pyramids o' Egypt" But dra+ings are do+nright
scarce" % suppose that,s )ecause many mathematicians ha&e a)andoned the dra+ing )oard in 'a&or o'
the calculator" %t seems that i' a pro)lem can )e +or*ed out mathematically, then they conclude it can
)e dra+n geometrically" (o+ to actually accomplish the tas* is rarely demonstrated" Chis is sad
)ecause many ancient pro)lems +ere sol&ed the other +ay around" Chey +ere sol&ed )y logic 1 then
pro&en mathematically later on" Chis +as o'ten achie&ed using the ageIold childli*e method o' paperI
'olding" Chis remains a &ia)le 1 po+er'ul tool in geometry today" 0or e/ample, (ippocrates
demonstrated that certain lunes could )e squared e&en though the 'eat should )e .ust as
mathematically impossi)le as squaring the entire circle5 'or )oth shapes are ine/trica)ly connected to
the same transcendental num)er 6pi;" Since then se&eral other lunes ha&e )een squared in much the
same +ay" Chese things +ere not accomplished mathematically 1 then pro&en logically, )ut &ice &ersa"
%' these pro)lems +ere approached +ith only a calculator in hand they may ne&er ha&e )een sol&ed"
Ramanu.an de&ised alge)raic equations that ha&e appro/imated pi to se&eral decimal places"
%ncidentally, he also disco&ered a 'ormula +hich produces the same close estimation created )y the
2olden 7ean9 8MD S sq"rt" 8MD >"1!1:!" Eho *no+s ho+ he came up +ith thatA Any+ay, he
ultimately de&eloped an 4in'inite series4 'or pi +hich, +hen plotted into a supercomputer, is capa)le o'
calculating pi to )illions or e&en trillions o' decimal places" %t is +orthy to note that he continued to
+or* on this pro)lem e&en a'ter it +as pro&en that pi +as transcendental5 +hich sho+s that he
apparently did not consider the matter closed as to +hether or not the circle could )e squared" (e,s not
the only one either" Chere ha&e )een a 'e+ others"
Chis is precisely +hy +e don,t ha&e many 6actually, )arely any; dra+ings that portray a detailed
description o' an actual procedure" Go+, % ha&e 'ound a 'e+ diagrams here 1 there" But, 'or the most
part, solutions ha&e come in the 'orm o' alge)raic equations that +ould )e e/tremely di''icult to
reproduce in the 'orm o' a simple diagram" %' +e 'ocus solely on constructi)le illustrations, as opposed
to alge)raic equations, %,m con&inced you +on,t 'ind a )etter, or simpler, or more accurate method than
the one presented here"
Some o' the )est diagrams %,&e encountered can )e 'ound in an article +ritten )y Rachel 0letcher,
entitled, USquaring the Circle9 7arriage o' (ea&en and Earth"T %nside, 7s" 0letcher portrays a num)er o'
geometric constructions that come close to accomplishing the tas* o' squaring the circle5 +hich, as %
indicated )e'ore, is all one can hope to accomplish )y traditional methods" %n the introduction to her
)oo* she o)ser&es,
4Che pro)lem cannot )e sol&ed +ith a)solute precision, 'or circles are measured )y the
incommensura)le &alue pi""" +hich cannot )e accurately e/pressed in 'inite +hole num)ers )y +hich +e
measure squares" At the sym)olic le&el, ho+e&er, the quest to o)tain circles and squares o' equal
measure is equi&alent to see*ing the union o' transcendent and 'inite qualities, or the marriage o'
hea&en and earth"4
E/actly so" Chis is precisely +hy so many people continue to +or* on this mysterious question e&en
though itLs supposed to )e impossi)le" Some o' the greatest disco&eries in &irtually e&ery 'ield o'
mathematics +ere made +hile trying to sol&e this riddle"
A 'riend o' mine once challenged me to put these diagrams into alge)raic 'orm" % couldn,t help )ut
chuc*le" % canLt e&en come close to imagining them in the 'orm o' a quadratic equation" %,&e al+ays
&isualiHed them the oldI'ashioned +ay5 much the same +ay the ancient geometers sa+ them9 Simple
compass 1 straightedge constructions that require no mathematics +hatsoe&er to reproduce" Jou
*no+, the *ind o' diagrams one might e/pect a child to dra+ on the side+al* +ith a piece o'
chal*" Chat,s the &ery thing that ma*es them so special" % don,t *no+5 may)e % see things )ac*+ards"
But it .ust seems to me that con&erting these diagrams into alge)raic equations +ould )e more li*e
complicating a simple tas*, rather than simpli'ying a complicated tas*" % must admit ho+e&er, the
challenge +as quite ironic" %,&e al+ays challenged mathematicians to con&ert their comple/ alge)raic
equations into tangi)le diagrams 1 no+ this 'ello+ +as challenging me to do the opposite@
P3ACE O1>9 E/tend the selected lines o'' the Red Square as sho+n" Connect the dots to complete
the 2olden Square"
///////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////
Che earliest e''orts to square the circle o'ten centered around the use o' inscri)ed polygons9 Che idea
)eing that the more sides one adds to the polygon the more area o' the circle it +ould occupy" Che
hope +as that e&entually the entire circle +ould )e 'illed in" 0or e/ample9 An inscri)ed pentagon +ould
occupy more space +ithin the circle than an inscri)ed square, and an inscri)ed he/agon +ould occupy
more space that an inscri)ed pentagon, and an inscri)ed octagon +ould occupy more space +ithin the
circle than an inscri)ed he/agon, and so on" %' pro&en it +ould also pro&e that the circle could )e
squared since polygons can )e squared"
Co create a square 1 a circle as close in area as the 2olden Square is to the 2olden Circle, one +ould
require the use o' inscri)ed polygons o' multiple 'acets" Archimedes used a 8:Igon to set upper 1
lo+er )ounds 'or pi o' >"1!2#D? 1 >"1!0#!D respecti&ely" Ptolemy used a >:0Igon to o)tain a &alue o'
>"1!1:::" ChatLs a super close appro/imation" But the one generated )y these diagrams is e&en )etter
than that, 6>"1!1:!;" (uygens de'ined this num)er as his upper limit 'or pi using a square 1 an
octagon" 3iu (ui o)tained the e/act same ratio )y inscri)ing a polygon o' >,0?2 sides )ac* in the >rd
Century" And Arya)hatta, some time around D00 AF, used a >#!Igon to o)tain the same close
estimate" %magine trying to dra+ any one o' those +ith compass 1 straightedge@ % dou)t they e&er
dre+ any such thing though" 3i*e % said )e'ore, mathematicians rarely dre+ these pro)lems out on a
sheet o' paper in a literal sense"
7any respecta)le mathematicians, including Einstein, o'ten rounded pi up to >"1!1:" 7any still do"
Actually, this &alue sometimes naturally appears in alge)raic equations in&ol&ing electronics, physics,
mechanics, 1 engineering" %t +as +ellI*no+n 1 +idely used in ancient architecture too" %t is common
to 'ind this &alue connected to the pyramids" Fa&id Bo+man has +ritten a good article on
this5 6http9MM+++"ai+aH"net;" (e ma*es a remar*a)le lin* )et+een this num)er 1 the dimensions 'or
the Qing,s cham)er" (e li*ens it to +hat he calls a 4dou)le square"4 %t consists o' t+o squares o' equal
siHe set side )y side5 each +ith side lengths o' ":" Chis arrangement 'orms a rectangle +ith a diagonal
o' ": P sq"rt" D 1">!1:!0?#?" Che sum o' the sides o' the t+o resulting triangles is equal to >"1!1:!
6": S 1"2 S 1">!1:!0?#?;" (e 'urther o)ser&es 4this is an amaHingly close appro/imation o' the &alue
o' pi >"1!1D8, +ith the error o' 0"001DW"4 (e adds that this is pro)a)ly the main reason +hy this
particular place +as considered so sacred to the (igh Priest 1 +hy he o'ten used this dou)le square to
communicate +ith the gods" Chis num)er is commonly associated +ith other ancient religious
structures as +ell, such as Stonehenge" %' you search the internet you,ll 'ind it is intimately connected
to the 2olden Ratio" Stephen S*inner, in his )oo* USacred 2eometry9 Feciphering the Code,T lin*s this
ratio to the su).ect o' squaring the circle" (e suggests it has something to do +ith dra+ing a square
+ith sidelengths o' >"1!1:!" % ha&e no idea +here or ho+ he got that" Bn t+itter Fa&e Richeson says it
is a good appro/imation 'or pi 1 e/plains that it is constructi)le &ia compass 1 straightedge" But,
un'ortunately, he gi&es no description on ho+ to do it"
P3ACE O1!9 (ere +e merge the 2olden Circle 1 the 2olden Square" Chis resem)les most diagrams that
one might typically e/pect to 'ind +hen researching this topic"
%' +e consider the Red Square as a -nit Square <sides 15 area 1=, the 'ollo+ing calculations +ill
result9
2olden Square Phi 61":1#0>>8##;" Area Phi Squared 62":1#0>>8#:;"
2olden Circle Radius 60"812#?08>;5 Radius Squared 6"#>>>>>>>!;5 Area 62":1?88>##;"
///////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////
Eith respect to area there is &irtually no di''erence )et+een these t+o shapes" 7easured in inches the
di''erence is literally microscopic" And e&en i' +e con&ert them into square 'eet the di''erence +ould
not )e detecta)le )y the na*ed eye" 6A)out the siHe o' t+o red )lood cells;" Chis construction yields an
e/tremely tight appro/imation 'or pi as +ell9 6>"1!1:!0?#!;" Chis is 88"#DW accurate 'or true pi" Co
illustrate .ust ho+ signi'icant this is +e +ould need to enlarge the t+o shapes astronomically" %magine,
'or e/ample, you ha&e a planet +ith a diameter o' a thousand miles" According to pi it +ould ta*e a car
racing along at :0 mph more than D2 hours 1 21 minutes to circumna&igate the glo)e at its equator" %'
+e +ere to e/trapolate our tra&el time using phi instead, the di''erence )et+een the t+o times +ould
)e less than three seconds@ 67ost o' this material has )een 'eatured on 2ary 7eisnerLs e/cellent
+e)site, http9MM+++"goldennum)er"netMsquaringItheIcircleM" 60or more detailed in'ormation please &isit
his site;"
Che 'act that +e can attain such a high degree o' precision +ithout the aid o' modern tools 1 in so 'e+
steps sets this construction apart 'rom some o' e&en the most ingenious techniques"
Although these diagrams re&eal an e/tremely tight appro/imation 'or pi and this 'act most de'initely
ought to )e mentioned, % do not 'eel it is the most remar*a)le aspect to )e highlighted" %t must )e
remem)ered that pi +as not e&en used to construct them" 0or that matter, % didn,t use phi either" 6By
that % mean % didn,t use their actual numerical &alues;" Che most remar*a)le thing a)out these
dra+ings is that they +ere constructed +ithout the use o' any mathematics +hatsoe&er" Che
instruments employed +ere primiti&e 1 utterly de&oid o' incremental mar*ings" Actual measurement
played no part in it5 e/cept, o' course, in the proo's"
Chis procedure is so simple you,d e/pect to see these dra+ings sur'ace +hene&er this su).ect
appeared" Jet, diagrams that demonstrate this phenomenon are practically nonIe/istant" 0or the li'e o'
me % cannot 'igure out +hy this is"
% thin* these diagrams are )lueprints5 literally" % thin* they are a *ind o' 4signpost4 pointing the +ay
to the ultimate solution"
PARC C(REE
C%RC3E RECC%0%CAC%BG BG R%E7AGG%AG 7AG%0B3FS
P3ACE O1D9 %solate the Pin* Circle, the 2reen Circle, and the %ed Square created in Plates !, :, and ?
a)o&e"
Poposition O19 Che perimeter o' the Red Square is EPACC3J equal in length to the circum'erence o'
the Pin* Circle" Chis pro)a)ly sounds a)surd" But please )ear +ith me on this 1 'ollo+ along" Jou might
'ind the .ourney +orth+hile"
P3ACE O1:9 C(E 0B-R CBRGERS B0 C(E EARC( (ere % +ould li*e to direct your attention to the
t+o innermost shapes9 Che Red Square centered +ithin the2reen Circle"
///////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////
Gormally, in 'latland that is, the area o' the Red Square +ould )e equal to the area o' the 2reen
Circle di&ided )y 1M2pi 61"D?0?8:>;" Che perimeter o' the Red Square+ould )e equal to the 2reen
Circle,s circum'erence di&ided )y the 0orm 0actor Ratio 61"110?20?;" Che ratio is intimately connected
to the su).ect o' squaring the circle" %n electronics it is used to con&ert sinusoidal 6i"e", cur&ed; +a&es
into digital 6i"e", square; +a&es 1 plays a huge part in our e&eryday li&es" 7ultiplied )y sq"rt" 2 1M2pi5
and multiplied )y sq"rt" # pi e/actly" %t sur'aces 'requently in geometry5 especially +hen dealing +ith
SteinmetH Solids 1 octahedrons inscri)ed +ithin spheres" %t is also closely associated +ith the Sil&er
Ratio &ia inscri)ed octagons"
Any+ay, things are not al+ays +hat they initially seem to )e" Consider no+ +hat happens +hen %
change the mani'old"
P3ACE O1?9 (ere +e ha&e the same t+o shapes 6the Red Square inside the 2reen Circle;, )ut %,&e
eliminated their colors" Chis +ill help to enhance the &isual e''ect" %,&e also altered the mani'old 1 ha&e
e/empli'ied that change )y dar*ening the )ac*ground +ith a )lac* magic mar*er .ust as % did in Part
Bne o' this presentation" Bther+ise, a)solutely nothing has changed9 Che diagram remains intact and it
+ould )e totally impossi)le 'or a person to determine that any change had e&en ta*en place unless he
+as in'ormed o' it" All the dimensions are identical 1 it can still )e dra+n +ith compass 1 straightedge"
Go+, it is not the mani'old +ithin +hich the 2reen Circle is em)edded that has )een changed, )ut that
+ithin +hich the Red Square is em)edded" %n other +ords, the )ac*ground is )asically irrele&ant" %t,s
essentially empty space" %,&e only dar*ened it to help you &isualiHe +hat %,m tal*ing a)out" Che sur'ace
area no+ )ound )y the 2reen Circle is actually a t+oIdimensional smooth Riemannian mani'old o'
positi&e Ricci cur&ature5 al)eit, this cur&ature is not detecta)le 'rom this &antage point" %magine, i' you
+ill, the 'ollo+ing scenario9
Jou +al* outside on a dar* +inter night 1 gaHe up into the pitch )lac* s*y" Jou notice there,s a 'ull
moon tonight" 6B' course, in reality, this is only hal' the moon5 a hemisphere5 +hich is the ma/imum
amount o' sur'ace area one can see o' any sphere at any one time;" But +hat you see in the night s*y
is not +hat you,d typically e/pect to 'ind" %nstead, the image in the s*y is e/actly li*e the one appearing
here on your screen" Please ta*e a 'e+ moments to 'ocus intently upon this dra+ing" %t is a &ery
important piece o' the puHHle 1 your a)ility to see this 'rom the proper perspecti&e is paramount to
understanding +hat %Lm tal*ing a)out"
B)&iously, the sidelengths o' the Red Square are cur&ed5 al)eit, 'rom this angle that cannot )e
esta)lished )y simple o)ser&ation" Consequently, the Red Square has de&eloped an intimate
relationship +ith the circle 1 gains many o' its unique characteristics )y inheritance5 including the
transcendental nature o' pi"
Please turn to the ne/t 'rame to see +hat happens +hen this diagram is turned 'ortyI'i&e degrees 1
&ie+ed 'rom another angle"
P3ACE O1#9 Che top dra+ing is the same one +e,&e )een &ie+ing in the last three 'rames5 the Red
square centered +ithin the 2reen Circle" Che )ottom dra+ing is +hat +e +ould see i' +e rotate the
diagram !D degrees"
%n essence then, +e are loo*ing at the same diagram5 )ut 'rom t+o di''erent perspecti&es" %' the
square +as shaded gray 1 the hemisphere,s mani'old +as transparent, and you shined a light straight
do+n on it 'rom directly o&erhead, you +ould see that it +ould cast a per'ect Ushado+T on the 'lat
Euclidean sur'ace )elo+ +hich is identical to the top dra+ing" 0rom )lueprint perspecti&e the t+o
diagrams are the same5 a)solutely nothing has changed" %n reality ho+e&er, some things ha&e
changed" Che mani'old is not +hat +e thought it +as" Chere'ore, the geometry is not going to )e +hat
+e thought it +as" Che circum'erence o' the 2reen Circle hasn,t changed, e/cept no+ it represents an
equator circle" Che sur'ace area )ound )y that 2reen Circle has no+ dou)led )ecause it represents a
hemisphere 6rather than a 'lat circle;" (ence, it encompasses a positi&ely cur&ed area e/actly equal to
pi" Che cur&ed sur'ace area no+ )ound )y the Red Square is equal to the hemispherical area )ound )y
the 2reen Circle 6pi; di&ided )y the Sil&er 7ean9 piM61 S sq"rt"2; 1">012802" Che side lengths o'
the Red Square,s perimeter ha&e increased )y e/actly 1M2pi" Chere'ore, the total length o' its perimeter
is EPACC3J EX-A3 to the circum'erence o' the Pin( Circle created on Plate O!9 6! / 1M2pi 2pi;"
% occasionally re'er to this diagram as the 4Sil&er Fome4 )ecause it per'ectly resem)les a sail &ault or
pendenti&e dome" %' +e +ere to imagine the Red Square in 'latland as enclosing a total area equal to
the Sil&er 7ean 61 S sq"rt" 2 2"!1!21>D:2; 1 +e pro.ected that Red Square onto a sphere such that
it,s &ertices +ere anchored on the equator circle 6as depicted in the top diagram;, that Red Square 6i"e",
pendenti&e dome; +ould then encompass a total cur&ed sur'ace area EPACC3J EX-A3 to pi"
%nterestingly, in this particular case, the total amount o' hemispherical sur'ace area lying outside the
square 6or pendenti&e dome; is precisely equal to ! / the 0orm 0actor Ratio !"!!2##2#" %' +e ta*e
this num)er and multiply it )y the 6'lat; side length o' the Red Square it +ould )e e/actly equal in
length to the circum'erence o' the circumscri)ing 2reen Circle"
Chis clearly pro&es that Euclidean shapes pro.ected onto spherical sur'aces can indeed square the circle
in )oth area 1 perimeter" Basically, a similar result can )e achie&ed +ith an equilateral triangle" Please
re'er to Part Bne o' this demonstration 'or additional details a)out this pro'oundly intriguing
phenomenon"
////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////
///////////////////
At the &ery )eginning o' this e/hi)it % mentioned that the square is a 4slice4 o' a cu)e 1 is Euclidean in
nature5 +hile the circle is a 4slice4 o' a sphere 1 is spherical in nature" Ehen +e ta*e the t+o o' them
and lay them side )y side +ithin 6not upon; a 'lat sur'ace, +e,&e un+ittingly per'ormed a mathematical
'unction" B)&iously, the square is per'ectly at home there" But +e,&e done in.ustice to the circle9 Ee,&e
deported it 'rom its com'orta)le home in spherical geometry, stripped it o' its dou)le cur&ature, 1
thrust it into 'latland5 a +orld utterly 'oreign to it" %' +e hope to recti'y andMor square the circle in a
literal sense +e need to )alance the equation" Ee need to gi&e to the square +hat +e too* 'rom the
circle" %n other +ords, +e need to 'ind a +ay to thrust the square into the same transcendental +orld
as the circle +ithout ma*ing any &isi)le changes to the squareLs appearance"
Basically, this is +hat %L&e done" Che t+o shapes ha&e )een reunited9 Bnly this time the situation has
)een re&ersed9 Che circle is per'ectly at home no+, +hile it is the square that 'eels out o' place" %t has
gained in this +orld +hat the circle relinquished in 'latland5 namely, dou)le cur&ature"
Cry to thin* o' it this +ay9 %magine you 1 a 'riend go to a place +here your &ision is uno)structed 'or
se&eral miles in e&ery direction5 say, the 2reat Salt 0lats o' -tah" Jou dra+ a per'ect >L / >L square in
the sand" Jou step inside the square 1 center yoursel' in the middle" Jou loo* straight do+n 1 see the
per'ect square" Go+ you ha&e your 'riend increase the siHe o' the square around you concentrically" %n
other +ords, you ha&e him utiliHe the same method required to produce a typical set o' nested squares
1 circles" Consequently, each successi&e square +ould )e e/actly t+ice the siHe o' the one )e'ore it" At
'irst the squares are &ery easy to see" But )e'ore long you notice that although you can see your 'riend
.ust 'ine, the lines heLs dra+ing in the sand are increasingly di''icult to see" 0inally, the lines &anish out
o' sight entirely" B)&iously, this is )ecause the lines ha&e gone o&er the horiHon" Che medium 6or
mani'old; +ithin +hich the squares are em)edded is cur&ed 6.ust li*e e&erything else in the *no+n
uni&erse;" Chere'ore, +hat appeared to )e straight on a small scale +as really cur&ed a'terall, )ut the
cur&ature +as so su)tle that the miniscule amount could not )e o)ser&ed or e&en measured" %' you
continue this e/ercise long enough you +ill e&entually 'ind the &ertices o' your square anchored directly
on the equator circle" B' course, 'rom your original &antage point the square +ould no longer resem)le
a square" But imagine, i' you +ill, that the initial >L / >L square +ithin +hich you +ere standing +as a
*ind o' podium +ith a hydraulic li't attached to the )ottom" %magine you could use that li't to propel
yoursel' up+ardly to any height you desired" Jou then )egin ascending at a constant rate" Jou +ould
soon 'ind that the higher you go the more o' the square you +ould )e a)le to see" -ltimately, you
+ould )e a)le to see the entire square" %' you +ere to ascend to a great enough height, say, as 'ar
a+ay as the moon, and you loo*ed straight do+n on it 6i"e", 'rom 2odLs perspecti&e;, the square your
'riend has etched into the sand +ould loo* e/actly li*e the inscri)ed square depicted at the top o' this
diagram" %' you +ere to &ie+ the same image 'rom the side it +ould loo* e/actly li*e the )ottom
dra+ing" %t +ould appear as an opened parachute5 something li*e a square sheet draped o&er a
sphere" Chis could pass 'or a snapshot o' a sail &ault, or pendenti&e dome"
Some +ill argue that +hat %,&e dra+n is not actually a square" Some may cry U'oul"T Bthers may call it a
tric*, or an illusion" Some +ill assert that % )ent the rules" But that is not so" % did not )end the rules, %
)ent the lines, or more speci'ically, the sur'ace upon +hich they appear5 al)eit, the cur&ature is
impossi)le to detect 'rom this angle" (ence, these diagrams are constructi)le &ia compass 1
straightedge" Both shapes 6the cur&ed pendenti&e dome 1 the 'lat Euclidean Square; share nearly all
the same characteristics" Chey are )oth em)edded in a t+oIdimensional mani'old" All 'our sides are
equal in length" Che 'our sides intersect at right angles" Che diagonal still o)eys the Pythagorean
Cheorem" And, 'or all intents 1 purposes, opposite sides are 4parallel"4 %n other +ords, i' you dra+ lines
o' longitude 6i"e", great circles; through )oth sides o' the 4square,4 they +ill intersect it,s sides
orthogonally 1 all points on one side o' the square remain equidistant 'rom their corresponding points
on the opposite side throughout their respecti&e lengths" Go+, % am 'ully a+are o' Euclid,s 0i'th
Postulate 1 it,s alleged incompati)ility +ith spherical geometry" But Perelman,s recent solution to the
Poincare Con.ecture in the a''irmati&e raises serious questions a)out the shape o' the uni&erse 1 the
&alidity o' Euclid,s Parallel Postulate" %' it is pro&en that the shape o' the uni&erse is cur&ed, +hether
para)ollically or hyper)olically, it may also pro&e that our traditional &ie+s on parallelism are illusory 1
e/ist only in the mind" Any+ay, this is the solution the 3ord ga&e me" %t totally ans+ers my prayer9 A
square has )een dra+n +ith compass 1 straightedge that has a perimeter EPACC3J equal in length to
the circum'erence o' a circle"
E/panding on our e/planation o' the )ottom dra+ing9 Ee see here that the 'our side lengths o' the Red
Square actually ser&e as 'our diameters o' 'our geodesic circles upon the 2reen sphere,s sur'ace
6highlighted red in the diagram;" Chese 'our circles are arranged in a square shape5 much li*e 'our
paper plates set on edge" Chey intersect at right angles +ith each Red Circle )eing tangent to the
ad.acent one at a single point on the2reen equator Circle" Che diameter o' each Red Circle is equal in
length to one side o' the Red Square 61;" Chat means the circum'erence o' each Red Circle +ould )e
e/actly equal to pi" Since +e are dealing +ith a hemisphere 6as opposed to a +hole sphere;, the Red
Circles are cut in hal'" Chere'ore, the length o' each one is 1M2pi" (ence, all 'our sides +ould ha&e a
total length o' 2pi5 +hich is e/actly equal to the Pin* Circle,scircum'erence" Perhaps this +ould )e
easier to understand i' % 'olded the Red semiIcircles to the side 1 do+n 'lat" Please turn to the ne/t
slide 'or additional details"
P3ACE O189 (ere, %,&e 'olded the Red Circles do+n 'lat so their dimensions could )e seen more easily"
Go+ +e state the o)&ious9 Each Red hal'Icircle is precisely equal in length to 1M! thePin*
Circle,s circum'erence" All 'our +ould )e equal to its entire circum'erence" Conclusion9 Che perimeter o'
the Red Square, +hen em)edded in a t+oIdimensional smooth Riemannian mani'old o' positi&e
cur&ature 1 )ound )y an equator circle the siHe o' the 2reen Circle, is EPACC3J EX-A3 in length to the
circum'erence o' the Pin* Circle Che circle is recti'ied &ia compass 1 straightedge"
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%ncidentally, the 'amous 43une o' (ippocrates4 ma*es an appearance here" Although unintentional %
dou)t it is sheer happenstance, since all these things are interrelated" Che dimensions are &ery easy to
see in this diagram9 Che Red semicircles are clearly equal in length to 1M2pi 1 all 'our added together
2pi" %' you +ere to eliminate the red arcs at the top 1 )ottom, the resulting diagram +ould resem)le
the design plan 'or the +ell *no+n Kenetian Basilica, Santa 7aria della Saluta" Chis *ind o' 4sacred
geometry4 +as 6and still is; o'ten incorporated into the &ery structure o' religious )uildings" Chis
accentuates the close relationship )et+een this particular pro)lem 1 the %ncarnation o' the Son o' 2od,
Jesus Christ" See the ne/t 'e+ slides 'or additional e/amples"
P3ACE O209 2roin Kault9 Also *no+n as the UCross Kault5T 'or o)&ious reasons" %n religiously oriented
architecture it can )e used to represent the Cross o' Christ 1 % +ill e/empli'y that point as % proceed
through the ne/t 'e+ 'rames" Chis structure can )e 'ound most commonly in )asement 1 ground 'loor
le&els o' )uildings due to its a)ility to support hea&y payloads +ithout the need 'or massi&e )uttresses"
%t achie&es this )y directing the stresses almost &ertically do+n+ard through the 'our corner piers" %t
+as highly in'luential during the 7iddle Ages 1 +as 'requently employed in 2othic Cathedrals"
B'tentime, it +as used to construct long corridors )y aligning se&eral o' them in a ro+"
Ehen compared to Plates 1# 1 18 the relationship )et+een this structure 1 the topic at hand is sel'I
e&ident" Che 'our red arcs 1 the Red Square sho+ up quite nicely" Che design o' the 2roin Kault +as
deri&ed directly 'rom a )icylinder +hich has )een cut in hal' horiHontally" 6See Plate O21;"
P3ACE O219 Cypical Bicylinder9 %t is 'ormed )y t+o cylinders o' equal diameter intersecting at right
angles" Che interesting thing a)out cylinders is that Euclidean math is applica)le" As you can see 'rom
the diagram on the le't, the Red Square is &ery prominent" Ehen the cylinder height 6or length i' you
pre'er; is reduced to its e/treme minimum as portrayed in the )ottom dra+ing, the 'our openings
)ecome tangent 1 meet at right angles" %n other +ords, i' the height o' each cylinder +as equal in
length to its diameter 6+hich, in this case is 1;, then it +ould per'ectly re'lect the dimensions o' theRed
Square 1 the red arcs depicted in pre&ious 'rames" %' you +ere to cut it in hal' horiHontally, youLd ha&e
the 2roin Kault illustrated in the pre&ious 'rame" Che sphere +ithin +hich this +ould )e circumscri)ed
+ould ha&e a diameter equal to the cylinderLs diameter length 61; multiplied )y sq"rt"2" %n this case, the
)ottom )icylinder +ould per'ectly 'it inside the 2reen Circle5 that is, o' course, i' it +ere actually a
sphere" Che 'our cylinder openings +ould come into contact +ith the sur'ace o' the sphere 1 trace out
'our per'ect circles" Each Red Circle +ould )e tangent to the ad.acent one at a single point on
the 2reen SphereLs equator circle" Chey +ould meet at right angles 1 +ould loo* e/actly li*e the
diagrams o' pre&ious plates" 0rom directly a)o&e cur&ature o' the arcs +ould not )e detecta)le 1 it
+ould loo* e/actly li*e the Red Square inscri)ed in the2reen Circle <Plate O1:="
%' you +ere to 'ill the inside o' this o).ect +ith some sort o' a sealant 'oam 1 then allo+ed it to harden,
it +ould 'orm a most interesting o).ect *no+n as the SteinmetH Solid" Chis particular o).ect is
do+nright 'ascinating 1 %,&e spent a great deal o' time 1 energy studying its unique characteristics"
Apparently, %Lm not the only one +ho 'eels this +ay9 Sha*espeare also 'ound it quite intriguing and
speci'ically mentions it in his 'amous play, U7idsummer GightLs Fream"T
Curn to the ne/t slide 'or more details"
P3ACE O229 SteinmetH Solid9 Chis is +hat it +ould loo* li*e i' +e 'illed the )icylinder +ith a su)stance 1
then allo+ed it to harden into a solid" Che outer shell o' this particular solid 'orms a 'ourIsided
polygonal dome5 +hich has )een used e/tensi&ely in holy sites5 especially the octagonal style" Pro)a)ly
the most 'amous e/ample o' this is the dome o&er the 0lorence Cathedral" %tLs construction +as
shrouded in mystery 'or se&eral centuries until a 0lorentine architect )y the name o' 7assimo Ricci
came along 1 'inally sol&ed the pro)lem" (e is pretty +ellI*no+n 'or this accomplishment" Any+ay, this
SteinmetH Solid is quite remar*a)le in that it has per'ectly SX-ARE cross sections e&en though it +as
'ormed )y the intersection o' t+o per'ectly RB-GF cylinders" % *ne+ % +as on the right trac* +hen %
sa+ that" Che o).ect is unusual5 something li*e a queer dec* o' cards9 %t has the smallest square card
on the )ottom" 0rom there the cards remain square in shape5 )ut gro+ progressi&ely larger as they
approach the middle o' the dec*" And then they gro+ progressi&ely smaller as they approach the top o'
the dec*" Per'ect circles the siHe o' the Red Circle can )e dra+n around its midpoints5 +hile per'ect
ellipses can )e dra+n around its &ertices"
0rom these diagrams +e can see +hat happens +hen +e ha&e t+o cylinders o' equal diameter
intersect horiHontally at right angles" Go+, letLs see +hat happens +hen +e dri&e a third cylinder do+n
&ertically or perpendicularly through the center o' those t+o cylinders"
P3ACE O2>9 Cypical Cricylinder9 %t is 'ormed )y three cylinders o' equal diameter intersecting at right
angles" %n this particular case the diameter o' each cylinder +ould )e the same length as the sidelength
o' the Red Square 61;" %' all three cylinders are reduced to their minimum height o' 1 6as +e did +ith
the )icylinder5 )ottom dra+ing;, and then inscri)ed this o).ect +ithin the 2reen sphere, it +ould trace
out si/ circles upon its sur'ace9 0our around the equator circle 1 one each around the Gorth 1 South
Poles" %t )asically ta*es on the same shape as a cu)e, )ut instead o' squares on each o' itLs si/ 'aces, it
has circles instead" %ts SteinmetH Solid is the rhom)ic dodecahedron5 +hich some say has a lot to do
+ith the shape o' the uni&erse" %n the ne/t 'rame you +ill )e a)le to see ho+ this relates to the su).ect
)e'ore us"
P3ACE O2!9 (ere, +e,&e simply cut the Cricylinder in hal' on itLs horiHontal a/is" Chis re'lects the
'loorplan 'or (agia Sophia 62r" (oly Eisdom;" Chis is a ByHantine Church located in %stan)ul Cur*ey,
'ormerly Constantinople" %t +as constructed around D>0 A"F" )y Emperor Justinian" %t +as the 'irst time
the pendenti&e dome +as used 1 it +as immediately recogniHed as an architectural mar&el" %t still is"
-pon it,s completion Justinian is said to ha&e e/claimed9 4Solomon % ha&e outdone thee@4 B)&iously, he
+as comparing it to SolomonLs Cemple and re'erring to the sacred geometry 1 great +isdom utiliHed in
its construction"
Che 'act that the 4'ootprint4 o' this o).ect is identical to the 'loorplan o' the church is inescapa)le"
-ndou)tedly, the intention o' the architects is )oth deli)erate 1 unmista*a)le"
P3ACE O2D9 (agia Sophia9 Chis +as the seat o' the Eastern Brthodo/ Church 'or nearly ten centuries"
%t,s geometric design represents the marriage o' hea&en 1 earth5 2od 1 man through Christ Jesus"
And 4happy are those +ho are called to the 7arriage Supper o' the 3am),4 6Re&" 189?I8;" As discussed
earlier, the Circle represents 2od 1 the square represents man" Che circular dome ma*es a grace'ul
transition to the square )ase )elo+ &ia the pendenti&es" Chese pendenti&es are the strange loo*ing
green UtrianglesT at each o' the 'our corners" <See Plate O2?=" Chis e&enly distri)utes the immense
+eight o' the massi&e dome 1 channels it do+n through the 'our main columns at the 'our corners"
Craditionally, the portraits o' the 'our e&angelists are depicted on these 'our pendenti&es9 67atthe+,
7ar*, 3u*e 1 John;" Che theme is e/tremely sym)olic" %t represents 2od 6the Circle; reconciling (imsel'
+ith man 6the square; )y +ay o' the pendenti&es 6the 2ospel o' o' our 3ord Jesus Christ;" As you can
plainly see, the entire layout is shaped li*e a cruci'i/" Bnce in a +hile you might e&en encounter the
phrase 4square the circle4 +hen researching this su).ect" %t,s usually employed 'igurati&ely or
allegorically" But there,s no dou)t 6at least in my mind; that it also sol&es this mystery in a literal
sense"
P3ACE O2:9 (ere,s another loo* at the 'loorplan o' the (agia Sophia" As you can see the +hole thing is
deli)erately cruci'orm" Bther+ise, the diagram is )asically sel'Ie/planatory"
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Chis diagram could easily pass 'or a )lueprint o' 2ood Shepherd Catholic Church5 a place o'
e/traordinary )eauty 1 &ery dear to me"
P3ACE O2?9 (ere is an e/cellent rendition o' the pendenti&e dome" Che relationship )et+een the 'our
Red semiIcircles 1 the 'our sidelengths o' the Red Square is &ery easy to see" % ha&e 'igured out ho+ to
calculate itLs sur'ace area9 %t is equal to the 2reen hemisphereLs sur'ace area 6pi; di&ided )y the Sil&er
7ean" Pi di&ided )y 61 S sq"rt 2; 1">01280>1#" Che pendenti&es are the strange loo*ing UtrianglesT
at each o' the 'our corners" Chey can )e conca&e or con&e/ depending on +hat side o' the structure
you are on" Chey loo* li*e deltoids 6that,s a threeIsided hypocycloid;" But they,re not" %L&e 'igured out
ho+ to calculate their sur'ace area too9 Area o' the 'our pendenti&es is equal to the total sur'ace area
o' the pendenti&e dome di&ided )y 61 S the Sil&er 7ean;" %n this particular case the 'our pendenti&es
+ould ha&e a total sur'ace area o' ">#11>85 +ith each pendenti&e ha&ing a sur'ace area o' "08D2#!??8"
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As % indicated &ery early on, +hen % )egan this pro.ect % couldnLt remem)er e&en the most )asic
principles o' geometry" % )asically started 'rom scratch" % spent the 'irst three years 'ocusing on the
three sets o' isometrically related nested squares 1 circles, the Fi&ine Proportion, and the hypocycloid"
At 'irst % couldnLt 'igure out +here the hypocycloid 'it in" Some time around the )eginning o' my 'ourth
year into this % met a guy +ho held a PhF in 7echanical Engineering" (e spo*e o' lines on a sphere 1
Bingo@ ChereLs +here my hypocycloid )elonged@ %t all seemed to ma*e sense9 Fra+ a hyper)olic shape
o' negati&e cur&ature 6hypocycloid; on the sur'ace o' a para)olic shape o' positi&e cur&ature 6sphere;
and the t+o cancel5 lea&ing us +ith a Euclidean shape de&oid o' cur&ature 6square; Eell, sort o'"
Any+ay, % +as &ery e/cited a)out this de&elopment 1 'or the ne/t se&eral months my 'ocus centered
upon +hat % called Uthe square on a sphere"T As % )egan to approach the )eginning o' my 'i'th year into
this, progress had once again slo+ed to a snailLs pace"
So one day, *inda outta the )lue, % decided to attend Easter mass at 2ood Shepherd Catholic Church" %
hadn,t )een to mass in o&er >0 years" % arri&ed late so % stood in the &ery )ac*" 0or +hate&er reason %
glanced up at the massi&e dome 1 there it +as5 plain as day5 my square on a sphere@ % +as utterly
'la))erghasted" Geedless to say, as soon as mass +as o&er % rushed home to see +hat % could 'ind out
a)out this on the %nternet" %t +asn,t long )e'ore % 'ound that my square on a sphere had a name5 it
+as called a pendenti&e dome" % e/amined hundreds o' images o' this unique structure 1 'ound that i'
% &ie+ed it 'rom a great enough height it +ould resem)le a per'ect inscri)ed square" And i' % +ere to
lay on my )ac* in the middle o' the Church 1 stare straight up at it, %Ld see my hypocycloid staring
right )ac* do+n on me" Compare Plate O>! 6the hypocycloid; +ith Plate O>D" Che image appearing on
that 'rame 6>D; is 'rom the dome o' the Church o' the (oly Sepulchre in Jerusalem" %ncidentally, %
stood under that dome as +ell5 completely o)li&ious to the +isdom directly o&er my head" Chis e&ent
+as a huge turning point in my research" 7y mission +as )ac* on trac*" %n'ormation )egan pouring in
'aster than % could process it" % )egan inscri)ing Bicylinders 1 Cricylinders inside spheres" % 'ound that
these o).ects car&e out per'ect circles on the sphere,s sur'ace identical to those +e,&e )een discussing"
Ehen &ie+ing the inscri)ed Bicylinder 'rom directly a)o&e, the cur&ature o' each o' its 'our openings
could not )e detected5 much li*e loo*ing at a paper plate side+ays5 and the 'our tangent circles
appeared to )e a per'ect square 6.ust li*e the Red Square in the pre&ious diagrams;" 3ater, % +ould
study their respecti&e SteinmetH Solids5 +hich led me to in&estigate groin &aults 1 polygonal domes" %
then )egan pluc*ing di''erent squares 'rom my three sets o' isometric dra+ings 1 pro.ecting them onto
di''erent spheres" And the 2olden 7ean .ust 'ell outta the s*y" Seriously" % +asnLt e&en loo*ing 'or this
or trying to square the circle 'rom this angle" % 'ound that certain squares +ere in 2olden Ratio +ith the
circum'erences o' certain circles and )e'ore % *ne+ it, the method 'or squaring the circle depicted in
Part C+o o' this demonstration +as right there on the sheet o' paper lying )e'ore me" % *no+ it may
sound ridiculous, )ut itLs almost as i' % didnLt e&en dra+ it mysel'"
Ja *no+9 %tLs 'unny9 %t seems li*e % learned nearly e&erything % *no+ a)out this pro)lem in re&erse" %t,s
as i' % slipped in through the )ac* door" %t +as li*e the popular gamesho+ Jeopardy5 +here the
contestants are gi&en the ans+er 1 then challenged to 'rame the appropriate question to match it"
Jou,d thin* % had started +ith the pendenti&e dome and then +or*ed my +ay )ac*+ards5 especially
considering the 'act that it represents the squaring o' the circle andMor the %ncarnation o' the Son o'
2od" 6Chis is +hat surprises me the most" Ehy hasn,t some)ody already done thisA; Any+ay, as
un)elie&ea)le as it may sound, % had a)solutely no idea that this math pro)lem had such a deeply
spiritual side to it" As 'ar as % +as concerned the only spiritual aspect o' it +as that a guy asserted 2od
(imsel' couldnLt do it" %t +asnLt until that Easter morning a couple years ago that % realiHed it had so
many spiritual implications"
P3ACE O2#9 (ere %L&e simply Uun'oldedT the perimeter o' the Red Square +hich con&erts it into a
straight line" And then % did the same thing +ith the 'our red semiIcircles" %t is easy to see the
relationship )et+een the t+o 'igures" Che perimeter o' theRed Square increases )y e/actly 1M2pi +hen
em)edded in a t+oIdimensional smooth Riemannian mani'old o' positi&e Ricci cur&ature 1 )ound )y an
equator circle the siHe o' the 2reen Circle" (ence, the perimeter o' the Red Square is e/actly equal in
length to the circum'erence o' the Pin* Circle 62pi;" Che circle is recti'ied &ia compass 1 straightedge"
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% realiHe my approach to this pro)lem may seem some+hat 4unorthodo/"4 % don,t *no+9 7ay)e that,s
not an accurate description5 especially since % disco&ered this material dead center in the Eastern
Brthodo/ Church@ 7ay)e it,s man,s approach to this pro)lem that is unorthodo/ 1 this has )een the
solution all along" But man, as he so o'ten does, has spent his time 4*ic*ing against the pric*s"4 Chere
once +as an %talian Je+ )y the name o' 3e&i Ce&ita" (e used Ricci,s A)solute Fi''erential Calculus to
correct Einstein,s 'ield equations )y calculating the cur&ature o' spacetime" Chis e&entually pa&ed the
+ay 'or his Cheory o' Relati&ity" Einstein +ould later pro&e that e&en light )ends in space" Xuestion9 %'
)oth time 1 space are cur&ed, ho+ can anything )e straightA % mean, i' the &ery medium +ithin +hich
all things e/ist is +arped, ho+ can anything em)edded +ithin it )e 'latA
And no+, many decades later, +e ha&e another Je+, the reclusi&e genius 2rigori Perelman, de'orming
Riemannian mani'olds into cylinders &ia the Ricci 0lo+" By utiliHing this e/traordinary technique he
e&entually sol&ed the Poincare Con.ecture5 considered to )e the hardest question in all o' mathematics"
(o+ much do you +ant to )et that this approach can someho+ )e applied to the solution presented
a)o&e 1 e&entually pro&e that this is 1 al+ays has )een the only &ia)le solution to the pro)lemA
P3ACE O>!9 (ypocycloid9 (ere is a diagram o' a unique *ind o' hypocycloid5 also *no+n as an astroid
6not asteroid;" Chis, along +ith the 2olden 7ean, +as the center o' my attention 'or the 'irst se&eral
years" Chis particular hypocycloid totally 'ascinated me 1 opened many doors 'or me" Ehen a circle is
inscri)ed +ithin a square, the hypocycloid consists o' all that area lying outside the circle )ut inside the
square" %t is the 'our cur&ed shapes at the 'our corners" Ehen 'olded in+ardly to the center they come
together to produce the single shape that is the hypocycloid" % *ne+ it +as important right a+ay
)ecause9
61;" %t had many properties o' a square, yet it +as comprised o' nothing )ut cur&es"
62;" Che length o' it,s perimeter +as e/actly equal to the length o' the circum'erence o' the inscri)ed
circle"
6>;" Although comprised solely o' cur&es its area could )e added to other shapes comprised solely o'
cur&es to attain an area e/actly equal to a shape comprised solely o' straight lines5 namely a square"
0or e/ample9 Bne (ypocycloid S Bne Circle Bne Square" Also, C+o (ypocycloids S 0our Kesica
Pisces Bne Square"
Fue to its name 62r" astroid5 4Star4;, % used to re'er to it as the Star o' Fa&id" But since it )ecame the
*ey to unloc*ing this mystery, % no+ call it the Qey o' Fa&id" 0or the 'irst 'e+ years % couldn,t 'igure out
+here the hypocycloid 'it in" But no+ % *no+" %t can )e used to recti'y the circle e/actly" Chis has a lot
to do +ith the 3une o' (ippocrates" (is dra+ings .ust had things a little 4side+ays4 6sort o';" %L&e also
heard that the hypocycloid squares the circle hyper)olically in the Poincare Fis*" Chat certainly +ouldnLt
surprise me" 7"C" Escher o''ers a super) rendition o' it in his art+or* 6Circle 3imit %%%;" Please turn to
the ne/t 'rame to see ho+ this shape relates to the su).ect at hand"
P3ACE O>D9 Pendenti&e Fome9 (ere is an image o' a pendenti&e dome &ie+ed 'rom inside the Church"
6%n this case it is the Church o' the (oly Sepulchre in Jerusalem;" %' you loo* up at it 'rom directly
)elo+ the hypocycloid comes into 'ull &ie+" %' you &ie+ the same shape 'rom directly a)o&e at great
enough height, say, 'rom 2odLs point o' &ie+, it resem)les a per'ect square 6as depicted in Plate O1:;"