He spirit of fichte present in our Midst Schmidt Number: S-3166 On-line since: 23rd October, 211 Ladies and gentlemen, Let us transport ourselves in imagination to Rammenau in Oberlausitz, a spot not far from Kamenz in Saxony, the birthplace of lesssing. He year is!"#$. % house of no great size stands beside a broo&. A seven-year-old boy had thro'n into
He spirit of fichte present in our Midst Schmidt Number: S-3166 On-line since: 23rd October, 211 Ladies and gentlemen, Let us transport ourselves in imagination to Rammenau in Oberlausitz, a spot not far from Kamenz in Saxony, the birthplace of lesssing. He year is!"#$. % house of no great size stands beside a broo&. A seven-year-old boy had thro'n into
He spirit of fichte present in our Midst Schmidt Number: S-3166 On-line since: 23rd October, 211 Ladies and gentlemen, Let us transport ourselves in imagination to Rammenau in Oberlausitz, a spot not far from Kamenz in Saxony, the birthplace of lesssing. He year is!"#$. % house of no great size stands beside a broo&. A seven-year-old boy had thro'n into
On-line since: 23rd October, 211 Ladies and Gentlemen, Let us transport ourselves in imagination toRammenau in Oberlausitz, a spot not far from Kamenz in Saxony, the birthplace of Lessing. he year is !"#$. % house of no great size stands beside a broo&. he generations inhabiting this house, as records sho', had been engaged in the ribbon('eaving industry, from father to son, ever since the period of the hirty )ears* +ar. he standard of life prevailing at this time in the house 'as not even as high as tolerable comfort, indeed it 'as very near to poverty. ,y the broo& that flo'ed past the house, in this year of !"#$, stood a seven(year(old boy, fairly small, rather sturdily built for his age, 'ith red chee&s and expressive eyes, that at this moment 'ere sho'ing signs of deep distress. he boy had -ust thro'n into the broo& a boo& that 'as floating a'ay. %t this -uncture his father appeared on the scene from the house and must have spo&en to the boy more or less to the follo'ing effect. /+hy, Gottlieb, 'hatever are you thin&ing of0 )ou are flinging into the 'ater 'hat your father bought for you 'ith hard(earned money to give you pleasure12 he father 'as very angry, for -ust before this he had given the boo& as a present to his son Gottlieb, 'ho till then had had no ac3uaintance 'ith boo&s apart from the ,ible and the hymn boo&. 4 5o' 'hat had really happened0 6itherto young Gottlieb had received 'ith the most serious attention 'hatever had been taught him of the contents of the ,ible and hymn boo&, and he 'as a boy good at his lessons at school. +ishing to please him, his father bought him one day for a present the boo& of fol& tales called Der Gehrnte Siegfried 7The Horned Siegfried8. Gottlieb plunged deeply into the study of this boo&, 'ith the result that he had to be scolded for his forgetfulness and inattention to all his lessons, 'hich he had till then found so interesting. hat 'ent to the boy*s heart. 6e 'as so fond of the Gehrnte Siegfried, his ne'ly ac3uired boo&9 it aroused in him such deep interest and sympathy. ,ut on the other hand this thought 'as vividly present to his mind. /)ou have neglected your duty.2 Such 'ere the thoughts in the mind of the seven(year(old boy. So he 'ent off to the broo& and forth'ith flung the boo& into the 'ater. 6e 'as punished for it, because though he could tell his father the facts, he could not explain the real underlying reason. Let us no' follo' the boy Gottlieb at this stage of his life into other situations. :or instance, 'e catch sight of him one afternoon on a lonely moor far a'ay from his parents* house, standing there from ; o*cloc& on'ards and gazing into the distance, utterly absorbed in the vie' of the solitary spaces surrounding him. %nd thus he 'as still standing at five and at six o*cloc& and even 'hen the bell sounded for evensong. hen a shepherd came by, and seeing the boy standing there, gave him a cuff and told him to come along home. 'o years after this time, in !""!, ,aron von <iltitz 'as visiting the lando'ner in Rammenau. 6e had come over from his o'n estate in Oberau one Sunday, in order to dine 'ith the neighbouring s3uires and en-oy their society9 and before the meal he had intended to hear the morning sermon. 6o'ever, he arrived too late to hear the clergyman of Rammenau, 'ell &no'n to him as a 'orthy man9 for much to his regret the sermon 'as already over. +hen the visitors, his host and the other persons present 'ere tal&ing amongst themselves about this, somebody made the suggestion. /Oh there is a boy in the village 'ho might perhaps repeat the sermon by heart9 it is &no'n that he can do so.2 %nd so Gottlieb, no' nine years of age, 'as fetched, and came along in his blue peasant smoc&. % fe' 3uestions 'ere put to him 'hich he ans'ered briefly 'ith /yes2 and /no.2 6e felt very ill at ease in this high( class society. hen it 'as suggested to him to repeat the sermon 'hich he had heard -ust before. 6e paused to meditate and then, spea&ing as it 'ere from the depth of his soul, as if he felt intimately every 'ord, he repeated from beginning to end the sermon 'hich he had heard, in the presence of the visiting lando'ner and the company. %nd he repeated it in such a 'ay that all felt as if everything that he said 'ere proceeding directly out of his o'n heart9 he seemed to have so imbibed it that it had become part of himself. hus 'ith in'ard fire and animation, 'hich increased as he 'ent on, the nine(year(old Gottlieb recited the 'hole sermon. ... his nine(year(old Gottlieb 'as the son of =hristian :ichte, the ribbon('eaver. he lando'ner von <iltitz 'as profoundly astonished at this experience, and declared that he must himself ta&e charge of the boy*s education. >n vie' of the straitened circumstances of the boy*s parents, the relief from such a responsibility 'as bound to be extremely 'elcome to them, even though they deeply loved the boy. :or after Gottlieb many other children had come, till they 'ere no' a large family9 and so they had no choice but to grasp the helping hand 'hich ,aron von <iltitz so generously offered. %nd ,aron von <iltitz 'as so strongly impressed by his encounter 'ith the boy that he 'anted to ta&e young Gottlieb a'ay 'ith him immediately. %nd so he too& him a'ay to his o'n home at Oberau near <eissen. ... )oung Gottlieb, ho'ever, felt by no means at home in the mansion, 'hich formed so great a contrast 'ith everything to 'hich he had been accustomed in the poor ribbon('eaver*s cottage. 6e felt indeed altogether unhappy over the 'hole affair, till he 'as sent to 5iederau nearby to a clergyman named Leberecht Krebel. %nd there Gottlieb gre' up in an environment full of intimacy and affection, in the household of this excellent minister Krebel. +ith his unusual gifts the boy found himself deeply attracted by all the gleams of truth 'hich he divined in his tal&s 'ith the 'orthy pastor. %nd 'hen Gottlieb reached the age of thirteen he 'as able, 'ith the support of his benefactor, to enter the Schulpforta School. 6e 'as transferred to the strict discipline of Schulpforta, 'hich did not by any means suit him. 6e observed that the manner in 'hich the pupils lived together involved much concealment to'ards the teachers and officials, and much duplicity in behaviour. :urther he 'as altogether out of harmony 'ith the system by 'hich the older boys 'ere set in authority over the younger as prefects. Gottlieb had already at that time absorbed Robinson Crusoe and many other tales, and had been influenced by them. %t first this school life seemed intolerable to him. 6e could not reconcile it 'ith his conscience that there should be 4 as he felt 4 concealment, duplicity, deceit in any place intended to promote spiritual gro'th. +hat 'as to be done0 6e resolved to escape secretly into the 'orld outside. %ccordingly, he made ready and simply ran a'ay. On the 'ay there arose in his mind, prompted by his innermost feelings, the thought. /6ave you done right0 ought you to do this02 +here should he no' turn for counsel0 6e fell upon his &nees, addressed a prayer to 6eaven and 'aited for a sign to be given him from the spiritual 'orlds as to 'hat he should do. he sign from 'ithin urged him to turn bac&, and he 'illingly did so. ?ery fortunately there 'as then at Schulpforta an unusually sympathetic headmaster, by name Geisler, 'ho persuaded young Gottlieb to relate the 'hole affair to him and sho'ed deep understanding. >nstead of punishing him, he even made it possible for Gottlieb to be on happier terms 'ith himself and his environment, as happy indeed as he could 'ish. 6e 'as able also to ma&e friends 'ith the most gifted among the staff. >t 'as not easy for him to obtain satisfaction for his intellectual needs. %lready aspiring, even at that age, to'ards the highest, he 'as not free to study the authors of 'hom he had heard so much9 for Goethe, Schiller, and in particular also Lessing, 'ere at that period forbidden fruit at Schulpforta. 6o'ever, there 'as one of the masters 'ho obtained for him a remar&able boo&, Lessing*s Anti-Goeze, that inspired polemic against Goeze, 'hich contained the 'hole substance of Lessing*s profession of faith, his lofty and valiant outloo&, expressed in free and outspo&en language. hus Gottlieb in these early years imbibed from this Anti-Goeze all that it 'as able to give him. >t 'as not only the ideas 'hich he appropriated, indeed that 'as the least important part9 he also made his o'n the manner of approach to'ards the highest things and the attitude to'ards various vie's of the 'orld. %nd so Gottlieb*s schooldays 'ent by at Schulpforta. +hen he had to 'rite his examination thesis on leaving, he chose a literary sub-ect. >t 'as a remar&able piece of 'or&. >t 'as altogether lac&ing in the 3uality characteristic of many young people 'ho introduce all &inds of philosophical ideas into their school compositions. his essay contained no trace of philosophy or of philosophical ideas and notions. On the other hand it already betrayed the fact that the young man made it his special aim to observe human beings, to loo& into the depth of their heart9 and it 'as this ac3uired &no'ledge of men 'hich found expression above all in this school essay. >n the meantime his benefactor ,aron von <iltitz had died. he funds so generously supplied for the young man stopped. :ichte passed his final examination at Schulpforta, 'ent to @ena, and had to live there in the direst poverty. 6e could ta&e no share at all in anything that then made up the student life of @ena. Aay by day he had to earn by hard toil 'hat he re3uired for his bare subsistence. %nd he could only find in rare hours the opportunity of nourishing the aspirations of his spirit. @ena proved to be too small, so that :ichte 'as unable to find his spiritual food there. >t struc& him that he 'ould have better facilities at Leipzig, a larger city, and 'ent there to try. 6e tried to prepare himself there for the situation in life 'hich 'as the ideal of his father and mother, deeply god(fearing people9 namely for the Saxon ministry, for a post as minister and preacher. >ndeed one may say he had sho'n himself predestined for the office of preacher. 6e had proved so capable of assimilating the truths of 6oly +rit that even in his father*s house he 'as fre3uently invited to ma&e comments on this or that passage in the ,ible, and similarly 'hile he 'as living 'ith the good clergyman Leberecht Krebel. %nd 'henever he 'as able to visit his home for a short time, in the place 'hich contained his parents* unpretentious cottage, he 'as allo'ed to preach there, for the local minister 'as a friend of his. %nd he 'ould preach in such a 'ay, prompted as it 'ere by a sacred enthusiasm, that 'hat he 'as able to impart 'as the very 'ord of God, in a version that 'as at once individual and yet altogether in conformity 'ith the ,ible itself. So he 'ent on trying, at Leipzig, to train himself for his calling as a country pastor. ,ut it proved difficult. >t 'as hard for him to secure any teaching position 'hich he thought himself able to fill. 6e occupied himself 'ith correcting 'or&, 'ith tutoring, but this life became very hard for him. %nd above all he found himself in the course of it unable to ma&e any progress 'ith his o'n intellectual aims. 6e 'as already t'enty(six, and these 'ere hard times for him. One day he had no more resources left and no prospect of securing anything during the next fe' days9 no prospect either that, if things 'ere to go on in the same 'ay, he could ever secure entry to even the most modest profession 'hich he had set himself as an aim. 6is people at home could support him only to a very meagre extent9 for, as > have said, it 'as a family abundantly blessed 'ith children. %nd so one day he stood at the edge of an abyss and in his soul, li&e a desperate temptation, the 3uestion arose. /6ave > no prospects for this life of mine02 hough it may not have been 3uite present to his consciousness, yet in the bac&ground of his mind 'as the idea of a voluntary death. hen, -ust at the opportune moment, appeared the 'riter +eisse, 'ho had become one of his friends. +eisse offered him a post as tutor at Burich and too& steps to ensure that he should really be able to ta&e up this post 'ithin three months. %nd so from the autumn of !"CC on'ards 'e find our :ichte at Burich. Let us try once more to picture him 'ith the mind*s eye, as he stood in the pulpit in the Burich <inster, no' completely possessed 'ith his o'n conception of the Gospel of St. @ohn, already 3uite intent on the endeavour to reproduce the teachings of the ,ible in a form of his o'n. 6e did this in such a 'ay that those 'ho heard his inspiring 'ords resound through the Burich =athedral must have thought that a man had arisen 'ho 'as capable of rendering the scriptures 'ith 3uite a ne' elo3uence, in a ne' 'ay, 'ith a fresh inspiration. <any, doubtless, 'ho heard him then in the =athedral at Burich, must have carried a'ay this impression. %nd no' 'e can follo' him again into a ne' situation. 6e became a tutor in the Ott household, in the inn /Bum Sch'ert2 at Burich. here he encountered a peculiar narro'( minded outloo& to 'hich he could only partially adapt himself. 6e succeeded in getting on good terms 'ith his pupil, but less so 'ith the parents. %nd 'e can trace 'hat :ichte really 'as in the follo'ing incident. One day the pupil*s mother received a singular letter from her son*s tutor, 'ho 'as living in the house. +hat 'ere the contents of this letter0 Roughly as follo's. Dducation 'as a tas&, the 'riter said, to 'hich he, :ichte, 'ould 'illingly lend himself. +hat he &ne' of his pupil gave him an assured prospect of being able to do great things 'ith him. ,ut the process of his education 'ould have to be developed in one particular point. it 'as essential above all to educate his mother1 :or a mother 'ho behaved in such a 'ay to'ards a pupil 'as the greatest obstacle to any education under her roof1 > need not d'ell upon the peculiar feelings 'ith 'hich :rau Ott read this epistle. 6o'ever, the incident 'as passed over, and up to the spring of !"$E, that is for about eighteen months, :ichte 'as able to pursue a fruitful activity in the Ott household at Burich. ,ut :ichte 'as not by any means the man to circumscribe 'ithin the limits of his profession the thoughts 'hich filled his soul. >t 'as not in his nature to avert his attention from the spiritual processes ta&ing place around him. hrough his inner zeal and the close interest he felt for all the spiritual changes going on around him, he became closely absorbed also in 'hat 'as going on in his o'n environment. here in S'itzerland his thoughts turned to the ideas 'hich 'ere then filling the minds of all men, to the mental reactions provo&ed by the outbrea& of the :rench Revolution. +e can, so to spea&, overhear him discussing at Olten, 'henever he found any specially gifted people to tal& to, the 3uestions 'hich 'ere then dominating :rance and the 'orld 'ith their imperious significance9 ma&ing up his mind that those 'ere the ideas 'hich deserved primary attention, and associating all the preoccupations derived from his deep religious feeling and acute intellect 'ith the ne' ideas of human happiness, human rights and the high ideals of humanity. :ichte 'as no egoist, capable only of developing his soul rigidly from 'ithin. his soul of his gre' in communion 'ith the outer 'orld. 6is soul &ne' unconsciously the duty of existing for something beyond one*s self, of standing as a personification of the 'orld*s purpose in the age in 'hich one lives. hat 'as one of :ichte*s deepest convictions. %nd thus, -ust at the period 'hen his spirit 'as most sensitively a'are of the processes at 'or& in his environment, he developed in close communion 'ith the S'iss element. %nd 'e al'ays find that this German(S'iss element left a permanent mar& on the 'hole personality of :ichte in his later life and 'or&. >t is necessary to understand the deep(seated difference bet'een S'iss life, and life a little further north, in Germany, in order to grasp the impression 'hich the S'iss environment, the S'iss character and endeavour made upon :ichte. :or example, this S'iss element is distinguished from other forms of German life especially by the 'ay in 'hich it infuses a &ind of self(conscious element into all the intellectual life, so that all cultural activity ac3uires a political expression9 everything is so conceived that the current conceptions serve to put the individual into touch 'ith immediate action, 'ith the 'orld. :or this German(S'iss character art, science, literature are only separate tributaries of the 'hole river of life. >t 'as this element 'hich appealed so happily to :ichte*s o'n spiritual character. 6e too 'as a man 'ho could not conceive any human activity or any human endeavour in isolation. :or him too every individual factor had to be lin&ed 'ith the entirety of man*s action, meditation and feeling and 'ith man*s 'hole philosophy. <oreover, in :ichte his capacity for achievement 'as intimately lin&ed 'ith his ever unfolding personality. 5o one 'ho reads :ichte to(day, 'ho approaches those 'ritings of his 'hich often seem so arid in their substance, or those particular 'ritings and treatises 'hich radiate intelligence, can have any notion of 'hat :ichte must have been 'hen he poured into his discourse, upon a cause 'hich he deeply felt and espoused, all his inner fire and intensity. :or into his discourse there passed also 'hat he 'as. 6e even attempted at that time 4 it 'as an abortive attempt 4 to establish at Burich a school of public spea&ing. :or he believed that through the manner in 'hich spiritual things are set before men a different and more effective influence could be exerted than merely through the ideas themselves, ho'ever excellent these may be. %t Burich, in the household of a S'iss named Rahn, then 'ell(to(do, a brother(in(la' of Klopstoc&, :ichte found stimulating society 'hich made a strong impression upon him. 6e formed a deep attachment to the daughter, @ohanna Rahn. +ith this niece of Klopstoc& he formed a close intimacy, at first a friendship, 'hich developed gradually into love. ,y no' his position as tutor at Burich 'as no longer really tenable, and he needed to loo& further afield. 6e did not 'ant at that moment, before he had made his 'ay in the 'orld 4 as he fre3uently remar&ed at the time 4 to enter the Rahn household as a member of it, and perhaps live on its resources. 6e 'anted to ma&e his 'ay further in the 'orld 4 'ith him 'e cannot say his /fortune2 4 but his 'ay. 6e returned again to Germany, to Leipzig. 6e thought of remaining there for a 'hile, hoping to find 'hat his real vocation might be, to find that form of spiritual expression 'hich he sought as his ob-ect in life. 6e intended then to return after a 'hile, to 'or& out in freedom 'hat he had brought into harmony 'ithin himself. ,ut then an unexpected event happened 'hich upset all his plans. Aisaster overtoo& Rahn, for he lost his 'hole fortune. :ichte 'as no' not only tormented by the &no'ledge that the people dearest to him had sun& into poverty, but he himself 'as compelled to resume his 'anderings through the 'orld, abandoning the cherished plans 'hich he had nursed in his innermost heart. he first thing that offered 'as a post as tutor at +arsa'. 6o'ever, as soon as he arrived and presented himself there, the aristocratic lady 'hose house he 'as to enter formed the impression that :ichte*s manners, 'hich then and subse3uently struc& many people as do'nright and vigorous, 'ere really uncouth and that he had no talent for adapting himself to social life. +hen this 'as pointed out to him, he could not endure it and too& his departure. 6is 'ay no' led him to that place 'here he might expect to find a man 'hom he revered more than anybody, not only among his contemporaries but in his 'hole generation, to'ards 'hom he had been dra'n 'hen for a 'hile he 'as immersed in the study of Spinoza and his philosophy9 a man to'ards 'hom he had been dra'n 'hile studying his 'ritings, 'ith 'hich he 'as no' 'holly in accord. %s at an earlier date his thoughts 'ere filled 'ith the ,ible and other 'or&s, so no' the 'ritings of this man, >mmanuel Kant, confronted him as a ne' creation. So he made his 'ay to KFnigsberg and sat at the feet of the great teacher. %nd he found himself altogether in harmony 'ith the image reflected in his soul of this teaching, 'hich he held to be the greatest ever besto'ed upon man&ind. %nd in :ichte*s soul, all the ideas derived from his o'n devout nature, from his meditation on the divine guidance of the 'orld and on the 'ay in 'hich the mysteries of this guidance have been revealed throughout eternity to man&ind 4 all this 'as blended 'ith 'hat he learned and heard from Kant. %nd he pro-ected all that arose in his soul into a 'or& 'hich he entitled Kritik aller Offenbarung 7A Critiue of all Re!elation8. his 'as in !"$G, 'hen :ichte 'as thirty years of age. hen a remar&able thing happened. Kant immediately recommended a publisher for the boo&, 'hich aroused his enthusiasm. >t 'ent out into the 'orld 'ithout the author*s name, and nobody supposed it to be anything but a 'or& by >mmanuel Kant himself. hus favourable criticisms 'ere sho'ered upon it from every 3uarter. <ean'hile :ichte, again through Kant*s intervention, had secured in the excellent Kroc&ov household near Aanzig a tutoring post 'hich this time 'as very congenial to him, and in 'hich he could freely cultivate his spiritual aspirations9 and it 'as intolerable to him so to appear before the 'orld that the public, 'hen discussing his boo&, in fact associated it 'ith another author. 6e could not endure that9 and 'hen the first edition, 'hich 'as soon exhausted, 'as follo'ed by a second, he published his name. %nd no' he had a singular experience. % great many critics at least found it impossible to say the exact contrary of 'hat they had said before9 but the -udgment at first passed upon the boo& 'as no' toned do'n. his 'as for :ichte yet another lesson in his study of human psychology. %fter he had spent some time in the Kroc&ov household he felt able, in vie' of his present status in the 'orld, not indeed in a mundane sense, but intellectually 4 for he had proved that he 'as capable of something 4 he felt able to prepare for his return to the Rahn household. Only thus had he resolved to 'in Klopstoc&*s niece, and no' he could do so. So in !"$H he 'ent bac& again to Burich, and Klopstoc&*s niece became his 'ife. 6e set to 'or& no', 'ith the utmost intensity, not only to develop in himself the ideas he had assimilated from Kant, but also to immerse himself more deeply in all that had occupied his mind during his first stay at Burich, in all those ideas about the aims and ideals of humanity 'hich 'ere no' permeating the 'orld. %nd he mingled the substance of his o'n thoughts about human ideals and endeavours 'ith the ideas no' passing through the 'orld. 6e 'as so independent a nature that he could not refrain from communicating to the 'orld his inevitable conclusions on the ideas about human progress then held by the most radical thin&ers. he boo& no' published by him in !"$H 'as entitled. "eitr#ge zur "eri$htigung der %rteile des &ubliku's (ber die franzsis$he Re!olution 7Suggestions for the )nlighten'ent of &ubli$ O*inion on the +ren$h Re!olution8. Simultaneously 'ith the elaboration of this boo& there 'ent on in his mind a perpetual revision of those vie's of the 'orld 'hich he had formed for himself from contact 'ith the outloo& of Kant. here must be, he said to himself, a philosophy of life 'hich, in the light of a supreme impulse, could illuminate the 'hole domain of &no'ledge for the human mind. %nd this philosophy, aspiring so strongly to'ards the highest that no higher ideal of &no'ledge could ever be found, 'as the ideal 'hich no' hovered before :ichte*s eyes. ,y a singular concatenation of circumstances, 'hile he 'as still engaged in 'or&ing out his ideas 'ithin himself, he received a message from @ena. he impression made there by :ichte*s achievement 'as such that on the strength of it he 'as invited, 'hen Karl Leonhard Reinhold resigned his post at @ena Iniversity, to succeed him there as Jrofessor of Jhilosophy. hose 'ho 'ere then directing the intellectual life in that Iniversity 'elcomed 'ith the utmost satisfaction the idea of introducing into this famous =ollege 7then the highest in prestige of any in Germany8 the remar&able personality 'ho, 'hile in one aspect he struc& them as a hot(head, in another made the impression of a man striving, especially in his 3uest for a philosophy of life, to'ards the highest levels of thought. %nd no' let us -ust attempt to vie' him in imagination as he discharges the duties of his ne' appointment. 6e desired to transmit to those 'ho no' from !"$; on'ards 'ere his pupils, the outloo& on the 'orld 'hich had formed itself 'ithin him. ,ut :ichte 'as not a teacher li&e any other. Let us first consider the results of his spiritual evolution. >t 'ould ta&e too long to explain this in his o'n 'ords, but it can be characterized out of his o'n spirit as follo's. 6e aspired to'ards a supreme ideal of such a &ind that the human spirit might apprehend the stream and mystery of the 'orld at a point 'here the spirit is directly one 'ith this stream and mystery. So that man gazing into this mystery of the universe might be able to lin& his o'n existence 'ith it, that is to say, to &no' it. his result could not be attained in any exterior sensuous existence. >t could not be reached by any eye, any ear, any other sense, nor by everyday human understanding either. :or all that can be apprehended out'ardly by the senses must first be co(ordinated by human intelligence9 it has its existence in the outer 'orld. >t can only be considered as real 'hen its existence is, so to spea&, confirmed by the observations of the senses. ,ut that is no real existence9 or at least no opinion can be formed at first about the real existence of 'hat is only apprehended by the senses. he source of all &no'ing must rise in the depth of the Dgo itself. hat cannot be a something complete in its existence, for a completed existence in the inner self 'ould be e3ual to 'hat appears as completed existence 'ithin the outer senses. >t must be a $reating realit,. his is the )go itself, that Dgo 'hich recreates itself every moment, that Dgo 'hich is grounded not on a completed being, but on an in'ard activity. his Dgo cannot be deprived of its being, since that being consists in its creation9 in its self(creation. %nd into this self(creation flo's everything that has real being. %'ay then 'ith this Self out of the 'orld of the senses, and into those spheres 'here the spirit moves and has its being, 'here the spirit 'or&s as creator9 'e must lay hold of this spiritual life and act from the point 'here the Dgo unites 'ith the spiritual processes of the 'orld. +e must plunge into that current 'hich is not external complete being, but 'hich from the source of the divine 'orld( existence creates the Dgo, first as Dgo and then as human ideals, as the great conceptions of Auty. Such 'as the form 'hich the Kantian philosophy had assumed in :ichte*s soul. %nd thus he did not 'ant to present his hearers 'ith a ready(made doctrine9 'ith that this man 'as not concerned. +ith :ichte it 'as not a lecture li&e another lecture, a doctrine li&e another doctrine. 5o9 'hen this man too& his place at the lecturer*s des&, then 'hat he had to say there, or rather to do there, 'as the fruit of a long meditation of many hours during 'hich in thought he sa' in'ardly the divine being, the divine spiritual ebb and flo' streaming through the 'orld, and permeating in its course the Dgo 'hich ever recreates itself, by a sublime process above and beyond all sensuous existence. %fter having brooded long in self(imposed debate as to 'hat the 'orld*s spirit had to impart to the soul about 'orld mysteries, then, and only then, did he come before his audience. ,ut then he 'as not concerned to convey his message, but to create an atmosphere of communion bet'een himself and his hearers. 6is endeavour 'as that 'hat had come to life in his soul concerning the 'orld mysteries should come to life li&e'ise spontaneously in the souls of his listeners. 6is purpose 'as to a'a&en spiritual activity and spiritual being. :rom the souls of his hearers, as they hung upon his 'ords, he sought to call forth a self(rene'ing spiritual activity. 6e did not merely communicate ideas. he follo'ing is an instance of 'hat he sought to give to his hearers9 one day he 'as attempting to illustrate this self(rene'ing faculty of the Dgo, ho' all mental activity can arise in the Dgo and ho' man can only reach a real grasp of 'orld mysteries by laying hold of this self(rene'ing faculty 'ithin himself9 and 'hen he 'as attempting to illustrate this, entering the spiritual 'orld 'ith his hearers, and, as it 'ere, ta&ing each one by the hand to guide him into the spiritual 'orld, he said. /5o' may > as& you -ust to fix your attention for a moment upon the 'all. +ell, you have no', > hope, formed a mental picture of the 'all. he 'all is no' present in your minds as an image. %nd no' thin& of a person thin&ing of the 'all. Aetach your minds altogether from any thought of the 'all itself. :ix your attention entirely on the person thin&ing of the 'all.2 his direct manner, this direct relation 'hich :ichte sought to establish 'ith his hearers made many of them uneasy, but at the same time impressed them profoundly. he spirit at 'or& in :ichte had to come to grips 'ith the spirit of his hearers. hus for several years the man 'or&ed on, never repeating the same lecture, but continually creating ane'. :or he did not care about imparting in sentences this or that information, but strove ever and again to a'a&en a ne' response in his hearers. his is evident from his oft(repeated assertion. />t matters nothing that 'hat > have to say to men should be repeated by this person or that, but rather the essential is that > succeed in &indling a flame in men*s souls, a flame 'hich shall induce every one to thin& for himself. Let no one repeat my 'ords after me, but let each one be stimulated by me to deliver his o'n message.2 :ichte*s aim 'as to produce, not pupils, but original thin&ers. >f 'e follo' out the history of :ichte*s influence, 'e can understand ho' it 'as that this man, the most German of the German philosophers, did not train any real students of philosophy. 6e founded no school of philosophy. ,ut the direct relationship 'hich he established 'ith his pupils again and again produced men of mar&. 5o' :ichte 'as a'are 4 inevitably, since he sought to lead the minds of men up to a direct contact 'ith creative spiritual reality 4 he 'as a'are that he must spea& in 3uite a special 'ay. :ichte*s 'hole style 'as indeed hard to follo'. 5one of those 'ho attended any of his courses at @ena had ever come into contact 'ith such teaching before. Schiller himself 'as astonished at it, and :ichte once discussed 'ith Schiller ho' his, :ichte*s, teaching activity and his manner of presentation appeared to himself. :or example, :ichte remar&ed9 /Of course, if people -ust read 'hat > have said, then it is impossible, as people read to(day, that they should comprehend 'hat > am trying to say.2 hen, ta&ing up one of his boo&s, he attempted to illustrate ho', in his -udgment, his 'or& should be read aloud. hen he said to Schiller. /)ou see, people no'adays do not &no' ho' to recite in'ardly. ,ut people can only grasp the inner meaning of my lectures by really reciting them mentally, other'ise it is lost.2 =ertainly :ichte*s o'n rendering of his lectures 'as no mere reading, it 'as direct speech itself. herefore even to(day 'e ought in studying :ichte to re$ite his -ords 'entall, against the bac&ground, as it 'ere, of his 'hole spiritual life, 'hich merits our attention as representing the spiritual life of the 'hole German people. Dven to(day 'e ought still to train ourselves in reciting and listening in'ardly to those passages of :ichte 'hich other'ise seem so dry and so bare. +e have no' revie'ed in our minds :ichte*s spiritual development and reached one of the pea&s of his spiritual life. >t is right therefore to glance bac& for a moment over this remar&able evolution. +e first visualised :ichte as he stood before ,aron von <iltitz in his blue peasant smoc&, a sturdy red(chee&ed peasant boy 'ho had no other education than that open to his class, but 'ho, even as a nine(year(old child, had assimilated that education till it had become the most fundamental possession of his soul. >n him 'e have an example of a soul gro'n to maturity 'holly out of the midst of the German people, 'ithout at first receiving any culture other than that 'hich belongs to the common every(day life of the German people. +e have follo'ed this spirit through difficult phases9 this spirit 4 'hose ideal it really is to remain 'ithin the people, but yet is bound to yield to the deepest motives of his being 4 can be follo'ed in his course as he rises to the loftiest heights of inner spiritual gro'th and 'or&, until at last he becomes, as 'e have been able to illustrate, a moulder of men. +e are follo'ing the road traversed by a German spirit gro'ing directly out of the people and climbing by its o'n strength alone to the topmost pea&s of spiritual being. hus up to the spring of !"$$ :ichte discharged the duties of his teaching post at @ena. Dven before that time all sorts of dissensions had arisen, for it must be admitted that :ichte 'as not by any means the &ind of man 'ho is easy in intercourse, the &ind of man 'illing for the sa&e of friendly relations to use roundabout methods and facile gestures in his dealings 'ith other people. ,ut here 'e come to an important point, 'hich has significance for the 'hole of the German life of that epoch. One person in particular felt deep satisfaction 4 a feeling 'hich Goethe also shared 4 at having been able to call :ichte to his Iniversity at @ena. this person 'as the Au&e, Karl August. %nd 'e may 'ell, > thin&, record here the singular tolerance sho'n by Karl %ugust in calling to his Iniversity the man 'ho had most freely applied the Kantian philosophy in criticism of revealed religion9 and moreover in inviting to his Iniversity the man 'ho had most boldly and outspo&enly ta&en a stand for the freest ideals of human development. >t 'ould be, > feel, a failure to do -ustice to Karl %ugust, that noble spirit, if 'e passed on 'ithout pointing out 'hat unusual broad(mindedness this German prince must then have needed, in calling :ichte into his service. his invitation 'as described by Goethe as a piece of audacity9 and > should li&e to remind you of the 'orld of pre-udices 'hich Karl %ugust and Goethe, 'ho in the nature of things 'ere bound to be the chief authors of this invitation, had to face in ta&ing it on themselves to bring :ichte to @ena. %s > say, it 'ould be almost an in-ustice not to point out Karl %ugust*s remar&able freedom from all pre-udice. %nd to illustrate this > should li&e to read out a passage from :ichte*s boo& entitled. Suggestions for the )nlighten'ent of &ubli$ O*inion on the +ren$h Re!olution/ /hey 7:ichte is referring to the Duropean princes, including those of Germany8 are for the most part brought up in indolence and ignorance, or if they &no' anything it is a &ind of &no'ledge specially concocted for them9 it is a notorious fact that once they are on the throne they neglect to go on 'ith their education, that they read no ne' 'or&s except perhaps shallo' sophistries and that they are invariably behind their times by at least as many years as they have reigned.2 hat passage is from the last boo& 'hich :ichte had then 'ritten 4 yet the Au&e Karl %ugust invited this man to his Iniversity1 %nyone 'ho gives a little attention to the 'hole situation of :ichte and those 'ho had sent for him 'ill come to this conclusion. that those people 'ho held the vie' of the great and magnanimous Karl %ugust and Goethe had underta&en a campaign against the people of their immediate circle, 'ho 'ere altogether and absolutely in disagreement 'ith the idea of sending for :ichte. %nd this 'as a campaign 'hich 'as not easy to underta&e9 for as already stated, it 'as not possible 'ith :ichte to ma&e use of manoeuvres such as are so generally practised in the 'orld. :ichte 'as a man 'ho by his a'&'ardness, by his bluntness often offended the very people 'hom it 'as most desirable to avoid offending. 6e 'as not a man to ma&e smooth gestures. he 'as a man 'ho, if something did not please him, 'ould stri&e out 'ith his fist against the 'orld. %nd the manner in 'hich :ichte 'as then using his 'hole energy to impart his message to the 'orld 'as admittedly such as to cause Goethe and Karl %ugust some distress9 it 'as not easy for them, it 'as very hard for them to put up 'ith it, and they 'ere distressed. %nd so little by little the storm(clouds gathered. :irst of all, :ichte 'anted to give a course of ethical lectures, those 'hich are printed under the title /0e$tures on the 1oralit, of the S$holar.2 he only suitable hour that he could find 'as on Sunday. ,ut this 'as a shoc&ing suggestion to all 'ho held that it 'ould be a profanation of the holy day to address the @ena students on a Sunday on the sub-ect of morality as :ichte conceived it. %nd protests of every sort and &ind poured in upon the +eimar Government, upon Goethe and Karl %ugust. he 'hole Senate of @ena Iniversity passed a unanimous resolution to the effect that a deplorable sensation and infinite mischief 'ould result if :ichte 'ere to deliver lectures on morals in the Iniversity on Sundays 4 he had selected the hour of the afternoon church service. >n this affair Karl %ugust 'as forced for the time being to leave :ichte*s adversaries in possession of the field. ,ut once again it 'ould not be right to pass on 'ithout dra'ing attention to the manner in 'hich he did it. he follo'ing is an extract from the letter sent by Karl %ugust to the Iniversity of @ena. 4 />n accordance 'ith your re3uest 'e have resolved that the above(mentioned Jrofessor :ichte shall be permitted to continue his moral lectures on Sunday only after the close of the afternoon church service.2 6o'ever, Karl %ugust 'as brought to this decision only on account of /a circumstance so unusual as the arrangement of lectures of this &ind during the hours appointed for Aivine Service.2 >n the official decree sent by the Au&e to the Iniversity Senate he 'rote in reference to these lectures. 4 /+e have been glad to assure ourselves that if his 7:ichte*s8 moral lectures resemble the accompanying admirable essay from his pen, they may 'ell prove to be of the highest value.2 KSee Rudolf Steiner. Sonderdruc& aus dem Goethe(@ahrbuch, fLnfzehnter ,and !C$;. 5eue <itteilungen. Sieben ,riefe von :ichte an Goethe. B'ei ,riefe von :ichte an Schiller. 7Reprint from the Goethe )ear(,oo&, ?ol. !M. 5e' =ommunications. Seven Letters from :ichte to Goethe. 'o Letters from :ichte to Schiller.8N ,ut the attac& 'as pressed home. he enemy never after'ards let go their hold. %nd so, in !"$$, came about that unhappy controversy over the charge of atheism, as a result of 'hich :ichte had to relin3uish his position as lecturer at @ena. % younger man named :orberg had contributed to the periodical :ichte 'as then editing, an article 'hich incurred from a certain 3uarter a charge of atheism. :ichte, for his part, thought that 'hat this young man had 'ritten 'as rather imprudent, and 'ished to add marginal comments. :orberg disagreed 'ith this suggestion9 so that :ichte in that lofty manner of his 'hich he used not alone in great matters but also in the smallest ones, 'ould not hear of re-ecting the article because he disagreed 'ith it, and 'ould not add marginal notes against the author*s 'ill9 ho'ever, he 'rote in the form of a preface some lines about the basis of the belief in the divine governance of the 'orld. hese lines of his 'ere 'holly imbued, through and through, 'ith the spirit of genuine and deeply(felt reverence and piety, exalted to that spiritual level of 'hich :ichte said that it 'as the only true reality, that 'e can only grasp reality 'hen the Dgo feels itself moving in the sphere of the spirit, immersed in the spiritual stream of the 'orld. +e must not, therefore, he added, apprehend the existence of God by any external revelation or external &no'ledge 'hatever. +e must apprehend the existence of God in the living process of creation. +e must sense the creative process of the 'orld by standing in the stream of it, ourselves ceaselessly creating and so attaining our o'n immortality. ,ut in conse3uence of this article the charge of atheism 'as no' turned against :ichte himself. >t is impossible to relate here the full details of this controversy. >t is indeed grievous to observe ho' Goethe and Karl %ugust, against their 'ill, had to ta&e sides against :ichte9 'ho, ho'ever, 'ould never be restrained, 'hen he felt impelled to communicate his appointed message to the 'orld, from retorting to an attac& by a direct blo'. So matters 'ent on till :ichte heard that steps 'ere to be ta&en against him, that he 'as to be reprimanded. Goethe and Karl %ugust 'ould have preferred to see the matter settled by a reprimand. ,ut :ichte said to himself that to accept a reprimand for ideas dra'n from the deepest sources of the human spirit, 'ould mean an offence against honour, not his personal honour, but that of the spiritual life itself. %nd so he then 'rote a private letter, 'hich ho'ever 'as vie'ed as an official communication and filed among the official documents, to the <inister ?oigt at +eimar, to the effect that he 'ould never accept any reprimand, no, rather he 'ould ta&e his departure1 %nd 'henever :ichte 'rote about matters of this &ind he 'rote as he spo&e. >t used to be said of him that he had a sharp tongue 'hen necessary9 and in correspondence too he could be cutting to'ards anybody, 'hoever it might be. hus the authorities had no alternative, unless everything 'ere to be turned upside do'n at @ena, but to accept the resignation 'hich :ichte had not really meant to tender, for his private letter had been treated as an official communication. %t any rate that 'as ho' it came about that :ichte had to give up his post as teacher at @ena, 'hich had been blessed 'ith such fruitful influence. Shortly after'ards 'e see him appear at ,erlin. 6e has no' approached from a fresh angle the position of the Dgo in the ever(moving stream of the 'orld(spirit. he boo& 'hich he then 'rote 7and 'hich can no' be bought cheaply in Re&lam*s Iniversal Library8 'as called Die "esti''ung des 1ens$hen 2The Destin, of 1an8. >nto the composition of this 'or& he thre' his 'hole being and energy. >n it he strove to sho' ho' those 'ho only vie' the 'orld of the senses from outside, co(ordinating it 'ith the understanding, can only point the 'ay to'ards a meaningless vie' of the 'orld. he gist of Jart > is to sho' ho' in this fashion one arrives only at a dream(reflection of life. he ob-ect of Jart >> is to sho' ho' the mind thus comes to regard the 'orld as a chain of exterior necessities. %nd in Jart >>> 'e come to the en3uiry as to ho' the soul fares 'hen it see&s not merely an image but a direct participation in that great creative process of all existence. %fter putting the finishing touches to the 'or&, :ichte 'rote to his 'ife, 'hom he had then left behind at @ena. /> have never before loo&ed so deeply into religion as during the composition of the last part of this 'or&, The Destin, of 1an.2 %part from a short interval in !CEM, 'hich he spent at the Iniversity of Drlangen, :ichte passed the remainder of his life in this 'orld at ,erlin. %t first he gave private lectures at the various houses in 'hich he lived, lectures of an impressive character9 subse3uently he 'as invited to assist in the ne'ly(founded Iniversity, to 'hich 'e must no' turn our attention. %s > said, apart from the short interlude in !CEM at Drlangen, his 'or& no' lay in ,erlin. 6e 'as still dra'ing from ever fresh sources in his soul the ideas 'hich he had to impart to the public. So at Drlangen, continually recasting his ideas in a fresh mould, he presented his theory of &no'ledge, his outloo& on the 'orld. Strangely enough, 'hereas at @ena he had from the beginning of his course a fair audience 'hich steadily increased, and similarly in ,erlin, the number of his hearers in Drlangen d'indled by one half in the course of the term. Dveryone &no's ho' professors generally ta&e such a falling(off9 anyone 'ho has any experience &no's that they simply have to accept it. ,ut :ichte did not react to it in that 'ay. One day 'hen his audience at Drlangen had diminished to one half, he referred to it, ta&ing for granted that his 'ords 'ould reach also those 'ho had stayed a'ay, in one of those thundering tirades in 'hich he demonstrated to people that, if they 'ould not hear 'hat he had to say, then they 'ere good only for external historical &no'ledge, not for intellectual &no'ledge. %nd after going on to discuss 'hat a man should become in life if in his spiritual strivings he re-ected this intellectual &ind of &no'ledge, he continued as follo's. 4 /5o' as to the time of my lectures. > have heard ho' much dissatisfaction is felt at the choice of time. > 'ill not consider this strictly according to principles 'hich are really self(evident and 'hich 'ould have to be applied here. > 'ill ta&e it that the persons concerned are only misinformed, and 'ill try to put them right. 5o doubt they may say that there is a tradition in this matter dating from long ago. Supposing that this 'ere the fact, > should have to reply that grave abuses must have existed in the university from the earliest times. ... > myself have held at @ena from six to seven o*cloc& in summer and 'inter a course such as this, attended by hundreds, 'hose numbers used to increase considerably to'ards the close. > must say openly that 'hen > arrived here > selected this hour because no other 'as available. 5o' that > have realised the point of vie' adopted to'ards it, > shall select it deliberately for the coming summer. /%t the bac& of all these difficulties 'e find a deep(seated incapacity in people to occupy themselves and a great deal of shallo'ness and ennui, so that after a meal has been ta&en, by God*s grace, at midday, people find it unendurable to stay any longer in the to'n. %nd even if you 'ere to give me proofs 4 'hich > hope it 'ould be impossible to supply 4 that such has been the custom at Drlangen since its foundation, in the 'hole of :ranconia, indeed throughout South Germany, then > 'ould not hesitate to ans'er that in that case shallo'ness and futility must have made their head3uarters at Drlangen and the 'hole of South Germany.2 +hatever one may thin& of such outbursts as this, it is truly characteristic of :ichte as regards his intense concentration on the spiritual message 'hich he 'as trying to deliver to man&ind. +henever he spo&e he did not see& merely to say something but to do something for men*s souls, to lay hold on them9 thus every soul 'ho stayed a'ay 'as a real loss, not for himself but for the purpose 'hich he 'as trying to realise for man&ind. :or :ichte the 'ord 'as also an act. Since he himself d'elt 'ithin the spiritual 'orld, it 'as possible for him through spiritual communion to gather others around him 'ithin that 'orld, because he 'as himself 'ithin it and 'as no mere theoretical champion of the principles he professed 'hen he said. /Reality is not in the outer 'orld of the senses but in the spirit9 and 'hoever &no's the spirit can perceive behind all sensuous existence the spiritual reality.2 %nd to him this 'as no mere theory, it 'as also a practical reality, as 'as proved at a later date at ,erlin by the follo'ing incident. One day 'hen his audience 'as assembled in the lecture hall, 'hich 'as near the Spree =anal, a terrible message 'as brought. Some children, 'ith :ichte*s son among them, had been playing do'n there9 a boy had fallen into the 'ater and it 'as thought to be :ichte*s son. :ichte and a friend set out, and in the presence of all his students, they pulled the boy out of the 'ater. %lthough the boy bore a close resemblance to :ichte*s son, it 'as not in fact he. )et for a moment :ichte had been convinced that it 'as his son. 6e did 'hat he could for the child, 'ho ho'ever 'as dead 'hen ta&en from the 'ater. %nybody 'ho &no's the intimate family affection in :ichte*s household bet'een him, his 'ife @ohanna and their only son, 'ill realise something of 'hat :ichte 'ent through at that moment9 the terrible shoc& that he under'ent and then the transition from this shoc& to the deepest -oy 'hen he 'as able to clasp his son in his arms. +hen he had done this and changed his clothes, he proceeded to deliver the remainder of his t'o(hour lecture -ust as he al'ays did, that is, 'holly intent on his sub-ect. his 'as not a uni3ue instance. Often and often did :ichte give similar proofs of his integral loyalty to the 'orld of the spirit. :or example, it 'as at this period at ,erlin that he delivered public lectures 'hich 'ere intended as a criticism and a severe indictment of his age. 6e passed in revie' one by one the various epochs of history. ,ut it 'as, he said, the age in 'hich he lived, 'hich had brought selfishness to the extreme limit. %nd in that age of selfishness he found himself confronting the personality of 5apoleon, in 'hom, in his vie', this selfishness 'as incarnate. Auring all this period 'hen the 5apoleonic chaos 'as enveloping north and central Germany, :ichte never in his heart vie'ed himself other'ise than as 5apoleon*s spiritual antagonist. %nd so 'e get his character study of 5apoleon, of 'hich it may be said that an image of the Dmperor, profoundly German in its approach and in its vigour and based on the loftiest philosophical standpoint, had shaped itself in the mind of this German thin&er 'ho had gro'n out of that peasant boy in a blue smoc& of 'hom earlier 'e had a glimpse. +e have come no' to a state of human existence at the present time, said :ichte, in 'hich people have lost their consciousness of the spiritual influence 'hich pulsates through the 'orld and also through human existence and evolution, and 'hich, in the form of the moral impulses, carries man&ind for'ard from epoch to epoch9 of the truth that in the march of history man is only of value in so far as he is sustained by 'hat is permanent from age to age in the moral impulses and the moral order of the 'orld. Of all this people no longer &no' anything. +e have arrived at an epoch in 'hich 'e see one generation succeed another li&e lin&s in a chain. Dven the best minds, said :ichte, have forgotten the moral principles 'hich must pervade these lin&s. %nd in such a 'orld 'e encounter the personality of 5apoleon, an inexhaustible source of energy indeed, but a man 'ho, though he may have had in his soul occasional glimpses of freedom, has never formed any true notion of the real all( embracing ideal of freedom as it 'or&s from age to age in men*s moral aspirations and in the moral frame'or& of the 'orld. %nd from this fundamental deficiency that a personality 'hich is only a shell, 'ithout any true spiritual core, can yet 'ield such immense force, from this phenomenon :ichte traced the personality, the 'hole /catastrophe2 as he expressed it 4 5apoleon. >n mentioning this and in placing side by side these t'o personalities 4 :ichte, the most forceful exponent of the German outloo& 'ith his vie' of 5apoleon, and on the other side 5apoleon himself 4 reference should be made to an observation attributed to 5apoleon at St. 6elena, after his do'nfall9 for it is only in this light that the 'hole situation can be clearly grasped. %t St. 6elena, after his do'nfall, 5apoleon expressed himself as follo's. /Dverything 'ould have gone all right. > should not have fallen before all the Jo'ers 'hich ranged themselves against me. +ith one factor only did > fail to rec&on, and it is this that really brought about my do'nfall, namely 4 the German philosophers12 Let narro' minds say 'hat they 'ill about the value of philosophy9 this piece of self(revelation from 5apoleon*s o'n lips has more 'eight, > thin&, than all the ob-ections that might be raised against :ichte*s idealism, 'hich indeed had a thoroughly practical aspect. :inally, it is possible to adduce another proof, a proper historical proof, that it is not so difficult for an idealist such as :ichte to be practical 'hen occasion demanded. >t had become necessary for him to enter as a partner into his father*s business, 'hich had no' been ta&en over by his brothers. +e see him accordingly as a partner in the family ribbon('eaving business. 6is parents 'ere still alive9 and 'e may note that he proved to be a good and prudent business man, capable of lending valuable assistance to his brothers, 'ho had remained simply men of business. % man such as :ichte has many critics 'ho say. /Oh these idealists, they d'ell in a dream('orld, they understand nothing of practical life12 ,ut it may 'ell be imagined that :ichte from the depth of his being, and especially in his lectures on Die "esti''ung des Gelehrten 7The 3o$ation of the S$holar8, had something to say 'hich cannot be too often repeated in the face of those 'ho point to the unpractical nature of idealism, of the spiritual 'orld altogether. >n the introduction to this course of lectures :ichte made the follo'ing observations. 4 /hat ideals cannot be demonstrated in the actual 'orld is a fact 'hich 'e &no' perhaps as 'ell as our critics, perhaps better. +e merely assert that reality must be -udged 'ith reference to these ideals and must be modified by those 'ho feel in themselves the strength to do so. Supposing ho'ever that our critics cannot even concede so much9 'ell, seeing that they are 'hat they are, this inability 'ill mean small loss to them, and none to the 'orld. >t 'ill simply mean that they do not count in the process to'ards the ennoblement of man&ind, 'hich any'ay 'ill go for'ard 'ithout any doubt9 as to these others, may &indly nature have them in her &eeping, granting them in God*s good time rain, sunshine, 'holesome nourishment and proper circulation of the blood, and, in addition to all these 4 right thoughts12 he significance of ideals, the significance also of practical life, 'as something already 3uite clear to the mind of this German. ,ut then :ichte*s 'as a nature 'hich stood by itself. 6e may be called one(sided9 but this one(sidedness must occur sometimes in life, -ust as there are certain forces 'hich must occasionally overshoot the mar& in order to achieve the best results. Indoubtedly :ichte*s behaviour often had a rough side to it, as 'hen apart from his lectures on the principles of morality, he attempted to ta&e practical steps at @ena against the tyranny of routine, and against drin&ing and loafing 'ays among the students. 6e had by no' a certain follo'ing in student circles. :urther, as a result of his influence, petitions had been presented to the authorities as&ing for the abolition of this or that society 'hich 'as particularly given to disorder. %s 'e have seen, :ichte 'as a rugged nature, not s&ilful in ma&ing smooth gestures, but 3uite li&ely, metaphorically of course, to stri&e out fiercely 'ith his fist no' and then9 and indeed matters came to such a pass that the ma-ority of the @ena students 'ere altogether opposed to :ichte and his practical moral influence. So they banded themselves together and smashed his 'indo's. o Goethe, though he respected :ichte and 'as respected by him, the incident suggested a humorous comment. /+hy yes,2 said Goethe, /that is the philosopher 'ho derives everything from the Dgo1 >t is truly an inconvenient 'ay of being assured of the existence of the non(ego, to have one*s 'indo's smashed9 that 'as not 'hat one assumed as the contrary of the Dgo.2 %ll this, ho'ever, does not mean that there 'as any lac& of harmony bet'een :ichte*s and Goethe*s philosophical outloo&. %nd :ichte 'as profoundly right in the feeling he expressed in a letter to Goethe on G!st @une, !"$;, soon after the beginning of his lectures at @ena, 'hen sending to Goethe the proofs of his 'or& on the Theor, of Kno-ledge. /> regard you, and have al'ays done so, as representing the purest spirituality of feeling at the point so far reached by human progress. Jhilosophy rightly turns to'ards you, for your feeling is its best criterion.2 %nd Goethe 'rote to :ichte, after receiving the pages of the Theor, of Kno-ledge. /here is nothing in your 'or& 'hich is not altogether in line 'ith my o'n customary 'ay of thin&ing.2 %gain, in another letter to :ichte, referring also to the Theor, of Kno-ledge. /hese ideas are indeed no' in harmony 'ith nature9 but men*s minds must also come into harmony 'ith them and > believe that you 'ill be able to present them in the right 'ay.2 %nd if anyone to(day should assert that he finds this Theor, of Kno-ledge, as then published by :ichte, dry and unli&e Goethe, or that Goethe 'ould have had no taste for such things, one must reply to this criticism as > replied 'hen publishing the letters of :ichte to Goethe, in the +eimar Schiller(and(Goethe %rchives, in the Goethe )ear(,oo& of !C$;. KSee Rudolf Steiner. Reprint from the Goethe )ear(,oo&, ?ol. !M, !C$;. :urther =ommunications9 Seven Letters from :ichte to Goethe9 'o Letters from :ichte to Schiller. hat Goethe 'as &eenly interested in :ichte*s philosophy and by no means adopted a negative attitude to'ards it, is proved by a passage in a letter to :ichte of G;th @une, !"$;, in 'hich he says about the first sheets of the Theor, of Kno-ledge. /here is nothing in the pages you have sent me 'hich > do not understand or at least believe that > understand, nothing 'hich cannot be easily assimilated to my accustomed 'ay of thin&ing.2 :urther evidence of this can be seen in the fact that Goethe made long extracts from this 'or&, still preserved in the Goethe %rchives.N >n the Goethe(Schiller %rchives there are extracts from :ichte*s Theor, of Kno-ledge in Goethe*s o'n hand, accompanied sentence by sentence by the ideas inspired in him reading :ichte9 and after all it is intelligible that Goethe, one of the most German among Germans, out of the pure spirituality of feeling 'ith 'hich he sought for a fresh outloo& on the 'orld, should inevitably hold out his hand to the man 'ho as the most German of all Germans 'as in 3uest of a philosophical outloo& based on the force of pure reason alone. Goethe once also, by the 'ay, expressed very aptly his relationship to'ards the philosophy of Kant. +hat he said 'as 4 not 'ord for 'ord, but in substance 4 as follo's. Kant had argued that, by turning his attention out'ard upon the 'orld, man can only arrive at sense(&no'ledge. ,ut his sense(&no'ledge is nothing but appearance, merely something 'hich man himself by his point of vie' introduces into the 'orld. Kno'ledge must be deposed from its seat, for it is only by a belief that it is possible to arrive at freedom, at infinity, at a conception of the divine spiritual existence. %nd this attempt to arrive not at a belief, but at a direct insight into the spiritual 'orld, this attempt to bring the individual creative process into communion 'ith the creativeness of the divine 'orld spirit, this attempt 'hich Kant believes to be impossible, 'ould be, as he terms it, the /venture of reason2 and Goethe*s comment on this is. /?ery 'ell then, an attempt must certainly be made to underta&e, undaunted, this venture of reason1 %nd assuming that a man has no doubts of the spiritual 'orld but believes in freedom and immortality in God, 'hy should he not face this venture of reason and 'ith the creative element of the soul transport himself into the heart of the creative process 'hich ebbs and flo's through the 'orld02 >n :ichte, Goethe found a conception of the same venture, only imagined in another 'ay. %nd indeed it had to emerge sooner or later, albeit in a rugged form, this urge to'ards spirituality, to'ards the apprehension of the all(creating 'orld(intelligence, to'ards the state 'here the creative Dgo ind'ells in the creative 'orld(being and is one 'ith it. %nd in :ichte*s vie' the impulse in this direction 'as to be given by his Theor, of Kno-ledge. >n this theory the very spirit of the German people produced before the 'orld 'hat it had to utter about life and the 'orld and the aims of man&ind9 it 'as as it 'ere a direct gesture from the German people, from out of 'hich 'e see :ichte*s soul mount up'ards to the heights. >ndeed he himself 'as a'are that his philosophy 'as al'ays rooted in his living intercourse 'ith the spirit of the German people. his spirit found here, it is true, only such expression as it could, seeing that it had first to emerge through the medium of such a rough(he'n personality as :ichte*s. 5o, truly, his 'as not a personality easy to deal 'ith. Of this 'e find again another illustration in the follo'ing connection. +hen a Iniversity 'as to be founded at ,erlin, and it fell to :ichte to 'or& out a scheme for it, his plan, 'or&ed out to the smallest details, sho'ed 'hat his conception of a Iniversity 'as li&e. %nd 'hat 'as his idea0 >n this Iniversity to be started at ,erlin he 'anted to build something so fundamentally novel, especially for the beginning of the nineteenth century, that 4 'e may say it 'ithout the slightest fear of contradiction 4 this novelty is as yet unrealised any'here in the 'orld, and the 'orld is still 'aiting for it. 5eedless to say, :ichte*s scheme 'as not put into practice, though indeed he 'as aiming at nothing else than, as he expressed it, to ma&e the Iniversity into a /School of training in the scientific application of intelligence.2 +hat 'as this Iniversity to become0 % place of nurture, 'hich might be termed a school of training for the scientific use of the intelligence1 %ccordingly, it 'as to turn out, not specialists in this sub-ect or that, such as philosophers or natural scientists or physicians or -urists, but human beings so closely fitted into the structure of the 'orld as to have entire command over the art of using their intelligence. Only imagine 'hat a blessing it 'ould mean if such a Iniversity really existed any'here in the 'orld1 if actually 'e could find realised any'here a school that 'ould turn out people 'ho have made their inner soul so vital that they could move freely 'ithin the essential logic of existence1 ,ut truly this personality 'as not easy to deal 'ith1 >t 'as something massive 'hich existed in order to leave a distinctive mar& on history. :ichte became the second Rector of the ne' Iniversity. 6e filled the position so energetically that he 'as only able to remain Rector for four months9 for neither the students nor the authorities concerned could tolerate any longer 'hat he 'as attempting to accomplish. %ll this ho'ever, -ust as 'ith :ichte himself, is typical of German national feeling. :or 'hen he delivered his Reden an das deuts$he 3olk 7Addresses to the Ger'an &eo*le8, to 'hich, and indeed to the 'hole great phenomenon of :ichte, > have already repeatedly referred here, not only during the 'ar but also before it 4 'hen he delivered these Addresses he &ne' that he 'as trying to communicate to the German people 'hat he had, so to spea&, overheard in his meditative conversations 'ith the 'orld( spirit. he only response at 'hich he 'as aiming 'as to arouse in their souls 'hatever can be aroused out of the deepest sources of the German being. his manner 'hich :ichte adopted to'ards his time and to'ards those 'hose souls he hoped to raise to a level sufficient for the tas&s of the 'ider universe, all this 'as unli&ely to ma&e any impression on idlers or superficial people, except perhaps to excite their curiosity. ,ut this latter response 'as the last 'hich :ichte sought to evo&e. 5eedless to say, 'hen such an intellectual phenomenon as :ichte appears in the 'orld, the very easiest course is to turn it into ridicule9 there is nothing easier than to play the critic and to laugh at it. Jeople did this a good deal, and the result 'as sometimes to place :ichte in difficult situations. :or example, immediately after his arrival at the Iniversity of @ena, he found himself in 3uite a serious dilemma through his inability to agree 'ith others 'ho after all 'ere also philosophers. hus there 'as at the @ena Iniversity a man 'ho 'as the traditional professor of philosophy, a man by the name of Schmid. his man had expressed such vehement condemnation of :ichte*s previous 'or& that it 'as really outrageous that :ichte 'as no' to become his colleague. hereupon :ichte in turn published a fe' remar&s in the periodical in 'hich Schmid*s criticism had appeared. %nd so the affair 'ent on, bac&'ards and for'ards. :ichte assumed his position at @ena -ust at the time 'hen he 'as 'riting in the @ena periodical to 'hich Schmid had contributed /> declare that for me 6err Schmid 'ill no longer exist in this 'orld.2 >t 'as a serious matter to ta&e his place beside his colleague in such an atmosphere. % less serious, but no less characteristic incident, 'as as follo's. at that time there 'as appearing at ,erlin a periodical called Der +rei'(tige 7The 4nde*endent8 directed by the /celebrated2 German 'riter KFtzebue and another man. >t 'as impossible to ma&e out 7indeed > believe that even by the most intimate clairvoyance it 'ould not have been possible8 the reason 'hy this KFtzebue attended :ichte*s lectures. ,ut these doubts lasted only for a 'hile, and presently the reason became clear 'hen Der +rei'(tige, then a very prominent magazine at ,erlin, began to publish the most vicious attac&s upon :ichte*s lectures. One day :ichte found it more than he could stand. hereupon he too& a number of this magazine Der +rei'(tige and dissected it before his audience, ridiculing the opinions expressed in the article 'ith the inimitable humour 'hich he had at his command. he countenance of one member of the audience, 'hose presence there so far had been unexplained, gre' longer and longer. %nd finally 6err KFtzebue stood up 'ith a very long face and announced that he did not see 'hy he should listen to this any longer9 so he 'ent off and did not return. ,ut :ichte 'as heartily glad to be rid of him. hrough the 'ay in 'hich he adapted himself in practice to life, 'hen he 'as trying to remould the innermost depths of human existence, :ichte &ne' ho' to find the tone precisely adapted to the situation before him. Dven though he d'elt altogether in the spiritual 'orld, he 'as yet no other'orldly idealist, but he 'as a man standing altogether by himself and 'as accustomed to pay earnest heed to 'hat he felt to be the innermost promptings of his o'n nature. %ccordingly, at a certain time 'hen 5apoleon had con3uered ,erlin and the :rench 'ere in occupation, he 'as unable to remain in the city. 6e did not choose to remain in a city 'hich 'as under the :rench yo&e. 6e 'ent therefore first to KFnigsberg, subse3uently to =openhagen, returning only 'hen he 'as ready to come for'ard as the German 'ho could put before his compatriots the very soul of his nation and its national characteristics, in his Addresses to the Ger'an &eo*le. :ichte is rightly regarded as a direct expression of German national sentiment, as an expression of that spirit 'hich eternally and profoundly 4 in so far as 'e are able to apprehend the spirit of German nationality 4 d'ells in our 'idst 4 and not merely in thought. % philosopher, Robert Bimmerman, by no means in accord 'ith :ichte in his philosophical outloo&, has finely characterised this aspect of :ichte in the follo'ing passage. /%s long as there beats in Germany a heart capable of feeling the shame of foreign domination, so long 'ill the memory of this brave man persist among us9 at a moment of the deepest humiliation, amid the ruins of the monarchy of :rederic& the Great, in the midst of the :rench occupation of ,erlin, 'ithin sight and hearing of the enemy, surrounded by spies and informers, there 'as a man 'ho yet undertoo& the tas& of regenerating from 'ithin by the spirit the energies of the German people 'hich had been bro&en from 'ithout by the s'ord9 and at the very moment 'hen Germany*s political existence seemed as if annihilated for evermore, this man undertoo& to recreate it for future generations by the inspiring thought of uni!ersal culture.2 >t is true that to(day 'e may thin& 3uite differently as to the substance of many of the ideas expressed in the Addresses to the Ger'an &eo*le, and indeed in :ichte*s other 'ritings9 but that, as > should li&e to repeat once more, is not the main 3uestion. he main thing is that 'e should feel the Ger'an s*irit 'hich pervades his productions, and the rene-al of the German spirit in its relations 'ith the 'orld at large, the revival 'hich breathes forth from the Addresses to the Ger'an &eo*le. he main thing is that 'e should feel this as the spirit 'hich is no' alive amongst us and 'hich 'e can perceive only in this one instance of :ichte, 'ho has thus ta&en his place in German evolution 4 at first, indeed, in a style 'hich attracted 'idespread notice. Jo'er and energy combined 'ith profound introspection 4 such 'ere the 3ualities 'ith 'hich this soul strove to ta&e his place in 'orld evolution. %ccordingly, at the period 'hen the end of his life 'as approaching, in the autumn of !C!H, :ichte again found an opportunity of repeating in the most intimate form before his ,erlin audiences his 'hole Theor, of Kno-ledge, after remoulding and recasting it, as a result of further meditations, till it embodied his deepest thoughts. >n these %ddresses, once more penetrating the souls of his hearers in the 'ay described earlier, he considered again the impossibility for man to go behind the veil of his existence unless he be 'illing to embrace this existence in the spirit, beyond all sensuous reality. ,ut to those men 'ho believe themselves able to apprehend the truth of existence through the sense('orld and the results of sense(experience alone, to these people :ichte proclaimed in these lectures, 'hich are among his last. /%ll their &no'ledge only leads to misunderstanding and vain 'ords9 and for that they praise themselves and thin& all is 'ell. :or example, as regards sight. the image of an ob-ect is thro'n on the retina. Similarly the image of an ob-ect is reflected in the surface of still 'ater. Ao 'e therefore hold that the surface of the 'ater can see0 +hat is that further factor 'hich ma&es the difference bet'een that image in the 'ater and real seeing, the factor 'hich exists in us but not in the 'ater0 ,ut these people have not even an in&ling of this, for their minds do not reach so far.2 +e must become a'are, says :ichte, of a special sense, a ne' sense 'ithin one*s self, if 'e mean to experience that existence in the spirit 'hich alone ma&es all other existence intelligible. /4 a', and > am 'ith all my aims only in a supersensuous 'orld.2 hese 'ords are :ichte*s o'n, and they run li&e a leitmotiv through all :ichte*s utterances throughout his life, 'hich he again confirmed in another 'ay in that autumn of !C!H. %nd 'hat 'as it that he spo&e of then0 Of the necessity for men to become conscious that 'ith the outloo& on things and the 'orld current in ordinary life and ordinary &no'ledge one could never get behind the reality of being. +e must, he said, become a'are that a supersensuous mind d'ells in every one of us, and that man can merge his being in a 'orld beyond the senses, and 'ith this supersensuous mind can become, as a creative Dgo, one 'ith the stream of the creative pervading 'orld(spirit. >t is, he says, as though a seeing man comes to a 'orld of the blind and tries to explain to the inhabitants colour and form, and the blind people deny that these exist. Dven so the materialist denies, because he does not possess the re3uisite sense, li&e the man 'ho &no's. /4 a', and > am 'ith all my aims and deeds in the supersensuous 'orld.2 K/>magine a 'orld of people blind from birth, for 'hom therefore only those things and their relationships are &no'n 'hich can be apprehended by touch. Go among these, and tal& to them of colour and the other relationships 'hich are present only through light to the sense of sight. )ou 'ill be tal&ing to them of nothing, and it is all the better if they say so9 for thus you 'ill soon perceive your error and, unless you have the po'er of opening their eyes, you 'ill desist from useless explanation.2N %nd 'ith such emphasis did :ichte then impress upon his hearers this existence in the supersensuous, this life in the spiritual, that he said. /%ccordingly the ne' sense is the sense of the spirit9 the sense for 'hich only spirit and nothing else 'hatever has being, and for 'hich also that other, the every(day existence assumes the form of spirit and is transformed into it, for 'hich therefore being as such has actually disappeared.2 >t is a glorious fact that in German spiritual development there should have been someone to bear 'itness in this 'ay to the life of the spirit, in the presence of those 'ho 'ere eager to hear 'hat the German nation, on its highest level, and spea&ing from the depth of its being, has to utter. :or that is 'hat this German nation communicated through :ichte, and it is true of :ichte more than of any other man, that he represented the German soul spea&ing, at the level it had then reached, to the German nation itself. +hether 'e consider this :ichte externally, or 'hether 'e loo& 'ith the inner eye into his soul, al'ays he appears to us as the most direct expression of German nationality itself, not that 'hich is present only at a particular time 'ithin the German people, but 'hat is ever present, 'hat is ever there in our midst, if 'e only &no' ho' to perceive it. hrough his personality :ichte presents himself to us in such a 'ay that 'e desire to have his image as if plastically before our souls9 and 'ith the mind*s eye clearly to see him and hear him as he creates that atmosphere 'hich rises as he spea&s bet'een his soul and that of his hearers, so that 'e see& to dra' 3uite close to him. he result is that 'e can feel his presence, as > 'ould put it, li&e that of a legendary hero, a hero of the spirit, 'ho 'ith the eyes of the spirit can al'ays be seen as a leader of his people, if this people only &no' itself aright1 6is o'n people can visualize him, by bringing his image plastically before their souls as one of their chief spiritual heroes. %nd to(day, in this age of deeds, in this age 'hen the German people is 'restling as never before for its very existence, 'e shall do 'ell to evo&e 'ith the vision of the spirit the image of this man, 'ho 'as able to depict German nature and character from the loftiest point of vie', but also in the most vigorous individual style, so that of him more than of any other 'e may believe that, if 'e understand him rightly, 'e still have him actually among us. :or everything in him is cast so 'holly in one mould, he comes for'ard so directly to'ards us that as 'e loo& at him, he seems to stand before us in his fashion as he lived9 'hether each single feature stands out from his complete being, or 'hether 'e let ourselves be influenced by the most intimate aspects of his soul, in either case he stands before us as a 'hole. +e cannot comprehend him else, for other'ise 'e comprehend him only blunderingly and superficially. )es, 'e can catch a glimpse of him at his 'or& of &indling among his compatriots the souls of men to surrender themselves, creative in the stream of creation, to the vital forces of the 'orld9 ascending, in company 'ith those others, to spiritual experience and entering as a living influence into the process of development of his people. +e need but to open the eyes of the spirit. >t is only thus plastically that he can be understood9 but if 'e open the eyes of the spirit to his greatness as a national figure, then 'e shall find him standing in our midst. 6e endeavoured, as 'e have seen, to produce effects different from those of other teachers by using language as a medium of doing rather than saying 'hen he came before his audience9 in such a 'ay that it 'as indifferent to him 'hat he said, because he aimed solely at &indling the hearer*s soul to deeds of his o'n, because something had to ta&e place in the souls of his hearers to ma&e them undergo a change bet'een entering and leaving the hall. %ll this has the 3uite unusual result that 'e find his living image, that of a man of the people moulding his fello's, present to our minds9 and that 'e seem to hear him transforming into the 'ords 'hich are themselves deeds those thoughts overheard, as it 'ere, in the solitary meditations and dialogues 'ith the 'orld(spirit, 'hereby he prepared himself for every single lecture9 so that 'hen he had finished spea&ing, he dismissed his audience as changed people. hey had become other beings, not through his strength but through the a'a&ening and &indling of their o-n. >f 'e understand him rightly in such a 'ay, then 'e may believe that 'e hear him clairaudiently as he strives to reach 'ith the sharp edge of his 'ords the spirit 'hich he has already apprehended in the soul, see&ing ever 4 as 'as said of him 4 to send out into the 'orld, through his cultivation of the soul, not merely good but great men. >f 'e indeed form 'ithin us a living image of 'hat he 'as, 'e cannot fail to hear his 'ords, those 'ords 'hich seemed to be but using this :ichte to communicate a message from the heart of the 'orld, &indling as it came fire and 'armth and light. :ortitude vibrated in his 'ords, and moral energy emanated from them. >n others too fortitude 'as &indled by his 'ords as they poured through the ears into the souls and hearts of those 'ho heard him, and from these utterances streamed out into the 'orld a flo' of moral energy, 'hen :ichte*s follo'ers, 'ith their souls thus aflame 'ith the fire of his elo3uence, 'ent out into the 'orld, as 'e so often learn from contemporaries, as the most capable men of their time. ,y opening the ears of the spirit 'e can hear :ichte, if 'e understand him at all, directly as if he 'ere a li!ing *resen$e spea&ing out of the heart of his people. %nd 'hoever has any ear for such national greatness 'ill hear it still in our midst. >t is rare indeed to find ourselves confronted 'ith any spirit in 'hom 'e can trace all that he is into every single act of his life. hat sense of duty, of the moral order the 'orld, 'hich he embodied at the climax of his philosophical development, can it not already be noted in the seven(year(old boy 'ho thre' the Gehrnte Siegfried into the 'ater, because he had conceived a passion for it 'hich he felt to be in contradiction to his duties0 he brooding man preparing by meditation for his lectures, 'ith his spirit intent on the mysteries of the 'orld, can he not be found already in embryo in the boy 'ho stood for hours on the moor 'ith his eyes fixed in one direction, lost in the mysteries of nature till the shepherd passed and led him home0 hat intense fire 'hich inspired :ichte in his teacher*s chair at @ena and later 'hen, as he said, he 'as spea&ing to the representatives of his 'hole nation in the Addresses to the Ger'an &eo*le 4 can 'e not feel it already in the incident 'hen he so impressed ,aron von <iltitz by his reproduction of the country clergyman*s sermon0 %nd if 'e possess even a little spiritual divination, can 'e not feel this spirit very near to us in every single act, even in the slightest act of his life0 =an 'e not feel ho' fortitude of soul, moral energy stream out from this spirit throughout the 'hole subse3uent German development0 =an 'e not feel the lasting vitality, even if 'e can no longer agree 'ith the ideas in detail, in the Addresses to the Ger'an &eo*le0 %lthough the 'or& 'as t'ice confiscated by the censorship in !CG;, it could not be &illed9 it is alive more than ever to(day, and is destined to live on in men*s souls. 6o' clearly 'e can see him, this :ichte, standing in our midst1 6o' clearly 'e can hear him, if 'e understand him rightly1 >f 'e use our spiritual sense 'e can feel ho' he thrilled the hearts of his follo'ers, and beyond that of the 'hole German people in all its subse3uent evolution9 and 'e can feel that 'hat he created, the stream of spiritual energy 'hich he contributed to the ever(moving current of his nation*s development, must remain something imperishable1 +e cannot help ourselves, if 'e understand him aright, 'e must feel this spirit of :ichte to be