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How we understand volcanic eruptions


2 primary things to know
o plate tectonics help us understand volcanoes
o magma (liquid rocks) vary in chemical composition, ability to flow,
gas content, and volume.
govern whether eruptions are peaceful or violent
Plate-Tectonic Setting of Volcanoes
convection of heat in mantle drives plate tectonics
o more than 90% associated with edges of tectonic plates
other volcanism occurs above hot spots
o more than 80% of earths magma takes place at oceanic
spreading centers
solid, yet hot and ductile
mantle rock rises upward by convection
o into regions of lower pressure
30-4-% of rock can melt and flow easily
o worldwide rifting process releases enough magma to create 20 km
of new oceanic crust/year
all this volcanic activity takes place below sea level
subduction zones cause volcanic mountains at edges of continents
o volume of magma released is small compared to spreading centers
spreading centers release more magma than subduction
zone volcanoes
o down going plate carries oceanic plate rock covered with water-
saturated sediments into hotter zones
pressure of water lowers melting point of rock
rising magma melts some of continental crust
adds new melt of different compositions to rising
plumes
each plume has own unique chemical composition
transform faults and continent-continent collision zones have little
associated volcanism
o transform: simply slide past each other, keeping hot asthenosphere
below
o continent-continent: continental rocks stack up to extra thick
masses
buries hot mantle rock
Oceanic volcanoes peaceful, subduction-zone volcanoes dangerous
subduction zone lasts for tens of millions of years
o province of volcanoes active for entire time
If volcano is pretty and conical shaped, its usually active
Chemical Composition of Magmas
o 8 of 92 elements make up 98% of earths crust
o next four most abundant add 1.2%
o remaining .77% includes gold, silver, copper, carbon, sulfur, tin, etc.
o oxygen and silicon most abundant
o As magma cools, oxygen and silicon bonds
silicon and oxygen link with four oxygen atoms, surrounding
central silicon atom
forms silicon-oxygen tetrahedron (SiO4)
o after negatively charged oxygen, 11 most abundant elements all positively
charged, attracted to , and bound by oxygen
Viscosity, Temperature, and Water Content of Magmas
o liquids flow free, volumes fixed, but shape changes
o fluidity of liquid is measured by viscosity
the internal resistance to flow (measure of fluid friction)
o Low viscosity magma flows easily, High viscosity doesnt
o magma viscosity can be changed by
o higher temperature lowers viscosity causes atoms to spread
apart and vibrate more vigorously, causing atomic bonds to
break
o silicon and oxygen increase the viscosity of magma
form silicon oxygen tetrahdra, link up and make flow
more difficult
o increasing content of mineral crystals increases viscosity
o magma contains dissolved gases held as volatiles
o solubility increases as pressure increases and as temp
decreases
o highest temperatures and lowest silicon oxygen contents in basaltic
magma, lowest viscosity and easiest flow
o lowest temps and highest silicon oxygen contents in rhyolitic magma, so
viscous, doesnt flow at all
o 80% of magma reaching earths surface is basaltic
o 10% andesitic, 10% rhyolitic
o basaltic magma produced in abundance by melting of the mantle
o low viscosity allows it to reach the surface, especially at
spreading centers
o rises through continents
composition changes, picks up continental rock
becomes more andesitic, or rhyolitic
o water = most abundant dissolved gas in magma
as magma rises, water dissolves in hot magma, becomes
gas
forms steam bubbles
o basaltic lava low in steam bubbles,
eruptions peaceful
o rhyolitic lava high in steam bubbles, hard to
pop out so they burst at high pressure
o gas is the active eruption magma is the vehicle
Plate-Tectonic Setting of Volcanoes Revisited
o spreading centers are ideal locations for volcanism because
o they sit above high temperature asthenosphere
o asthenosphere rock has low % of SiO2
o oceanic plates pull apart, causing hot asthenosphere to rise and
change to magma
o peaceful eruption of magma
o subducting oceanic plate reaches depth of about 100 km
o magma generated, rises to surface
o subducting plate stirs up mantle
How a Volcano Erupts
o volcanoes = rapid means for earth to expel heat
o begins with heat at depth
o super heated rock rises to levels with lower pressure
solid rock turns into magma, resulting in volume expansion
o magma generated by melting of existing rock
o by lowering pressure
o raising temperature
o or increasing its water content
2 most important are decompression and increasing volatile
content (ie mostly water)
o melting caused by decrease in pressure = decompression melting
o most of the rock that melts to form magma is because pressure on
it decreases
NOT BECAUSE HEAT WAS ADDED
o ready to melt rock exists in nearly molten asthenosphere
as superheated rock rises, pressure decreases
o rock melting increases volume, and creates fractures in surrounding rock
o more magma can rise
o magma at depth doesnt contain gas bubbles
o high pressure at depth keeps volatiles dissolved
but as magma rises, gases begin to come out
Eruption Styles and Role of Water Content
o peaceful or explosive depends on concentration of water in magma
o water makes eruptions volatile and dangerous
o volatiles (water and gases) drive explosive eruptions
o rhylitic magma often associated with explosive eruptions because of high
water content
o least explosive:
o Icelandic and Hawaiian types: low water content, low viscosity
o moderately explosive:
o strombolian type: Moderate water content, low to moderate
viscosity
o most explosive:
o vulcanian type: moderate to high water content, moderate to high
viscosity
o Plinian type: high water content, high viscosity
Some Volcanic Materials
o magmas vary in volatile content and viscosity
o gas blasting into atmosphere takes along chunks of magma and
pyroclastic (fire fragment) debris
Nonexplosive eruptions
o lava flows exhibit variety of textures
o highly liquid lava cools with smooth ropy surface called pahoehoe
o slow flowing viscuous lava has rough blocky tecture called Aa
Explosive eruptions
o cooled volcanic glass known as obsidian
o frothy glass with holes known as pumice
o scoria = rough crusts or chunks of basaltic rock full of holes

Natural Disasters Ch. 6 End notes

Killer Event of 1790
less than .5% of Hawaiian magma blown out as pyroclastic material
Kilauea Volcano killed King Keouas army
explosion column burst upward
o base surge swept outward as dense basal cloud
base surges can travel at hurricane speeds
masses of ground-hugging hot water and gases
o may or may not have magma fragments
Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI)
factors:
o volume of material erupted
o how high eruption column reached
o how long major eruptive burst lasted
measured volcanic eruptions between the years 1500-1980
VEI ranges from 0-8
o biggest eruption since 1500 CE, VEI 7 eruption of Tambora
caused cooling of world climate during following year
o 4 VEI 6 events
Volcanic events w high VEI = vulcanian and plinian-type eruptions
Flood Basalts: low viscosity, low volatiles, very large volume
flood basalts = largest volcanic events known on Earth
o huge amounts of mass and energy pour onto earths surface
o geologically brief duration
erupt tremendous volumes of magma within geologically short time
o 1-3 million years
hot spots also bring up huge volumes of magma, but for long period
o 100 million years
most impressive movements of heat to surface occur w flood basalts
o surface area covered by magma, and volume of magma brought up =
gigantic
occur on all continents and all ocean floors
o none occurred in historic times
basalts devastate region, but also have global effects
o climate modifying volatiles like CO2 and SO2
o probably cause for some major mass extinctions
Scoria Cones: Medium viscosity, medium volatiles, small volume
scoria cones conical hills, low height, formed of basaltic to andesitic
pyroclastic debris piled next to volcanic vent
o produced during single eruptive interval
scoria, or cinder cone, has a summit crater
o basin on top of cone less than 2 km in diameter
after excess gas has been expelled from magma, lava may drain and emerge
from near base of cone
o dont usually erupt again
strombolian-type eruptions
o scoria cones mainly built by strombolian type eruptions
o volcano Stromboli has most daily eruptions
central lava lake topped by cooled crust
tidal cycle disrupts lava-lake, triggering eruptions
gas pressure builds beneath crust
o eruptions occur as distinct separate bursts a few
times per hour
each tosses pyroclasts tens to hundreds of
meters into air
Stratovolcanoes: high viscosity, high volatiles, large volume
also called composite volcanoes
steep sided, pretty and asymmetrical
layers of pyroclastic debris capped by high viscosity andesitic to rhyolitic
lava flows
marked variations in magma compositions
o eruptive styles include vulcanian and plinian
vulcanian-type eruptions
o alternate between
thick highly viscous lavas
masses of pyroclastic material
o material blown covers wide areas
o vulcanian eruptions are early phase in eruptions clear the throat
plinian-type eruptions
o volcano throat now clear
o gas-powered vertical eruption colums carry pyroclastic debris
including pumice, up to 50 km
o plinian eruption is final phase in major eruptive sequence
2-3 plinian eruptions per century
Vesuvius
o first, vulcanian eruption
o many found near sea
escaped pumice
ground hugging pyroclastic flows (full of hot gas)
o cloud of ash 850 decrees C erupted out of Vesuvius, covered city, then
cooled
o second, plinian phase
blew immense volumes of pyroclasts high in air
also blows volcanic gases
water condenses from steam, falls as heavy rain
o gravity-pulled mass movements of muddy volcanic debris = lahars
Lava Domes: High viscosity, low volatiles, small volume
form when high-viscosity magma w low content of volatiles cools quickly
o produces hardened dome
can form very quickly, or continue to grow
magma that remains after vulcanian and plinian eruptions
o oozes upward and cools quickly, creating plug in throat of
volcano
typical eruption sequence
o gas-rich materials shoot out first as vulcanian blast
longer lasting plinian eruption follows
o when gas depletes, gas-poor, high-viscosity magma oozes slowly out
o vulcanian precursor, plinian main event, lava dome conclusion
Calderas: High Viscosity, High Volatiles, Very Large Volume
largest of violent, explosive volcanoes
calderas = large volcanic depressions
o differ from volcanic craters
calderas are larger, formed by inward collapse instead of
outward explosion like crater
form in different settings
o summits of shield volcanoes
o summits of stratovolcanoes
o giant continental calderas
huge negative landforms
huge volumes of magma in short time as ultra-plinian eruption
o extra high ash colums, widespread ash and pumice
crater lake, Oregon
o stratovolcano mount masama
major eruption
so much magma ejected that it left a void beneath
mountain
o collapsed and moved down into magma
chamber
Krakatau, Indonesia 1883
o big stratovolcano, comes out of ocean then collapses
o major eruption blew out tons of ash and volatiles and magma
created subterranean hole, 23 km of land collapsed
Santorini, Greece
o stratovolcano
o caldera eruptions are low-frequency, high-impact events
Yellowstone National Park
o giant continental caldera
o sits above hot spot = relatively fixed position
o mega-eruption 600,000 years ago
created giant caldera
Eruptive Sequence of a Resurgent Caldera
o characteristic sequence
o begin with large volume of rhyolitic magma, rising w/in km below
surface
bow ground upward
magma body accumulates cap rich in volatiles
o mega-eruption begins w circular ring of fire
plinian columns jet up surrounding magma fractures
increase size of eruption vents, more magma escapes
o magma gushes out of fractures in huge volume
pours away from vents as pyroclastic flows
o subsurface magma body shrinks, land surface sinks
o removal of magma creates void (isostatic imbalance)
filled by new mass of rising magma
creates resurgent dome
o reloading process towards next eruption
Hot Spots
o shallow hot rock masses/magmas or plumes of slow rising mantle rock
o create volcanism on earths surface
o temperature of rising rock hotter than surrounding rock
o lowers viscosity enough to start rise towards surface
o hot spots dont move as much as tectonic plates
o used to help chart plate movement
o occur under oceans and continents and as part of spreading centers
o largest number lies beneath African plate
o slowed African plate acting like thermal blanket
concentrated mantle heat beneath
o explosiveness of volcanoes above hot spots varies
o peaceful above oceanic hot spots
o hot spot below spreading center means greater volume of basaltic
magma
o continental hot spots, eruptions may be incredibly explosive
o magma breaks off and absorbs continental rock
creates volatile rich, high viscosity, very large volume magma
Classic Disaster
o Santorini and the lost continent of Atlantis
o eruption, then subsequent caldera collapse

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