Introduction to System Analysis and Design (SAD)

System are created to solve Problems. One can think of the systemsapproch as an
organised way of dealing with a problem. In this dynamic world, the subject system analysis and
design, mainly deals with the software development activities.
This post include!
"hat is System#
"hat are diffrent Phases of System $evelopment %ife &ycle#
"hat are the component of system analysis#
"hat are the component of system designing#
"hat is System#
' collection of components that work together to reali(e some objectives
forms a system. )asically there are three major components in
every system, namely input, processing and output.
In a system the different components are
connected with each other and they are interdependent. *or e+ample, human body
represents a complete natural system. "e are also bound by many national systems
such as political system, economic system, educational system
and so forth. The objective of the system demands that some output is produced as a
result of processing the suitable inputs. ' well!designed system also includes an
additional element referred to as ,control- that provides a feedback to achieve desired
objectives
of the system.
SYSTEM LIFE CYCLE
System life cycle is an organi(ational process of developing and maintaining systems.
It helps in establishing a system project plan, because it gives overall list of processes
and sub!processes re.uired for developing a system.
System development life cycle means combination of various activities. In other words
we can say that various activities put together are referred as system development life
cycle. In the System 'nalysis and $esign terminology, the system development life
cycle also means software development life cycle.
*ollowing are the different phases of system development life cycle
Preliminary Study
*easibility study
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$etailed system study
System analysis
System design
&oding
Testing
Implementation
/aintenance
The different phases of system development life cycle is shown in this diagram
Phases of System $evelopment %ife &ycle
P0'S1S O* S2ST1/ $131%OP/14T %I*1 &2&%1
%et us now describe the different phases and related activities of system development
life cycle.
5a6 Preliminary System Study
Preliminary system study is the first stage of system development life cycle. This is a
brief investigation of the system under consideration and gives a clear picture of what
actually the physical system is# In practice, the initial system study involves the
preparation of a
,System Proposal- which lists the Problem $efinition, Objectives of the Study, Terms of
reference for Study, &onstraints, 1+pected benefits of the new system, etc. in the light
of the user re.uirements.
The system proposal is prepared by the System 'nalyst 5who studiesthe system6 and
places it before the user management. The management may accept the proposal and
the cycle proceeds to the ne+t stage. The management may also reject the proposal or
re.uest some modifications in the proposal. In summary, we would say that system
study phase passes through the following steps
Problem identification and project initiation
)ackground analysis
Inference or findings 5system proposal6
5b6 Feasibility Study
In case the system proposal is acceptable to the management, the ne+t phase is to
e+amine the feasibility of the system. The feasibility study is basically the test of the
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proposed system in the light of its workability, meeting user-s re.uirements, effective
use of resources and of course, the cost effectiveness. These are categori(ed as
technical, operational, economic and schedule feasibility. The main goal of feasibility
study is not to solve the problem but to achieve the scope. In the process of feasibility
study, the cost and benefits are estimated with greater accuracy to find the 7eturn on
Investment 57OI6. This also defines the resources needed to complete the detailed
investigation. The result is a feasibility report submitted to the management. This may
be accepted or accepted with modifications or rejected. The system cycle proceeds
only if the management accepts it.
5c6 Detailed System Study
The detailed investigation of the system is carried out in accordance with the
objectives of the proposed system. This involves detailed study of various operations
performed by a system and their relationships within and outside the system. $uring
this process, data
are collected on the available files, decision points and transactions handled by the
present system. Interviews, on!site observation and .uestionnaire are the tools used
for detailed system study. 8sing the following steps it becomes easy to draw the e+act
boundary of the new system under consideration
9eeping in view the problems and new re.uirements
"orkout the pros and cons including new areas of the system
'll the data and the findings must be documented in the form of detailed data flow
diagrams 5$*$s6, data dictionary, logical data structures and miniature specification.
The main points to be discussed in this stage are
Specification of what the new system is to accomplish based on the user
re.uirements.
*unctional hierarchy showing the functions to be performed by the new system
and their relationship with each other.
*unctional network, which are similar to function hierarchy but they highlight the
functions which are common to more than one procedure.
%ist of attributes of the entities : these are the data items which need to be held
about each entity 5record6
5d6 System Analysis
Systems analysis is a process of collecting factual data, understand the processes
involved, identifying problems and recommending feasible suggestions for improving
the system functioning. This involves studying the business processes, gathering
operational data, understand the information flow, finding out bottlenecks and evolving
solutions for overcoming the weaknesses of the system so as to achieve the
organi(ational goals. System 'nalysis also includes subdividing of comple+ process
involving the entire system, identification
of data store and manual processes.
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The major objectives of systems analysis are to find answers for each business
process "hat is being done, 0ow is it being done, "ho is doing it, "hen is he doing
it, "hy is it being done and 0ow can it be improved# It is more of a thinking process
and involves the creative skills of the System 'nalyst. It attempts to give birth to a new
efficient system that satisfies the current needs of the user and has scope for future
growth within the organi(ational constraints. The
result of this process is a logical system design. Systems analysis is an iterative
process that continues until a preferred and acceptable solution emerges.
5e6 System Design
)ased on the user re.uirements and the detailed analysis of the e+isting system, the
new system must be designed. This is the phase of system designing. It is the most
crucial phase in the developments of a system. The logical system design arrived at as
a result of systems analysis is converted into physical system design. 4ormally, the
design proceeds in two stages
Preliminary or eneral Design In the preliminary or general design, the
features of the new system are specified. The costs of implementing these features
and the benefits to be derived are estimated. If the project is still considered to be
feasible, we move to the detailed design stage.
Structured or Detailed Design In the detailed design stage, computer oriented
work begins in earnest. 't this stage, the design of the system becomes more
structured. Structure design is a blue print of a computer system solution to a given
problem having the same components and inter!relationships among the same
components as the original problem. Input, output, databases, forms, codification
schemes and processing specifications are drawn up in detail.
In the design stage, the programming language and the hardware and software
platform in which the new system will run are also decided. There are several tools
and techni.ues used for describing the system design of the system. These tools and
techni.ues are
*lowchart
$ata flow diagram 5$*$6
$ata dictionary
Structured 1nglish
$ecision table
$ecision tree
1ach of the above tools for designing will be discussed in detailed in the ne+t lesson.
The system design involves
i. $efining precisely the re.uired system output
ii. $etermining the data re.uirement for producing the output
iii. $etermining the medium and format of files and databases
iv. $evising processing methods and use of software to produce output
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v. $etermine the methods of data capture and data input
vi. $esigning Input forms
vii. $esigning &odification Schemes
viii. $etailed manual procedures
i+. $ocumenting the $esign
5f6 Coding
The system design needs to be implemented to make it a workable system. This
demands the coding of design into computer understandable language, i.e.,
programming language. This is also called the programming phase in which the
programmer converts the program specifications into computer instructions, which we
refer to as programs. It is an important stage where the defined procedures are
transformed into control specifications by the help of a computer language. The
programs coordinate the data movements and control the entire process in a system. It
is generally felt that the programs must be modular in nature. This helps in fast
development, maintenance and future changes, if re.uired.
5g6 Testing
)efore actually implementing the new system into operation, a test run of the system is
done for removing the bugs, if any. It is an important phase of a successful system.
'fter codifying the whole programs of the system, a test plan should be developed and
run on a given set of test data. The output of the test run should match the e+pected
results. Sometimes, system testing is considered a part of implementation process.
8sing the test data following test run are carried out
Program test "hen the programs have been coded, compiled and brought to
working conditions, they must be individually tested with the prepared test data. 'ny
undesirable happening must be noted and debugged 5error corrections6
System Test 'fter carrying out the program test for each of the programs of the
system and errors removed, then system test is done. 't this stage the test is done on
actual data. The complete system is e+ecuted on the actual data. 't each stage of the
e+ecution, the results or output of the system is analysed. $uring the result analysis, it
may be found that the outputs are not matching the e+pected output of the system. In
such case, the errors in the particular programs are identified and are fi+ed and further
tested for the e+pected output. "hen it is ensured that the system is running error!
free, the users are called with their own actual data so that the system could be shown
running as per their re.uirements.
5h6 Im!lementation
'fter having the user acceptance of the new system developed, the implementation
phase begins. Implementation is the stage of a project during which theory is turned
into practice. The major steps involved in this phase are
'c.uisition and Installation of 0ardware and Software
&onversion
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8ser Training
$ocumentation
The hardware and the relevant software re.uired for running the system must be made
fully operational before implementation. The conversion is also one of the most critical
and e+pensive activities in the system development life cycle. The data from the old
system needs to be converted to operate in the new format of the new system. The
database needs to be setup with security and recovery procedures fully defined.
$uring this phase, all the programs of the system are loaded onto the user-s computer.
'fter loading the system, training of the user starts. /ain topics of such type of training
are
0ow to e+ecute the package
0ow to enter the data
0ow to process the data 5processing details6
0ow to take out the reports
'fter the users are trained about the computeri(ed system, working has to shift from
manual to computeri(ed working. The process is called ,&hangeover-. The following
strategies are followed for changeover of the system.
5i6 $irect &hangeover This is the complete replacement of the old system by the new
system. It is a risky approach and re.uires comprehensive system testing and training.
5ii6 Parallel run In parallel run both the systems, i.e., computeri(ed and manual, are
e+ecuted simultaneously for certain defined period. The same data is processed by
both the systems. This
strategy is less risky but more e+pensive because of the following
/anual results can be compared with the results of the computeri(ed system.
The operational work is doubled.
*ailure of the computeri(ed system at the early stage does not affect the working
of the organi(ation, because the manual system continues to work, as it used to do.
5iii6 Pilot run In this type of run, the new system is run with the data from one or more
of the previous periods for the whole or part of the system. The results are compared
with the old
system results. It is less e+pensive and risky than parallel run approach. This strategy
builds the confidence and the errors are traced easily without affecting the operations.
The documentation of the system is also one of the most important activity in the
system development life cycle. This ensures the continuity of the system. There are
generally two types of documentation prepared for any system. These are
8ser or Operator $ocumentation
System $ocumentation
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The user documentation is a complete description of the system from the users point
of view detailing how to use or operate the system. It also includes the major error
messages likely to be encountered by the users. The system documentation contains
the details of system design, programs, their coding, system flow, data dictionary,
process description, etc. This helps to understand the system and permit changes to
be made in the e+isting system to satisfy new user needs.
5i6 /aintenance
/aintenance is necessary to eliminate errors in the system during its working life and
to tune the system to any variations in its working environments. It has been seen that
there are always some errors found in the systems that must be noted and corrected.
It also means the review of the system from time to time. The review of the system is
done for
knowing the full capabilities of the system
knowing the re.uired changes or the additional re.uirements
studying the performance.
If a major change to a system is needed, a new project may have to be set up to carry
out the change. The new project will then proceed through all the above life cycle
phases.
System:
A system is a organized combination of resources working
together to convert inputs into useful output. It is derived from a
Greek word system. A system is an organized grouping of
interdependent components working together according a plan to
ful!ll predetermined ob"ectives.
#haracteristics of system:
$ %redetermined &b"ectives
$ It can be further subdivided
$ All components can be interdependent or interrelated
'ypes of System:
$ %hysical System
$ Abstract System
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$ &pen System
$ #lose System
$ (eterministic System
$ %robabilistic System
$ Introduction System
). %hysical System :
A physical system can be tangible or visible which can be touch
and also be counted. %hysical system can be operated statically or
dynamically.
*. Abstract System:
It can be conceptual or intangible.
+or e,: A model of organization represents the concept.
-. &pen System:
An open system is that interacts freely with outside environment
and also it can be a.ected from outside environment. /hen the
environment changes the open system must also change in order
to adopt itself to the environment otherwise it will be fail.
0. (eterministic System:
(eterministic system operates in a manner that stat of the system
at a time is already determined and we can also predict the ne,t
state of the system without error.
+or e,: 'he output of computer system is deterministic.
1. %robabilistic System:
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'he probabilistic system works in a predictable manner. If we can
predict the stat of the system then it is probabilistic.
+or e,: 2conomic forecasting.
System Analyst:
A system anayst s a person responsbe for the deveopment of software
and hardware souton to the emcent workng of the organzaton. Anaysts
study the envronment and probems of an organzaton to determne
whether a new nformaton method can provde souton to the probem.
The man |ob of system anayst s to provde rght type of nformaton, n
rght quantty at the rght tme n post ehectve manner to the management
or the end user.
Roes of System Anayst:
Denng IT requrements of organzaton
Gatherng Data/Facts
Anayzng the probem
Settng prorty amongst requrements
Probem sovng
Drawng Speccaton
Desgnng System
Evauatng System
1. Denng IT requrements of organzaton:
The most mp and dmcut task of an anayst s to understand the
organzatons requrements nformaton. It ncudes ntervewng users
ndng out what nformaton s they are usng n the current system.
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2. Gatherng Data/Facts:
For gatherng data or facts, wrtten documents are mportant because these
documents represent the forma nformaton ow n the system. The anayst
studes documents such as nput forms, output records, nvoces etc to
understand how data are passed and used n the present system.
3. Anayzng the probem:
After gatherng data or facts the anayst anayses the workng of current
system and nd out to what extent t meet the users needs.
4. Settng prorty amongst requrements:
In the organzaton there are many types of users, each user has dherent
types of nformaton needs. It may not e possbe to satsfy the
requrements of everyone due to mted avaabty of resources so t s
necessary to gve prorty. The prortes are set on the bass of urgency and
mportance of users need.
5. Probem sovng:
The system anayst heps IT users to sove ther nformaton probems. In
that roe he must understand the probem and suggest soutons.
6. Drawng speccaton:
The anayst obtans the nput and output speccaton for optma
functonng of the system to be deveoped.
7. Desgnng system:
Once the speccatons are accepted by the management the anayst gets
on to the desgn of the system. The anayst must be aware of the atest
desgn toos for the system desgn so anayst aso knows as archtect.
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8. Evauatng system:
An anayst must crtcay test the performance of the desgned system wth
speccatons after t has been n use for a reasonabe perod of tme.
S(3#4Software5System (evelopment 3ife
#ycle6:
It s a we dened process by whch a system s panned, deveoped and
mpemented. The system deveopment starts wth the requrement for
mprovng ther busness system.
There are foowng actvtes nvoves n SDLC :-
Premnary Investgaton (Probem Identcaton)
Feasbty study
System anayss
System desgnng
Deveopment of software
System testng
Impementaton & Evauaton
Mantenance
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1. Premnary Investgaton OR Probem Identcaton:
One of most dmcut task of the system anayst s dentfyng the rea
probem of the exstng system. It denes the user requrements or what the
user expects from the new system. Ths aso ncudes the rough dea of the
resource requrements as we as estmated tme for competon and
number of persons expected to be nvove n each phase.
Probem dentcaton heps n :-
. Denng a probem
. Settng proper system
goa
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. Determnng the
boundares of the pro|ect by consderng the mtatons of avaabe
resources
2. Feasbty study:
It determne the possbty of ether mprovng the exstng system or
deveopng the compete new system. It heps to obtan an overvew of the
probem and to get rough assessment of whether physca souton exst.
The purpose of feasbty study s to determne whether the requested
system successfuy reazabe.
There are four aspects of feasbty study :-
. Technca
feasbty
. Economc
a feasbty
. Operatona
feasbty
v. Behavoura
feasbty
. Technca feasbty:
It nvoves the requred and exstng computer system, hardware, software
& to what extent t can support the proposed appcaton.
It answers foowng questons :-
o Whether the system can be carred out wth exstng equpments ?
o Whether the exstng software s enough ?
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o If a new technoogy s requred how best t can be mpemented ?
. Economc feasbty:
It nvoves post benet anayss to determne the benet and savngs that
are expected from new system and compared wth costs. It benets out
weght cost then decson s made to desgn and mpement new system.
. Operatona feasbty:
It concerns wth human, organsatona and potca aspects. It covers
technca performance as we as acceptance wthn the organsaton. It
determnes the genera atttude and |ob sks of exstng personas and
whether any restructurng of |obs w be acceptabe to the current user.
v. Behavoura feasbty:
It ncudes how strong the reacton of stah w be towards the deveopment
of new system that nvoves computers use n ther day work. So resstant
to change s dented.

3. System anayss:
It nvoves detaed understandng of a mportant facts of the busness area
under nvestgaton. Ths requre data coecton from a verty of sources
such as questonnares, forms, ntervews, study of exstng documents. It
can be nvoved the drect observaton n the organsaton and coected
documents to understand the whoe exstng system.
4. System desgnng:
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In ths process the prmary ob|ect s to dentfy user requrements and to
bud a system that satses these requrements. Desgn of the system s
many the ogca desgn that can be sketch on a paper or on a computer. It
ncudes physca desgn eements, descrbes the data to be nputted.
The process nvoved n manpuaton of data & output desgn represents:-
. Fe structure, storage
devces etc
. Database s aso
desgned n ths phase
. Changes to be made n the
organsatona structure of the rm are outnes
v. Input, Output, es, forms
and procedures are panned
v. Fnay standards for
testng, documentaton, system contro are desgned.
5. Deveopment of software:
Deveopment s a phase where detaed desgn s used to actuay construct
and bud the system. In ths phase the system s decded whether to buy
commerca software or to deveop new customzed program wth the hep
of the programmers. The choce depends upon the cost of software and cost
of programmng.
6. System testng:
Testng s a process of makng sure that the program performs the ntended
task. Once the system s desgned t shoud be tested for vadty. Durng
ths phase the system s used expermentay to ensure that software does
not fa and t w work accordng to ts speccaton. It s tested wth speca
test data.
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7. Impementaton & Evauaton:
Ths s the na phase of deveopment. It conssts of nstang hardware,
programs, coectng data and organzng peope to nteract wth and run the
system. In ths phase user actuay starts usng the system therefore t aso
nvoves tranng of users and provdes frendy documentaton.
Evauaton s the process of verfyng the capabty of a system after t put
nto operaton to see whether t meets the ob|ectve or not. It ncudes
response tme, overa reabty and mtatons user behavour.
8. Mantenance:
It s process of ncorporatng changes n the mpemented exstng system.
. Enhancement:
Addng new functons or addtona capabty of the system.
. Adaptaton:
Customzng the software to run n a new envronment.
. Correcton:
Correctng the bugs n the exstng software
System Pannng
Data & Fact gatherng technques:
The specc methods that an anayst uses for coectng data about the
requrement of a new system are caed fact ndng technques.
1. Intervew:
In ths technque anayst coects nformaton from ndvduas. It s a forma
meetng where the anayst can obtan nformaton about the operaton of
the present system and requrements of panned system.
Advantages
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. It s hepfu for gatherng
nformaton from ndvduas who do not communcate ehectvey by wrtng.
. It aows dscoverng areas for
unreastc expectaton, msunderstandng to the proposed system.
. Anayst can observe the
ntervewees non verba communcaton.
v. Ths method gves the anayst the
opportunty to motvate the ntervew to response freey & openy to
questons.
Dsadvantages
. It s very tme consumng.
. Success of ntervew s
dependent on system anaysts human reaton sks.
. Intervewng may be mpractca
due to ocaton of the ntervewees.
Types of ntervew
. Structured Intervew:
In structured ntervew ntervewer has specc set of questons to ask. A
questons prepared n advance and answers are aready avaabe.
. Unstructured Intervew:
In ths method questons and correspondng responses are open ended. Ths
are conducted wth a genera goa or sub|ect.
Pannng for ntervew
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1. Purpose of ntervew shoud be cear. The purpose of meetng
ceary expaned to the a partcpant so that reevant document can be
supped n advance.
2. Proper tme, duraton and pace for ntervew must be seected before
so ths w aow the partcpants to schedued work accordngy.
2. Group Communcaton/Dscusson:
When nformaton s requred from face to face communcaton but there s
not enough tme to conduct persona ntervew, group ntervews can be
hed.

Advantages
. There are many persons presents so
more types of deas and vews can be dscussed n short tme.
. The comments of one person may
prompt other person to contrbute facts whch they thoughts.
Dsadvantages
. The group may be domnated by a few
persons.
. The stuaton coud ead to a verba ght
between the persons and may need moderaton.
. Interna potcs of an organsaton may
determne what s sad and what s eft thus resutng n fase pcture.
3. Ouestonnares:
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Ouestonnares are speca purpose documents that aow the anayst to
coect nformaton and opnons from respondance. Ths s more structured
and forma method of coectng data.
Advantages
. When t s used for group of users, t s
reatvey cheap.
. A questonnare can be admnstered to
arger no of ndvdua smutaneousy.
. The respondance fees greater
condence.
Dsadvantages
. A the questons gven n
questonnare are usuay not answered competey.
. It s not possbe to observe and
anayse the respondance body anguage.
. Good questonnares are dmcut
to prepare.
v. Cost may be hgh.
Types of questonnares -
I. Structured -
Answer and queston are xed
II. Unstructured -
Not x pattern
4. On ste observaton:
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It aows the anayst to gan nformaton whch cannot be obtaned by other
fact ndng methods. It s aso usefu when anayst need to actuay observe
how documents are handed, what processes are carred on etc.
"On ste observaton provde cose vew of workng of the rea system.
The anayst can observe peope, ob|ects, documents and occurrence of
events."
Advantages
. Data coecton by observaton
hghy reabe.
. It s reatvey nexpensve
Dsadvantages
. Peope usuay fee
uncomfortabe when beng watched.
. It s very tme consumng.
. Some actvtes may take pace
odd tme causng a schedung nconvenence for system anayst.
2lements of system:
A systems ob|ectves are expressed n terms of output s needs to produce,
the nputs are the data whch are processed whe the output .e.
nformaton are the outcome of the process.
In addton there are two more components
. Contro
It makes the system to operate wthn toerabe performance eves. Contro
of the system s the decson maker that contros the actvtes of acceptng
nput, process & producng the output.
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. Feedback
It s the nformaton on how we a system s performng & t s essenta for
system modcatons.
System may use feedback for contro the nformaton generated by
comparng resuts wth acceptabe eve of performance (standards) and
nformng the contro eements of the dherence s termed as feedback.
In feedback contro the output s fed back to nput. It aows to be ma|ored
aganst some standards and makng ad|ustment n the processng
accordngy.
System (esign
1. System Mode:
A ogca or mathematca representaton of a system s known as system
mode.
Mode can be but for the exstng system to better understand the
proposed system.
2. Process Modeng:
Process modeng s technque whch nvoves graphca representaton of
functons or processes that capture , manpuates, stores or dstrbute data
between a system & ts envronment or among components wthn a
system. DFD(Data Fow Dagram) s one of the common form of process
mode.
3. Logca & Physca desgn:
System desgn nvoves two categores-
a. Logca desgn:
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It s concerned wth the speccaton of ma|or features of the system that
woud meet the ob|ectves. The devered product of ogca desgn may be
caed as a bueprnt of a new system.
Logca desgn of a system ncudes content requrements and some of
foowng components-
. Output(Reports &
Dspays)
. Input forms
. Procedures(Structured of
procedures to coect, transforms & output data)
v. Storage(Requrements for
data to be stored n the database)
v. Contro(Requrements for
data ntegrty, securty & procedure for recovery)
b. Physca desgn:
It requres ogca desgn or bueprnt and produces the program
speccaton, physca es or database dentons. It aso ncudes user
nterface desgn and seects hardware & software packages.
4. Input Output Desgn:
a. Input Desgn:
Part of the system whch deas wth the desgn of the nterface through
whch user communcates wth the system and feeds the nput data to the
system.
b. Output Desgn:
The part of the system whch deas wth determnng how the output s to
be presented, n what format or shape s known as output desgn of the
system. Computer produces dspays and prnt reports that are to be read
and used by users therefore the output must be cear and easy to
understand.
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c. I/O Forms:
It s prmary carrer for data or nformaton. They are the user requests for
some acton. A propery desgned form s necessary for emcent functonng
of a system.
Form s used to -
. To obtan nformaton
emcenty
. Dstrbutes nformaton
easy
. Store nformaton
ehectvey and economcay
Types of Forms:
1. Acton Form:
Ths type of form requests the user to perform certan actons and they are
generay moves from one person to organsaton or another person.
2. Memory Form:
It record hstorca data such as stock edger, purchase record, bond form.
3. Report Form:
It provdes summarsed nformaton. These are generay used by managers
and such peope who are requred to make decson makng. They gude
supervsors and admnstrators for decson makng.
Form desgnng:
Steps for form desgnng-
. Dene the
purpose of form
. Specfy ts data
contents
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. Usng a gude
sheet enter tte, form number and ndcates poston of any specay
ocated matera
v. Revew wth the
user & revsed f necessary
v. Create few test
forms.
278 9odel
E-R Mode:
ER mode s a detaed ogca representaton of enttes, assocaton and
data eements for an organsaton. Ths technque s used n database
desgn that heps to descrbe how enttes n an organsaton are reated to
another.
It ncudes three features for descrbng data-
(1) Entty:
It can be person, pace, events to the organsaton & about whch data are
captured, stored or processed.
(2) Attrbute:
Varous types of data eements that descrbe an entty are known as
attrbutes.
For Ex:
An entty empoyee can have attrbutes such as name, date of brth,
address etc.
(3) Reatonshp:
An assocaton of severa enttes n
an ER mode s caed reatonshp.
Dherent symbos used n ER mode:
24
25
(ecision 'ree:
Decson tree s a graphca representaton that presents condtons and
actons sequentay. It s a method of showng the reatonshp of each
condton & ts permssbe actons. The route of the tree s startng pont
and t proceeds towards the varous possbe nodes.
The sze of the tree w depend upon the number of condtons &
actons. Each condton s expressed n two ways True/Fase or Yes/No.
Advantages of Decson tree
1. It expresses the ogc of f then ese n pctora form.
2. It s usefu to express the ogc when a vaue s varabe or an acton s
dependent on nested decson .e. the outcome of another decson.
3. It heps the anayst to dentfy the actua decson to be made.
4. It s used to verfy ogc and probems that nvove a few compex
decson and mted number of actons.
Dsadvantages of Decson tree
1. The ack of decson tree s that there s absence of nformaton n ts
format to take what other combnatons of condtons to test.
2. A arge number of branches wth many paths w confuse rather than
hep n anayss.
Ex:
Draw a decson tree for pocy foowed by a company n gvng dscount to
ts customers as foows.
1. If transacton s on credt and customers record s good the order w
be accepted but do not gve any dscount.
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If customers record s not good do not accept any order.
2. If transacton s on cash and ses amount s more than 100 rupees
dscount w be gven 20%.
3. If transacton s on cash and ses amount s between 50 & 100 rupees
than dscount w be gven 10%.
4. If transacton s on cash and ses amount s ess than 50 rupees, order
s accepted but no dscount w be made.
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(ecision 'able
A decson tabe s a graphca method for expanng the ogc of makng
decson n tabuar format.
It s a set of condtons + set of actons and dherent combnatons of
decsons.
"It s a matrx representaton of ogc of decsons whch specfy the possbe
condtons for decson and resutng actons."
The decson tabe s dvded nto two parts:
1. Condton
2. Acton
1. Condton:
The condton part speces a condtons that are apped to the nputted
data. It s aso dvded nto two parts
. Condton Stub:-
It descrbes the condtons that exst n the program ogc.
. Condton Entry:-
It provdes answers to questons asked n the condton asked n the
condton term.
2. Acton:
The acton part s subdvded nto two parts
. Acton Stub:-
It descrbes the acton to be taken to meet each condton.
. Acton Entry:-
It descrbes the approprate acton resutng from the answer to the
condton n condton entry.
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Format:
Tabe Headng Decson Rue
Condton Stub Condton Entry
Acton Stub Acton Entry
Advantages of Decson Tabe
1. It provdes compact representaton of decson makng process.
2. It s easer to understand partcuar path.
3. It can be changed accordng to stuaton.
4. These are best suted for cacuatng dscounts, commssons or
nventory contro procedures.
5. The structure of decson tabe promotes a ogcay compete and
consstent probem denton.
Dsadvantages of Decson Tabe
1. It cannot express the compete sequence of operatons to sove a
probem therefore t may be dmcut for the programmer to transate
decson tabe nto program.
2. If there are too many aternatves, t s dmcut to st n decson tabe.
3. It does not show the ow of ogc for the souton to a gven probem.
O: An nsurance company uses the foowng rue to determne the
egbty of a drver for nsurance.
The drver w be nsured f:-
1. The drver ves n the cty wth popuaton ess than 5000 and he s
marred man.
2. The drver ves n the cty wth popuaton ess than 5000 and he s
marred and age s over 30 years od.
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3. The drver
ves n the cty
wth popuaton
s 5000 or more
and t s marred
femae.
4. The drver s
mae over 30.
5. The drver s
marred and
under 30.
O: Study foowng condtons and draw a decson tabe:-
1. If product code=A
And customer type=1
And the order amount<=700
Then 5% dscount aowed
2. If product code=A
And customer type=2
And the order amount<=700
Then 7.5% dscount aowed
3. If product code=A
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Condton Rue
1
Rue
2
Rue
3
Rue
4
Rue
5
Ese
Lves n cty
popuaton<5
000
Y Y N - - -
Mae Y - N Y - -
Marred Y Y Y - Y -
Age>30 - Y - Y N -
Acton Rue
1
Rue
2
Rue
3
Rue
4
Rue
5
Ese
Insured Y Y Y Y Y
Unnsured Y
And customer type=1
And the order
amount>=700
Then 7.5%
dscount aowed
4. If product
code=A
And customer
type=2
And the order
amount>700
Then 10% dscount
aowed
5. A at dscount
of 5% on product
code=B regardess
of customer type
and the order
amount
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Condton Rue1 Rue2 Rue3 Rue4 Rue5 Es
e
Product
code=A
Y Y Y Y N -
Customer
type=1
Y N Y N - -
Order
amount<=
700
Y Y N N - -
Acton Rue1 Rue2 Rue3 Rue4 Rue5 Es
e
Dscount
5%
Y Y
Dscount
7.5%
Y Y
Dscount
10%
Y
No
Dscount
Y
O: Draw a decson tabe for a company wth three person A,B,C whose
share n the company are 50%,20%,30% sequentay. Any ow arses n the
company w be passed f t s supported by share hoders and whose share
hodng exceed 2/3 of the tota shares.
Condton Rue1 Rue2 Ese
A 50% Y Y -
B 20% N Y -
C 30% Y N -
Acton Rue1 Rue2 Ese
Low Passed Y Y
Low Re|ected N
O: A Co-operatng bank xyz granted oan under foowng condtons draw
decson tabe and tree-
1. If a customer has a account wth the bank and has no oan outstandng
(no dues), oan w be granted.
2. If a customer has an account s outstandng from prevous oan, oan
w be granted f speca management approva s obtaned.
3. Re|ect oan appcaton n a other cases.
Condton Rue1 Rue2 Ese
Customer has Account Y Y -
No Out-standng oan amount Y N -
Speca Management Approva - Y -
Acton Rue1 Rue2 Ese
Loan Appcaton Accept Y Y
Loan Appcaton Re|ect Y
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(ata +low (iagram 4(+(6:
It s a ogca mode that descrbes what take pace n an exstng system, or
proposed system; t does not specfy how the actvtes are accompshed.
It shows the ow of data and the ow of ogc nvoved.
Characterstcs of DFD:
. It focuses on the process that transforms
ncomng data ows (Input) nto outgong data ows (Output).
. It shows the passage of data through the
system.
. Ths dagram aso known as bubbe chart.
v. DFD supports a top down approach for anayss
that s an anayst begns wth genera understandng of system then draws
each components detas.
Symbos used n DFD:
1. Externa Entty:
It s a source or destnaton of data; t may be person, organsaton or other
entty that nteract wth the system.
For ex: Customer, supper;
The entty suppyng data s known as source & those that consume
data or gve output are caed snks.
2. Data Fow/Fow ne:
33
It shows how data traves from one pont to another pont n dagram.
3. Process:
It shows the transformaton of nput data ows to output data ows.
A processes are numbered n DFD for easy dentcaton.
Numberng foows a eft to rght conventon. Name of the process descrbes
what happened to the data as t ows through the process.
4. Data store:
It s warehouse for data
System :uality control ; assurance:
When a system s desgned, t must fu the goa of the organzaton so
some contro must be deveoped to ensure a quaty system.
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Ouaty assurance denes the ob|ectves of the system that s what
s expected from the system. Ouaty assurance actvty n the system
deveopment nvoves four types of sub actvtes -
I. Vercaton-
It s a process of conrmaton as what s supped as per system
speccaton to the system. Vercaton contros are carred out under gven
envronment and test resuts are obtaned for acceptance of the new
system.
II. Vadaton-
Vadaton s a process of usng system n actua envronment n order to
nd errors and checks whether the vadatons apped to the system are
workng propery or not. If the resuts obtaned from the system are proper,
the system s vad otherwse t s not vad.
III. System testng-
It s a revew of speccaton, desgn and codng. It may be based on
feedback obtaned from the users.
IV. Certcaton-
It s a conrmaton of the correctness of the program. It provdes
authentcty of the system desgn that whether the system s accordng to
ts predened standards and ob|ectves or not.
35