1.

Humans, and other animals, are able to detect a range of stimuli from
the external environment, some of which are useful for communication
identify the role of receptors in detecting stimuli

Stimulus a change in the environment of an organism
Receptor- a cell that detects a stimulus

Receptors may be distributed over the body, or centred in a particular cell

Eg. Animals use a sense of smell to find food
When ants find food they release pheromones with the smell attracting other ants

explain that the response to a stimulus involves:
stimulus
receptor
messenger
response
The receptor detects a stimulus in the environment and passes the information to the
messengers which convey it to the CNS
Other nerves then convey a messenger back to an effector producing a response to the
stimulus

In order to generate a response a stimulus must travel through a corresponding method.

light receptor cells in eye detect bright lightmessengersCNSeffectorresponse to
close eyes


identify data sources, gather and process information from secondary sources to
identify the range of senses involved in communication
TYPE OF RECEPTOR STIMULUS EXAMPLE
Chemoreceptors Chemicals in the environment Catfish in murky water
Electromagnetic Changes in electrical or
magnetic fields
Bats to detect cave walls
Mechanoreceptors Sound, pressure, touch , motion Sound for dogs
Pain receptors Detect pain In humans
Thermo receptors Detect changes in temperature In humans

Receptors of vertebras are modified neurons or epithelial cells. These are specialized cells
which detect stimuli and pass on message to sensory neurons or nerve cells
receptors of in vertebras are nerve cells, so they detect stimuli and pass messages to the
CNS which is much quicker.

2. Visual communication involves the eye registering changes in the
immediate environment
describe the anatomy and function of the human eye, including the:

LOCATION
Three coats of the eyeball
WHAT STRUCTURE FUNCTION
Outer sclerotic coat
The sclera
conjunctiva

cornea

sclera

Mucous membrane that
covers the eye

Transparent front part of
the eye
Curvature shape

Tough white outer
coating of the eye
Protects and keeps the eye
moist

Allows light in through the
eyeball
Refracts light through to the
retina

Protects the eye

Middle pigmented coat
The choroid
iris



Lens

aqueous humor


vitreous humor


ciliary body





Choroid

Contains two sets of
muscles to adjust the
opening of the pupil

A transparent protein disc

Watery liquid found
between the cornea and
the lens

Jelly like substance that
fills the area around the
retina

Contains ciliary muscles
and suspensory ligaments
that hold the lens in
position

A dark pigmented layer
inside the sclera
containing blood vessels
Controls the size of the pupil
to adjust amount of light let in

Focuses light onto the retina

Refracts light and gives the
eyeball shape, allows nutrients
to be supplied

Refracts light and gives the
eyeball shape


Alters shape of the lens




Absorbs and prevents light
from scattering

The inner nervous coat
The Retina
Retina




Optic nerve

Inner layer of the eye
containing the
photoreceptors and blind
spot

Nerve connecting the eye
and the brain
Changes light into nerve
impulses



Carries information from the
eye to the brain

identify the limited range of wavelengths of the electromagnetic spectrum detected by
humans and compare this range with those of other vertebrates and invertebrates

use available evidence to suggest reasons for the differences in range of electromagnetic
radiation detected by humans and other animals

THE EMS

A range of energy forms all travel at the speed of light but they all have different
wavelengths and frequencies
Travel only in waves
Human eyes are limited in viewing only 400-7000 nanometres

HUMAN VERTEBRAE Snake INVERTEBRAE Bee
Wavelength 400- 700 480-850 300-700
Light Visible light Visible light and infrared heat Normal light and UV light
Why Active during the day
uses colour for
perception of objects
Active at night hunts in dark burrows,
senses body heat emitted by prey to
easily search for them at night.

Has infrared receptors near the eyes and
nose
Can detect ultraviolet
markings on flowers and
uses polarised light for
navigation



Plan, choose equipment or resources and perform a first-hand investigation of a mammalian
eye to gather first-hand data to relate structures to functions






Safety
-Wear disposable gloves and apron
-Wipe down table with Dettol
-wash hands in warm soapy water
-lay down newspaper on bench
Steps

3. The clarity of the signal transferred can affect
interpretation of the intended visual communication
identify the conditions under which refraction of light occurs
Light travels at different speeds when traveling through mediums of
different density
Light rays refract when they speed up or slow down


identify the cornea, aqueous humor, lens and vitreous humor as
refractive media

The cornea, aqueous humor and vitreous humor all have densities similar to each other
and close to that of water
Refraction occours when light passes from the aircorneaaqueous
humorlensvitreous humor
Light spreading out from one point on an object can be focused on a particular point on the
retina


















identify accommodation as the focusing on objects at different distances, describe its
achievement through the change in strength of the lens and explain its importance
compare the change in the refractive power of the lens from rest to maximum
accommodation
Accommodation is the term to describe the focusing of objects at different distances brought
about by changing the curvature of lens and as a result its refractive power
This change in shape results in the action of ciliary muscles which affect the tension of the
suspensory ligaments which hold the lens

DISTANT
-curvature is flat
-light rays travel parallel to each other
-they have to be refracted very little

NEAR
-curvature is increased
-thicker lens give greater refraction
-shorter focal length


The refractive power of the lens
changes from low when at rest to
high at maximum accommodations
distinguish between myopia and hyperopia and outline how technologies can be used to
correct these conditions

MYOPIA
A scientific word for short sightedness
Distant images fall in front of the retina
Objects at close distances can be seen
Objects are further distances dont appear clear

CAUSES

Eyeball may be too elongated
Lens may not become flat enough when ciliary muscles contract.
Refractive power of the cornea may be inadequate
All these lead to a focused image that falls in front of the retina.

HYPEROPIA

A scientific word for long sightedness
Near images fall behind the retina
Objects at far distances can be seen
Objects that are at closer distances dont appear clear.

CAUSES

Eyeball may be too rounded in shape
Lens becomes too flat ciliary muscles contract.
Refractive power of the cornea may too powerful for the shape of the eye
All these lead to a focused image that falls behind the retina

TECHNOLOGIES TO CORRECT THEM


CONTACT LENSES
-Lenses shapes to fit the curvature of the eyeball
-hard lenses, soft lenses, gas permeable lenses

SPECTACLES

-frames that hold corrective lenses in front of the eye

Myopia
-Concave lenses, (thinner towards perimeter, thicker towards the centre) are used
-This extends the focal length of light rays, enabling image to fall on the retina when viewing
distant objects.

Hyperopia
-Usually Light falls behind of the retina, when viewing near objects.
-Convex lenses, (thinner towards perimeter and thicker towards center) are used


LASIK SURGERY
Process
-Cutting incisions in the cornea, then lifting the flap.
-A laser beam is emitted to the exposed corneal tissue, reshaping cornea.
-A laser or an UV light source is used
-When the laser is finished the cornea flap is returned, it usually heals back and no stitches are
required.

Aimreshape the cornea so that the light travelling through is focused onto the retina.


Photorefractive keratectomy (PRK)
Process
-The outer membrane and surface of cornea is removed
-Laser shapes the surface of the cornea
-Outer membrane grows back in 2-3 days over the cornea.

Aim to reshape the cornea so that the light travelling through is focused onto the retina, not
behind or in front of

explain how the production of two different images of a view can result in depth perception

The images formed by each eye are superimposed by the brain, and because each
view is slightly different, objects appear to have depth as well as height and breadth,
that is we see in three dimensions. This is known as stereoscopic or binocular vision.
This type of vision also makes it possible to judge distances of near objects.


plan, choose equipment or resources and perform a first-hand investigation to model the
process of accommodation by passing rays of light through convex lenses of different focal
lengths

EQUIPMENT
-ruler
-concave lens
-convex lens
-candle
-paper

CONCAVE LENSES










CONVEX LENSES





analyse information from secondary sources to describe changes in the shape of the eyes
lens when focusing on near and far objects

NEAR FAR







process and analyse information from secondary sources to describe cataracts and the
technology that can be used to prevent blindness from cataracts to discuss the implications
of this technology for society

CATARACTS
Cataracts are a visual defect caused by clouding of the lens.
It impacts on the image the person sees by interfering with the passage of light to the
eyes through the lens.
Thus, light is scattered and vision becomes blurred.

TECHNOLOGY

IOL (Intraocular lens) implantation
-Phacoemulsification
Procedure
-Small incisions are made on the edge of the cornea
-Laser given which breaks up the cloudiness of the cornea.
-Intraocular lens (clear plastic lens) are inserted, to aid with the process of focusing light onto the
retina to provide a clear image.
-Cornea heals back because incisions made are so small.


IMPACT ON INDIVIDUAL AND SOCIETY

4. The light signal reaching the retina is transformed into an electrical
impulse
identify photoreceptor cells as those containing light sensitive pigments and explain that
these cells convert light images into electrochemical signals that the brain can interpret
Photoreceptor cells contain light sensitive pigments. These cells convert light into
electrochemical signals that the brain can interpret. An electrochemical signal consists
of a wave of sodium and potassium ions which move across the cell membrane of the
neurone.

INDIVIDUAL SOCIETY
In poorer countries this can help people with labour and
manual jobs such as farming which they may not be able
to do when they had cataracts, this improved with the
technology being available to them.

For example subsistence farming in Africa require
manual and labour work when a person has cataracts that
is not treated they will not be able earn money to suppourt
their family.

It the cataract is not treated, the individual may
eventually experience complete loss of vision in their
infected eye, this can lead to a decreased quality of life,
impact of economic earnings eventually they can have a
reduction in their quality of life and become isolated and
depressed because of being unable to provide for their
family and a loss of communication with others around
them.
If cataract technologies are not given to people
in poorer nations, overall as a society they will not
be able to produce enough food and jobs to
sustain their economy and drive their country
forward, this will result in an increased gap
between the poor and rich not only in those
developing nations, but also in developed and
developing nations who have access to this
cataract technology.

If more children with cataracts are not treated
this leads to less people in the workforce for the
future of that nation, thus impacts upon the future
economy of the nation and the workforce.


Light image strikes the retina

Photosensitive pigments in rods and cones absorb light

A photochemical change on the rods and cones involving visual pigments generates an
electrochemical impulse

Impulse transmitted to bipolar cells in the retina

Bipolar cells stimulate ganglion cells whose processes (axon) make up the optic nerve

The fibres of the optic nerve carry partly processed information to the brain

Retina consists of 5 layers of modified neurons
Ganglion cells
Amacrine cells
Bipolar cells
Horizontal cells
Photoreceptor cells

describe the differences in distribution, structure and function of the photoreceptor cells in the
human eye

Photoreceptor
cell
Distribution Structure Pigments Function Colour and
wavelength of light to
which cell is sensitive
Rods -distributed across
most of the retina but
are absent from the
fovea
-not packed tightly in
the retina
-125 million
-elongated cell
containing outer
segment joined to
inner segment
leading to a
conducting section
-longer than cones
-rhodopsin -detect
peripheral
vision and
movement
-detects black and
white colours
-responds to low light
intensity
Cones -distributed in groups
around the retina
-more heavily located
hear the macula
-7 million
-shorter axon than
rods
-shorter outer
segment
-iodopsin
red
blue
green
-perceive
images
central to
the field of
view
-detects colour
-responds to high
light intensity



Photoreceptors Visual acuity levels Reason for difference
Rods low Retinal convergence
-several rods make synaptic contact with ONE
bipolar cell and thus ONE ganglion cell and ONE
optic nerve
Cones high No or little convergence each cone has contact with
a single bipolar cell and single ganglion cell.


outline the role of rhodopsins in rods

-rhodopsin is a pigment located in the rods of
the eyes; it consists of opsin and retinal
molecules bonded together. When this
happens it generates an electrochemical
signal of light within the eye.

- a light impulse splits rhodopsin into two
molecules whereby these two molecules will
eventually join again to be used to detect light
-rhodopsin is sensitive to blue/ green light.

identify that there are three types of cones, each containing a separate pigment sensitive to
either blue, red or green light
The trichromatic theory of colour vision suggests
that each is sensitive to a different range of
wavelengths, corresponding to the three primary
colours red, blue and green.
The sensitivity of these photo pigments is broad
enough to allow them to cover the full spectrum of
visible light. Each pigment is thought to be located
in different cones, and different colours are
perceived in the brain from the sensory input from
combinations of the three cone types.
Thus the brain builds up a colour picture according
to the number of impulses received from the three
types of cones.
explain that colour blindness in humans results from the lack of one or more of the colour
sensitive pigments in the cones

There are three colour sensitive types of cones in humans.
Colour blindness in humans occurs because one or more of the three types of
photopigments in cones is either absent or does not function properly.
Complete inability to distinguish colours is rare. The most common form of colour blindness
is the failure to discriminate between brown, red and green.
process and analyse information from secondary sources to compare and describe the
nature of photoreceptor cells in mammals, insects and in simple light receptors in other
animal
Feature of
comparison
Mammalian eye Insect eye Simple eye
Description of
eye structure

Made up of 8000 units
called ommatidia
these are hexagonal
cornea and clear
crystalline cones

No lens present
Ommatidia are larger
than rods and cones in
the mammalian eye thus
fewer in mammalian eye
Simple eye lined with
pigment cells
No lens present
Structures that
refract light
Cornea, aqueous humor, vitreous
humor, lens.
Cornea which is
hexagonal convex and
transparent

Crystalline cone is a
refractive surface but
unable to change shape
Fluid in simple eye is
the only light
refracting structure
Ability to focus Completed by changing the curvature of
the lends which allows accommodation
to occour, increased curvature leads to a
shorter focal length resulting in
maximum accommodation
Image formed is blurred
by human standards
Unable to change shape
and focus like humans
An unclear and non-
inverted image is
formed
Number and type
of
photoreceptors
Two types of photoreceptors rods and
cones
rods- rhodopsin
cones- iodopsin
Fewer light sensitive cells
than rods and cones
Very few pigmented
photoreceptor cells
than mammals
Sensitivity to
light
High and low Less than humans low
Visual acuity high Poorer than humans Very poor
Detection of
movement
Cones detect central vision and rods
detect peripheral vision these two allow
for humans to detect movement.
flicker fusion allows an
insect to efficiently detect
movement in a wide
range
Very simple and basic
allowing the organism
to survive in its
environment.

Process and analyse information form secondary sources to describe and analyse the use of colour
for communication in animals and relate this to the occourence of colour vision in animals
HUMANS BIRDS INSECTS
Colours A range of colours in the visible
spectrum
Have evolved bright colours and
good vision at the same time.
Suggests they have a tetra
chromic vision, seeing a broader
range of colours compared to
humans
Have three types of cones
that differ
These are sensitive to
green, blue and UV light
communication May be important for survival
eg. Recognition of allies and
axis in war

Physiological changes may lead
to change in colour
To identify the colours of birds for
mating
Identify flowers by their bright
colours and petals. As they do not
rely on the sense of smell
Usage of UV light in order
to sense targets on petals
which direct them to the
nectar within the flower.
Other info Heavily rely on colour for form of
communication


explain that colour blindness in humans results from the lack of one or more of the colour
sensitive pigments in the cones

A mutation in a gene that codes for a cone pigment leads to the inability of the pigment to
function correctly, as a result the person is unable to see the normal trichromatic vision.
Inheritance patterns of red and green pigments are sex linked on the X chromosome
Inheritance of the blue pigment result as a mutation on chromosome 7.
Colour blindness can impact on a persons occupation and daily activity.
Complete inability to distinguish colours is rare. The most common form of colour blindness
is the failure to discriminate between brown, red and green.

5. Sound is also a very important communication medium for humans and
other animals
Explain why sound is a useful and versatile form of communication
It can be altered EG. Pitch, loudness, speed and length to highlight situations that require an
emergency
It can be observed during the day and also at night and travel long distance and various
mediums. Sound is a form of communication that doesnt require the responder to see the
communicator.
It can be produced by vibrations with little effort while carrying a large amount of
information
Explain that sound is produced by vibrating objects and that the frequency of the sound is the
same as the frequency of the vibration of the source of the sound
Objects vibrating produce sound
The vibrations are the source of the sound
A compression wave then travels through the air, where the air is less dense
The sound waves produced have the same frequency of vibration as the vibrations of the
source of the sound
One cycle of sound per second is known as Hertz
Sound requires a medium such as air to pass through
In a vacuum no sound is produced as there is no particles in which can vibrate

Outline the structure of the human larynx and the associated structures that assist the production
of sound
LOCATION -Larynx is positioned in the throat where the pharynx divides into the digestive tract and
respiratory tract.
FUNCTION
-provide open airway
-mechanism for sound production
-closed air channel for eating
STRUCTURE
-made of 9 cartilages joined by membranes and ligaments
-box is produced where sound can resonate
-under opening known as glottis covered by epiglottis
-cartilages form rest of the walls
-muscles connect it to the neck
-interior has a mucous coated layer
-vocal ligaments join some cartilage to each other allowing mucous to fold forming true folds
-AS AIR RUSHES UP FROM THE LUNGS THE VOCALFOLDS VIBRATE AND MAY PRODUCE SOUND
PHONATION
The process of producing intelligible sound
1. Production of airflow
2.Production of sound
3.Articulation of voice
1.PRODUCTION OF AIRFLOW
Airflow must be great enough to push open the vocal chords, when air pressure inside chest is
greater than air pressure outside it cause air to be forced out.
2. PRODUCTION OF SOUND
As air is released vocal folds vibrate and sound is produced
Vagus nerve relaxes and contracts muscles causing them to control vocal chords
THE SHORTER AND TENSER THE VOCAL FOLD THE FASTER THEY VIBRATE AND THE HIGHER THE
PITCH
THE GREATER THE AIR FLOW THE STRONGER THE VIBRATION THE LOUDER THE SOUND
3. ARTICULATION OF VOICE
Speech sounds must also be shaped into vowels and
consonants by structures such as
-mouth
-tongue
-lips
-cheeks
Plan and perform a first-hand investigation to gather data to identify the relationship between
wave-length frequency and pitch of a sound







Aim- to identify the relationship between wavelength, frequency and pitch of sound
Equipment- CRO, amplifier, microphone, speakers, tuning forks
Steps-
1. Power up the CRO and amplifier
2. Select a wave output of 500 Hz, and adjust it untill it can be heard
3.Select appropriate sweep times and volts so that at least four crests are visible
4.observe ; wave shape, wavelength ect
5. Change the itch of the note to 1000 Hz and continue observations
6. Connect to a microphone
7. Repeat with a tuning for and see wave formed
Frequency Wave shape Wavelength Amplitude
500
200
1000
Tuning fork

Frequency- The number if waves that pass a point in one second
Wavelength- distance between centres of two adjacent compressions of rarefactions
Amplitude- maximum distance a particle moves from the origin [volume]
High frequency = high pitch
high frequency= shorter wavelength




Gather and process information from secondary sources to outline and compare some of the
structures used by animals to produce sound
Animal group Specific
example
Name of
structure
Main features Similar to Different
to
Insects Cicada Tymbals A pair of ribbed membranes at
the base of the abdomen which
produce a pulse of sound when
muscles attached to it contracts.
Other insects
Fish Sea catfish Swim
Bladder
Vibration of a bone against the
swim bladder to produce a loud
noise
Reptiles which
use a bone to
produce a
vibration

Amphibians Frog Air sack Air from the lungs is channeled to
the air sac, which resonates and
makes the sound louder.

Reptiles Snake Appendage Muscular vibration of an
appendage
Fish which use a
bone to
produce a
vibration

Birds Crow Syrinx An organ consisting of elastic
membranes of connective tissue.
The pressure of air entering, size
and elasticity helps to determine
the sound production
Humans who
use their larynx

Mammals Eastern
horseshoe bat
Nose leaf a horseshoe shaped fleshy areas
that is able to emit high
frequency sounds via
echolocation
Humans who
use their larynx



6. Animals that produce vibrations also have organs to detect vibrations

Outline and compare the detection of vibrations by insects, fish and mammals
Mammals Insects Fish
Example Killer whales Cicada Salmon
Organ Lower jawbones Tympana Lateral line sensory organ
How Sound received by lower
jawbone, sound waves
conducted through the
lower jaw, middle ear and
inner ear. Through to a well-
developed auditory canal.
Large mirror like
membranes that are
connected to an auditory
organ by a short tendon at
the base of the abdomen
which detects sound
Sensory canals which run along
the length of the fish. Pressure
waves in surrounding water
distort sensory cells in canals
sending message to the nerves
to determine sound.





outline the path of a sound wave through the external, middle and inner ear and identify
the energy transformations that occur

External ear Middle Ear Inner Ear
Information Sound is emitted causing the air
to vibrate

These vibrations travel to the
outer ear through the auditory
canal
Vibrations from tympanic
membrane are conveyed
through the air filled
chamber via movement of
ear ossicles
Oval window vibrates via
staples, reissners membrane
then moves transferring
energy to the middle canal

Hair cells are stimulated thus
then send messages along
nerve fibres to the brain
Flowchart Auditory canal outer layer of
tympanic membrane

malleusincusstapes Oval windowupper
canalmembranemiddle
canalmembrane lowest
canalround window
Energy
transformations
Sound energy converted into
mechanical energy
Mechanical energy
converted into
electrochemical energy


outline the role of the sound shadow cast by the head in the location of sound

The ears are placed on either side of the head. If a noise or sound is coming from the right it
reaches the right ear first.
For the sound to reach the left ear it must travel around the head or through the head to
reach the ear.
The head absorbs high frequencies much more easily than low frequencies
This causes a sound shadow to be cast over the ear furthest away from the sound source
The sound shadow in turn enables humans to determine the direction of the sound.

describe the relationship between the distribution of hair cells in the organ of Corti and
the detection of sounds of different frequencies

The organ of corti is located within the cochlea.
Composed of 15,500 cochlear hair cells
Finite number and they are not replaced when they die
Activation of hair cells occours at different points of basilar membrane
LOWER PITCHED SOUNDS- activated at apex
HIGHER PITCHED SOUNDS- activated near oval window








Describe the anatomy and function of the human ear
:Gather, process and analyse information from secondary sources on the structure of a
mammalian ear to relate structures to functions
Location What Anatomy Function
External ear/
outer ear
Pinna Composed of cartilage and has a poor
blood supply.
Sound waves travel through air in
the external ear. Glands in this
structure help to produce ear wax
which traps dust helping water
repellency.
Tympanic membrane A membrane consisting of three
layers, the outer layer is continuous
with the outer ear.

Middle ear
Ear ossicles Three small bones in the middle ear
Malleus- shape resembling a
hammer, handle attached to the
tympanic membrane

Incus- resembles an anvil attached
to the malleus.

Staples- resembles a stirrup on a
saddle


Malleus vibrates in response to
sound following the tympanic
membrane.

Incus gives a small boost to the
sound processing it.

Staples- boots the vibrating
manner of the sound
Oval window A membrane between the middle ear
and the inner ear covering an opening
in the bony case of the cochlea
Separates the middle ear from the
fluid of the inner ear. It holds the
fluid in the cochlea, as the
footplate of the staples vibrates
the oval window vibrates sending
waves through to the cochlea
Round window A membrane similar to that of the oval
window which adjoins the inner ear
and the cochlea
Similar to the oval window this
membrane passes the frequency
from the inner ear to the cochlea

Inner ear
Cochlea Main part of the inner ear involved in
the hearing process, it is a snail
shaped structure containing fluid, with
the middle canal holding the organ of
corti
Vibrational wave patterns from
the staples set up vibration in the
membranes and a travelling wave
pattern in the cochlea
Organ of corti A cochlea duct contains the organ of
corti which contains the receptor cells
responsible for detection of sound
Organ of Corti contains hair cells
which eventually convert the
vibrations into electrical signals
which connect to the auditory
nerve.
Auditory nerve A bundle of sensory neurons located
next to the cochlea
Responsible for the transmission
of electrical impulses to be
interpreted by the brain as sound







Outline the role of the Eustachian tube

A tube which helps to equalise air pressure on either side of the tympanic membrane by
bringing in air from the mouth.

process information from secondary sources to evaluate a hearing aid and a cochlear
implant in terms of:
o the position and type of energy transfer occurring
o conditions under which the technology will assist hearing
o limitations of each technology

Cochlear implant Hearing aid
Position an external microphone is positioned
behind the ear that is able to detect sound
an implant is surgically inserted beneath
the skin and connects into the cochlea
Attached to the pinna of the ear
and worn outside the users ear
Transfer of
energy
sound energy>electromagnetic>electrical
energy
sound energy>electrical
energy>sound energy (amplified)
Conditions of
assistance
people who are profoundly deaf with
damage in the inner ear eg. hair cells of the
cochlear do not function
A functional auditory nerve is still needed
to transform this information to the brain
sensor neural hearing loss
damage in the outer and inner
ear eg. Eardrum
user must still have some form of
hearing available
not profoundly deaf
conductive hearing loss
Limitation doesnt create of restore normal hearing
but gives the deaf person the ability to
understand sound and speech
individual must learn how to respond to
sound with time and practice
family must be willing to understand and
help the child to learn to hear
most useful when implanted in children
before they learn how to speak
surgery required which may be dangreous




battery may run out
not sound selective
background noise may also
be amplified
feedback may occour which
causes discomfort
sound may be distorted in
loud environments
Advantage allows deaf people to hear
greater advantage than hearing aid
cheap
easy to wear and operate
no surgery required




process information from secondary sources to outline the range of frequencies detected by
humans as sound and compare this range with two other mammals, discussing possible
reasons for the differences identified

Range of detected
sounds in lowers Hertz
Difference between human
and other mammal in Hertz
Possible reasons for difference
Lower
limit
Upper limit Lower limit Upper limit
Human 20 20 000 - - Flexibility of basilar membrane limits the
frequency range a human can hear
Humans can rely on vision for survival
Dolphin 150 150000 130 130 000 Dolphins cant rely on vision for survival so
they use a means of echolocation
shorter sound used to find food in murky
water
lower frequency sounds travel better in
water
Bat 1.000 120 000 19 100000 Bats are nocturnal thus they rely strongly
on echolocation for survival
high frequency sounds create more detailed
messages for a bat about its surroundings
7. Signals from the eye and ear are transmitted as electro-chemical changes in
the membranes of the optic and auditory nerves
Identify that the nerve is a bundle of neuronal fibres

NERVE- a bundle of nerve fibres called neurones held together by connective tissue sheath
The nervous system is made up of millions of neurones
TYPES
SENSORY- transmit impulses from sense organs in CNS
MOTOR- transmit impulses from CNS to muscles and glands
CONNECTOR- connect sensory neurons to motor neurones usually in brain and spinal chord
STRUCTURE OF TYPICAL NERVE








Controls
function of the
neuron
Provides a larger SA for
the collection of nerve
signals
Conveys signals
along the neuron
Insulates
the axon
Provide nutrients
as well as
maintaining
metabolism
Gap between each Schwann
cell allowing fast and efficient
signalling through nerve
Perform a firsthand investigation used stained prepared slides/ and or electron micrographs
to gather information about neurones and nerves

Aim- to use appropriate data collection techniques and employ appropriate technologies to collect
information about neurones and nerves
PROCEDURE TECHNIQUE RESOURCES
Data collection Library research Audio visual materials, resource
books
Appropriate use of
technologies
Microscopy Light microscope
prepared microscope slides








identify neurones as nerve cells that are the transmitters of signals by electro-chemical
changes in their membranes
-Neurones are nerve cells
-the function of a motor neurone is to carry impulses from the CNS to muscles and glands
-neurones transmit messages in the form of electrical nerve impulses
-signals are transmitted by nerves in the form of electricity along the neuronal membrane and by
chemicals from one neurone to the next

identify those areas of the cerebrum involved in the perception and interpretation of light
and sound
CEREBRUM- the anterior and largest part of the brain, consisting of two halves or
hemispheres and serving to control voluntary movements and coordinate mental
actions.
LIGHT (VISUAL) SOUND (AUDITORY)
-interpretation located in the occipital lobe at the
back of the brain
-primary visual cortex synthesizes images from
the left and right eye to gain an overall image
-interpretation located in the temporal lobe above
the ear
-primary auditory cortex interprets different
electrical impulses into sound
-visual association area of the brain associates
images we have seen before
-the auditory association area recognizes sounds
and voices from previous experiences

Explain using specific examples, the importance of correct interpretation of signals by the
brain for the coordination of animal behaviour.
Stimuli must be received and transited to the brain or spinal chord before being interpreted and a
response given
If the stimulus is not interpreted correctly then the behaviour of an organism can be impacted upon
in a negative way
Alcohol anaesthetics and sedatives
- Impair the transmission of messages, blocking nerve impulses by reducing the
plasma membranes permeability to sodium ions
- No sodium entry, no action potential thus no nerve impulse
- POOR COORDINATION OF MOVEMENT, LACK ON CONCENTRATION, BLURRED
VISION
Cerebral Palsy
- Cause by temporary lack of oxygen to a baby in difficult birth
- Brain cell damages leads to lack of muscle control
- Brain cells unable to transmit a message to muscles
- IMPAIRMENT IN MOVEMENT SPEECH AND VISION
Multiple sclerosis
- Autoimmune disease where myelin sheath is destroyed and turned into scleroses
- PROBLEMS CONTROLLING MUSCLES CLUMSINESS AND VISUAL DISTURBANCES

define the term threshold and explain why not all stimuli generate an action potential
Threshold potential is the amount of positive charge in membrane potential which is required
before an action potential is to take place
- It needs at least 15Mv
- No action potential is produced if the depolarisation is below this level
- if not stimli is registered than an action potential cant take place
- This is why some stimuli are not able to generate an action potential

present information from secondary sources to
graphically represent a typical action potential

Units = mV