Principles of Fluid Mixing

Principles
of Fluid
Mixing
A Professional Resource for Engineered Mixing Success
Table of Contents
Mixer Types
Mixer Terminology
Tank Design Considerations
Axial Flow & Radial Flow
Operating Horsepower
Reynolds Numbers
11
Power Numbers
12
Pumping Capacity or Flow
13
Torque
14
Shaft Terminology
15
Critical Speed
16
Impeller Effect on Critical Speed
17
Nomenclature
18
Principles of Fluid Mixing
Mixer Types
Mixer Types: Many mixer types are available. Some mixers are specifically designed
for one special application, while other mixers are more versatile with many options
such as variable speed, changeable impellers and shafts, and a wide range of motor
horsepower. This list of mixer types will clarify some of the designations commonly
used when referring to industrial mixers.
Aerator: A mixer or other device used to dissolve
air into water; usually for biological waste treatment.
It may operate at the surface by splashing, or be
submerged with a pipe, or with a sparge providing
air to the impeller.
Air: A
mixer with a motor powered by compressed
air instead of electricity is sometimes called an air
mixer, an air-drive mixer, or a pneumatic mixer.
Bottom Entry: A mixer with its drive mounted to
the bottom head of a vessel. The mixer shaft enters
through the tank bottom.
Direct Drive: A mixer with an output shaft that
rotates at the same speed as the motor. Direct-drive
mixers are relatively simple and offer a higher component of shear to the process.
Disperser: A
special-purpose, high-shear mixer;
or just the blade or impeller. Typically a high-speed
device often with sharp edges (some look like
circular saw blades with bent teeth) used to break
up powders or particles to dissolve or suspend them
(see Rotor Stator).
Flocculator: A relatively slow-RPM mixer that
is used to enhance the contact of particles in
suspension to agglomerate them for easier settling
or separation.
Gear Drive: A mixer with an output shaft that has
a speed lower than the motor speed because of a
gear reducer between the motor and output shaft.
This mixer transmits higher torque and has higher
pumping efficiency per horsepower.
Magnetic Drive: A mixer with its shaft and impeller

driven by a magnet. The internal mixer shaft is
driven by a magnetic field. The driven shaft does
not penetrate the vessel affording seal-less mixing.
Portable: A
mixer that is relatively easily moved
from tank to tank and mounted to tank walls with a
C-clamp or adjustable plate mount.
Rotor Stator: A type of high-shear mixer that
utilizes a rotating head/impeller inside a stationary
shroud or cage.
Sanitary: A
mixer with drive components (motor,
gearbox) that are made from stainless steel or other
approved materials. These mixers are used in sanitary and washdown environments, as well as highly
corrosive atmospheres.
Side Entry: A
mixer mounted on a flange through
the side of a tank or chest; often used for very tall
tanks to reduce capital cost.
Static: A
mixer made of pipes with specially
designed baffles inside that blend fluids as the fluids
flow through the pipe. These mixers do not have
any moving parts.
Top Entry: A mixer mounted on the rim, on beams,
or on a flange entering from the top of the tank.

Homogenizer: A very high-speed mixer used to

blend immiscible phases of a solution into a cream
or emulsion.
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| 3
Mixer Terminology
Axial Flow: Fluid flow axially directed along the
mixer shaft from top to bottom (down-pumping); or
from bottom to top (up-pumping).
Baffles: Structures attached to an inside tank
straight side, either directly or on tabs, to vertically
direct fluid flow in the tank; preventing swirl and
vortexing.
Bending Moment: The product of force times
distance. Fluid forces are exerted on a mixer shaft
at each impeller. The force (lbs) times the distance
from the impeller to the lowest shaft bearing (in) is
the bending moment (in lb). For multiple impellers, the shaft bending moment is the sum of the
individual bending moments.
Bulk Fluid Velocity: T
he primary pumping rate of
a mixer divided by the plan, cross-sectional area of
the mixed vessel.
Case Size: S
peed reducer size on gear-driven
mixers. When torque design limits are reached, or
when a larger diameter shaft is required to meet
other design criteria, the next larger size gear box
(case size) must be used. A given case size may
accommodate many various horsepower and input/
output speed combinations, but carries the same
torque and shaft size.
Coverage: The distance between the impeller and
the liquid surface. Typical optimum coverage is
equal to twice the impeller diameter. Insufficient
coverage may cause vortexing and/or air entrainment.
Critical Speed: A rotational speed (rpm) of a
mixer shaft which is operating at the shafts natural
vibration frequency (cycles/min). Operating a shaft
at critical speed may amplify vibrations leading to
shaft failure by excessive deflection.
D/T: The ratio of impeller diameter (D) to tank
diameter (T).
Dry Well Mixer: A

vertically-mounted mixer which
utilizes a gear drive that has an oil dam called a dry
well around the output shaft. The oil dam extends
above the oil level of the gearbox so that the oil
cannot run out of the gearbox during operation.
Equivalent Weight: A calculated value representing the combined impeller weight at the shaft end
when several impellers are installed on a shaft.
Entrainment: The result of the drawing force
produced by a flowing fluid, which drags additional
fluid (entrained flow) or air (air entrainment) along
with the pumped fluid.
Flow: O
ne of two components resulting from the
action of a mixer impeller (see Shear). The bulk
movement of the fluid. Primary impeller pumping
rate measured in gallons per minute is often
referred to as flow.
Fluid Force: T
he forces exerted on a mixer shaft
through the impeller as a result of the fluid motion
in the tank. Fluid forces are calculated for each
impeller and used to calculate the shaft bending
moment.
Frame Size: R
elating to the physical size of a
motor. Frame size is dependent on motor HP,
enclosure, speed, power supply voltage and phase.
Example: HP, 1800 RPM, 230/460V has a NEMA
56 frame; 3 HP, 1800 RPM, 230/460V has a NEMA
182 frame.
Freeboard: The distance from the liquid surface
to the top of a tank. This distance must be taken
into account when sizing a mixer shaft to ensure
adequate coverage.
Free Flow / Plug Flow: The unobstructed flow
of a fluid. Mixer characteristics, such as pumping
capacity and power requirement, are based on the
assumption that no obstructions or flow constrictions are present.
HP (Horsepower): A
unit for measuring the power
of motors, equal to 746 Watts. In mixer applications, horsepower may be expressed as shaft HP
or motor HP.
4 |
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Mixer Terminology
Impeller: The device responsible for the actual
mixing action in a process. The rotating impeller is
responsible for flow and shear imparted to the fluid
as it rotates.
MHP (Motor Horsepower): T
he actual shaft horsepower, divided by motor efficiency, determines the
required motor nameplate horsepower.
Np (Power number): A constant, unique to each
type of mixing impeller, used to calculate power
draw. Power number varies with Reynolds number,
but may be treated, as a constant if the Reynolds
number is sufficiently high.
NQ (Flow number): A constant, derived empirically
for each unique geometric shape of mixing impeller,
used to calculate flow or pumping rate.
Off-Bottom: The distance from the impeller to the
tank bottom. Typically, the off-bottom is between
one- to two-times the impeller diameter.
Prandtl Number: A
dimensionless number used to
estimate the boundary layer film co-efficient in heat
transfer calculations. In fluids, Prandtl numbers
cannot be estimated accurately and therefore must
be derived experimentally.
Q: F
low or pumping rate, measured in gallons
per minute, which is the actual discharge rate of a
specific size and type of mixing impeller.
Radial Flow: Movement of fluid drawn from above
and below the impeller and perpendicularly discharged toward the tank wall, from the mixer shaft.
Reynolds Number: A dimensionless number used
to indicate the type of fluid motion being produced.
The value of this number determines the value
of the Power number, which affects the HP draw.
Reynolds numbers below 1,000 are considered
laminar; above 2,500 is turbulent flow.
Right-Angle Mixer: A
mixer with the motor shaft
input perpendicular to the gearbox output shaft.
The motor suspends off the side of the gearbox,
keeping the required headroom to a minimum.
Service Factor: E
quipment having a service factor
of 1.0, for a given level of performance, is designed
to operate without excessive wear or failure over
its lifetime at that performance level. For instance,
a 1 HP motor rotating, at 1725 RPM, with a service
factor of 1.0, will operate for many years under a
1 HP load. A gearbox designed to transmit 1 HP
has a service factor of 1.0 when loaded to 1 HP. If,
however, that same gearbox is loaded to only HP,
it now has a service factor of 2.0, indicating that it
is capable of heavier duty than the current use and
should have a longer service life.
Shaft Stress: The intensity of the straining force
on a mixer shaft that tends to deform shaft shape
or cause the shaft to fracture; usually expressed
in PSI. Shaft stress is calculated from the bending
moment. Stress limits are known for various materials under static loads. For mixer shafts which are
subjected to alternating stresses because of their
rotation, a fatigue stress limit must be established
which is much less than the static limit. Mixers
should not be designed with a shaft stress higher
than 15,000 PSI.
Shear: O
ne of two components resulting from the
action of a mixer impeller (see Flow). Different
velocities existing simultaneously (velocity gradient
= shear rate) which produce stresses on the fluid.
Shear rate X viscosity = shear stress in PSI. Shear
stress is responsible for small scale fluid intermixing.
SHP (Shaft Horsepower): The actual power
required to drive the mixer impeller in the specific
process fluid at the rotational speed supplied to the
mixer shaft.
Specific Gravity: The ratio of fluid density E.G.
(lb/gal) to the density of water (8.33 lb/gal @ 25C,
1 atm pressure) under current conditions.
T: Tank diameter.
Tip Speed: T
he peripheral speed of a rotating
impeller. Tip speed is used to estimate the shear
applied to a fluid. Tip Speed = RPM X D X .
| 5
Mixer Terminology
Torque: The twisting force that is created by a
motor and/or gearbox to produce rotation of a mixer
shaft.
Velocity Head: For the mixer concepts presented
here, velocity head and shear have the same
meaning (see Shear).
Viscosity: Internal fluid friction. The property of a
fluid that enables the fluid to develop and maintain
an amount of shearing stress dependent upon
the velocity of flow; and then to offer continued
resistance to flow.
Z: The designation used to signify the liquid level or
height in a tank.
6 |
Tank Design Considerations

D/T and Z/T
Other than the mixer itself, the mixing tank design is the single most important factor in
successful process result.
Typical Baffle Arrangements
T
FREEBOARD
BAFFLE
COVERAGE
OFF BOTTOM
Four (4) baffles, 90 apart: Baffle width

1/12 the tank diameter; length is from the
liquid level down to 6 inches off bottom.
In order for a mixing impeller to perform optimally,

correct location and liquid coverage is essential.
Incorrect position of mixing impeller may hamper
mixing performance and be detrimental to the
performance life of the mixer drive.
D/T is the ratio of impeller diameter to tank diameter.
For most mixing applications, it ranges from 0.20
to 0.60. A D/T that is too small may leave areas
unmixed. A D/T that is too large may choke off the
upflow between the impeller and the tank wall. Mixer
sizing for general blending starts with a D/T of 0.25.
The impeller diameter is then adjusted to fit the most
economical drive selection. A smaller D/T may be
offset by high flow created by turning at higher RPM.
Z/T is the ratio of liquid height to tank diameter. When
this ratio exceeds 1.2, dual impellers should be used.
Off-bottom distance is normally equal to 1 to 2 impeller
diameters. Coverage is typically equal to 2 to 4
impeller diameters.
Three (3) baffles, 120 apart: Baffle width

1/12 the tank diameter; length is from the
liquid level down to 6 inches off bottom.
| 7
Axial Flow & Radial Flow

Most open impeller mixing applications operate in the turbulent regime (meaning low
viscosity). Applications requiring high flow are generally best performed with axial
flow impellers. If high shear is required, radial flow impellers may be preferred.
Close-clearance impellers, including those which scrap the tank interior, work best
in laminar flow (high viscosity) conditions.
8 |
Axial Flow
Radial Flow
Axial Flow: Fluid flow axially directed along

the mixer shaft from top to bottom (downpumping); or from bottom to top (up-pumping).
Radial Flow: M
ovement of fluid drawn from
above and below the impeller and discharged
it toward the tank wall, perpendicularly from
the mixer shaft.
The power consumed by a rotating impeller in a process fluid is easily measured. The unit
typically used to express this power is, horsepower. It is common to relate mixer performance to horsepower. However, there are often problems associated with this tendency.
Horsepower Formula for

Mixer (turbulent flow) Applications
Np N3 D5 S.G.
SHP =

1.53 x 1013

NP = Power Number of impeller

Impeller speed (RPM)
Impeller diameter (IN)
S.G.
Specific Gravity
1.53 x 10 = Conversion factor
As shown in this formula, changes in RPM or

impeller diameter have a major effect on
required horsepower to operate a mixer.
When examining this horsepower effect
closely, and tying it together with the formula
for pumping capacity (see Pumping Capacity,
page 13) the following is derived:

QHP = D4/3K
QHP
D
K
= Flow at constant HP
= Impeller Diameter (inches)
= A Constant
13
What this shows is, if horsepower is constant and impeller diameter is increased, (RPMs must go down) and
hence increase D/T, a disproportional gain in flow is received. The following table illustrates this:
Gain In Flow When Impeller Size Is Increased (HP is constant)

Model

RPM
BD200
Max AF3 Diameter
Q(gpm)
1,725
7.24
1,559
BGM200
350
18.85
5,582
BGM200-233
233
24.05
7,717
68
50.40
20,727
3BTO2-68
| 9
Viscosity Effect
As described in Reynolds Numbers (see page 11), as viscosity increases, impeller
power number may begin to increase. This becomes important in the HP calculations
because as power number begins to go up so does the horsepower required to drive
the mixer. Simply increasing the input horsepower may be the answer, but one must
bear in mind that this change reduces the service factor of the mixer drive, hence a
differently sized mixer may be required.
Viscosity increase also effects the flow characteristics of fluid as compared to water.
A correction factor may be obtained from a qualified mixer application engineer.
However, most viscous fluids should be checked in the lab to obtain a predictable
viscosity profile.
Multiple Impellers
More than one impeller may be required for some processes. This may be due to tank
geometry or fluid characteristics. Regardless of how many impellers are required or
why, it is important to realize the multiple effect on horsepower required.
10 |
Reynolds Numbers
Viscosity Effect on Mixing Performance
Reynolds Number is a dimensionless number that can be derived as follows:

Reynolds Number Formula
10.75 N D2 S.G.
Viscosity
Nre

Viscosity
The Power number is constant for each impeller

type, as long as the Reynolds number is
sufficiently high. Power number is a function
of Reynolds number.
fluid viscosity (cPs)
The Reynolds number is the indicator of the type of mixing fluid regime in which the
mixer will operate in the process fluid. If the Reynolds number is above 2,000, the
mixer is generally operating in the fluid regime where the Power number is constant
(turbulent flow). When the Reynolds number calculated is less than 1,000 (laminar
flow), then the Power number increases as the Reynolds number decreases (see
graph below). Consequently, the shaft horsepower calculated must be based on the
corrected power number. In this case, one will need to obtain an Np (Power number)
versus Nrey (Reynolds number) curve from the impeller manufacturer or by experimentation. The Illustration shows how the Power number for each impeller varies
with changes in Reynolds number.
As Reynolds number drops,
Power Number Increases as Reynolds Number Decreases a point is reached where

(at less than 1,000 laminar flow)
the power number begins to
Np
log
A1
A2
log
Laminar
increase sharply. This point

depends on the type of impeller
in use. Reynolds numbers or
Nrey between 1000 and 2000
are generally considered in
transition.
Nrey
Transition
Turbulent
| 11
Power Numbers
Each impeller of constant geometric design demonstrates a uniform Power number
curve. By knowing the impeller speed and diameter, the fluid specific gravity, and
measuring the shaft horsepower, one can calculate the impeller Power number with
the following formula:
Impeller Power Number Formula

1.53 x 1013 SHP
Np =

N3 D5 S.G.

SHP
Shaft horsepower (HP)
Speed (RPM)
Impeller diameter (INCHES)
S.G.
Specific Gravity
Notice that, for very high Reynolds numbers,

(low viscosity) the Np curve is flat. This
indicates that the Power number is constant.
Calculating horsepower with this constant Np
can be accomplished using the equation as
shown in Operating Horsepower (see page 9).
Many open impeller mixing applications are
commonly refered to as flow controlled
applications. This means the process
outcome is a direct result of the mixer
pumping rate or flow. This concept is
shown in Torque (see page 14).
Impeller Power Numbers are generally derived in water-like fluids.
12 |
Pumping Capacity or Flow

Pumping capacity is the measure of fluid discharged by a rotating impeller. This flow
produced directly by the impeller, and through the impeller area, is known as primary
flow. In addition to primary flow, liquid is drawn by, and pushed by, the primary flow to
produce induced flow. The primary flow and induced flow together make up the total
flow. Total flow is difficult to calculate, but can be measured in the laboratory. Total
flow is typically several times higher than primary flow. This distinction is very important
when comparing mixer performance and efficiency. Mixers should be compared using
primary pumping capacity. Total flow may be estimated by the mixer manufacturer, but
should not be used for comparison purposes.
Primary Pumping Capacity Formula

Q =

Nq N D3
231
Flow in gallons per minute (GPM)
Nq
Flow number for impeller
Mixer speed (RPM)
Impeller diameter (IN)
For simplicity, pumping capacity calculations

assume free flow, or plug flow, where the
impeller is not too close to the tank bottom,
and flow is not hindered by other constrictions.
Water is used as the standard liquid, with a
specific gravity of 1.0 and a viscosity of 1.0
centipoise. The result is generally referred to
as the water pumping capacity, since pumping
capacity for the actual conditions can also be
calculated by adjusting the flow number for
the fluid characteristics and tank geometry.
231 - Conversion factor
Nq, the flow number, is determined empirically for each impeller type (geometry). It is constant for the
impeller under standard conditions (water, free flow). The impeller manufacturer can supply this number.
While this pumping capacity is a very useful concept for comparing mixers, caution must be exercised when
using it as a sizing criteria, since the same liquid in one small area of the tank may be pumped over and
over, while other areas do not get mixed. D/T, off-bottom distance, number, and location of impellers must
also be correct.
Dual Impellers: Depending on how the impellers are spaced, the fluid characteristics, tank geometry and
other variables, multiple impellers will pump somewhat more than one impeller at like speed and horsepower.
| 13
Torque
Torque is the twisting, or turning force acting to produce rotation on the mixer shaft.

Torque Formula
Torque =

HP x 63025
RPM
In flow-controlled mixing processes,

torque = mixer flow X a constant, which
is, in turn, equal to process result. Also,
higher torque (not necessarily higher HP)
= higher mixer cost. Mixer torque
per-unit-volume may be an important
scale-up criterion.
The torque required for any mixing process will effect the size and type of mixer drive and also have a
direct effect on mixer shaft design.
Flow Controlled Applications

Process Result a Flow
Flow
a Torque (K)
Torque
a $ (Capital Cost)
14 |
Shaft Terminology
Bearing Spacing, 5b
Bending
moment, M
Torque, T
Shaft length, L
Note:
Fw, Fp and Ft
axially at center
of impeller shaft.
Turbine hydraulic
force, Fh
Weight of
shaft and
impellers, Fw
Thrust
due to
pressure, Fp
Axial - flow
turbine
thrust, Ft
| 15
Critical Speed
Natural Frequency & Rotational Frequency
A mixer shaft, vibrates when subjected to outside forces. Like a tuning fork, a mixer
shaft has a predetermined vibrational frequency (harmonic), which remains constant as
long as the composition of the shaft and the shaft-impeller relationship is not altered.
This vibrational frequency is called natural frequency. Unlike a tuning fork, however, a
mixer shaft must also deal with the forces of rotation.
Rotational frequency is the number of turns or revolutions the mixer shaft makes over a
period of time; typically measured in revolutions per minute (RPM). If one could adjust
shaft speed so rotational frequency exactly matched the natural frequency of the shaft,
one would achieve critical speed, represented by Ncr in the formula shown below.
Additional critical speeds actually occur at several multiples of the first critical speed.
Mixer Shaft Critical Speed Formula
d2
Ncr = 146.4 2
l
l+a
l
d = Shaft diameter (IN)
l = Shaft length (IN)
a = Bearing spacing (IN)
d2
4
4.13We
l
= Density (LB/CU. IN) (rho)

We = Weight or equivalent of impeller(s)
E = Modulus of elasticity
Critical Speed Can Be Dangerous

These speeds (vibration and rotational) are called critical because they are the speeds at which the two
frequencies reinforce one another. This condition has the potential to set up destructive force. The
relationship of shaft length and impeller weight to critical speed is given by the above equation. This
equation calculates the first natural, or vibrational, frequency of the shaft.
Some mixers are designed to operate above first critical speed. When designed this way the shaft passes
through critical speed with nothing more than a slight tremor at startup or shutdown. Generally, it is good
design practice to stay below the first critical speed by 20% or more. The ratio of operating speed to
critical speed (N/Ncr) is called the critical speed ratio. A critical speed ratio of 0.8 would indicate that
the operating speed is 20% below the critical speed. A ratio of 1:2 indicates the operating speed is
20% above critical speed.
16 |
Impeller Effect on Critical Speed

Weight and Equivalent Weight
Impeller weight can be calculated knowing the material density and the dimensions of
all the impeller components. But, this impeller weight is only directly useful if there is
only one impeller on a shaft, located at the very end of a shaft.
For shaft design calculations, one must be aware of the effect of the weight or equivalent weight of multiple impellers on the end of the shaft. The equivalent weight is the
apparent weight of all the impellers and is calculated using the following formula.
Equivalent Weight Formula
3
We = W1 + W2
L2
L3
+ W3
L1
L1
We = Equivalent weight (LB)

W1,2,3 = Weights of impellers 1, 2, 3 (LB)
L1, 2, 3 = Length (IN)
When impellers are made adjustable, they

must be safe at all operating conditions. The
simple way to assume all the impellers are at
their lowest possible position, calculate the
equivalent weight and critical speed under this
worst-case scenario. If the result is below the
maximum critical speed ratio, the impellers are
safe at any position.
The equivalent weight calculated for two or
more impellers can be directly input into the
critical speed equation as shown in Critical
Speed (see page 16).
MOUNTING SURFACE
L3
W3
L2
L1
W2
W1
| 17
Nomenclature
The following nomenclature is used in the sizing and selection of mixers, as well as the
design and installation of these mixers:
A, a, BRSPC
bearing space (inches)
PC, Q
d, SD
shaft diameter (inches)
flow
impeller diameter (inches)
shear
D
E, MOD
F, FF
HP
modulus of elasticity
fluid forces (LB)
horsepower (HP)
L, L1
MB, Mb
MHP
N
length, length of distance 1 (inches)
SPGR, Sp. Gr., S.G.

SS
specific gravity
shaft stress (PSI)
tank diameter
critical speed (RPM)
impeller flow number
18 |
shaft horsepower (HP)
motor horsepower (HP)
Nq
SHP
torque (IN-LB)
impeller power number
NUMI
shaft diameter (inches)
Np
NRE, Nre
SD, d
bending moment (IN-LB)
speed (RPM)
Ncr, NCR
pumping capacity (GPM)
Reynolds Number
number of impellers on shaft
power (HP)
Ntip
tip speed peripheral impeller speed
V
VISC
W, W1
We
volume (liters) (gallons)

viscosity (cP) (centipoise)
weight, weight of impeller 1 (LB)
equivalent weight (LB)
liquid level (inches)
, DENS
density (LB/CU.IN)
| 19
BRAWN MIXER, INC.

3389 128th Ave.
Holland, MI 49424
Phone: (616) 399-5600
Fax: (616) 399-3084
Email: sales@brawnmixer.com
2013 BRAWN MIXER, Inc.

Principles of Fluid Mixing

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Principles of Fluid Mixing

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Principles

A Professional Resource for Engineered Mixing Success

Tank Design Considerations

Axial Flow & Radial Flow

Pumping Capacity or Flow

Impeller Effect on Critical Speed