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There were a serious of revolt and rebellion against the British rule because of inherent conflicts
in the interests of British Raj and Indians. Among those revolts, the Revolt of 1857 gave a serious
jolt to the British Raj in India. Thus the Revolt of 1857 is an important landmark in the history of
)ndia. As per the British historians it was the Sepoy Mutiny , however according to Indian
scholars it was the First war of independence .
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The racial discrimination by British against Indians, forceful conversion to Christianity and social
reforms like abolition of Sati, 1829; legalization of widow remarriage, 1856 etc. offended the
orthodox elements of Indian society.
Military causes of Revolt of 1857
British discriminated against the Indian soldiers and adopted the policy of exclusion in the service
conditions and promotion by which the high and key posts were reserved only for the Europeans.
Immediate causes of Revolt of 1857
The introduction of Enfield greased rifles whose cartridges were said to have a greased cover
made of beef and pork sparked off the revolt. It antagonized both Hindu and Muslim soldiers
The course of events
On March 29, 1857, an Indian sepoy of 34 Native Infantry, Mangal Pandey, killed two British
officers-Hugeson and Baugh-on parade at Barrackpore (near Calcutta).
The 7th Avadh regiment was disbanded as it defied its officers.
The mutiny really started at Merrut on 10th May 1857. The 3rd Native Infantry revolted. The
occasion was the punishment of some sepoys for their refusal to use the greased cartridges.
The soldiers along-with other groups of civilians, went on a rampage shouting Maro Firangi
ko . They broke open jails, murdered Europeans, burnt their houses and marched to Delhi after
sunset.
The appearance of the marching soldiers next morning (i.e. 11th May) in Delhi was a signal to
the local soldiers, who in turn revolted, seized the city and proclaimed the 82-year old Bahadur
Shah Zafar , as Shahenshah-i-Hindustan (i.e. Emperor of India).
Within a month of the capture of Delhi, the revolt spread to the different parts of India.
South India remained quiet and Punjab and Bengal were only marginally affected.
The British allies during the revolt were Sindhia, the Nizam of Hyderabad and the Begum of
Bhopal.
Major Centres of Revolt of 1857 and the events:
S.
No.
Centre
Date of
Beginning
Date of Ending
Delhi
Kanpur
4 June, 1857
Indian Leader
British officer
John Nicholson
6 Dec., 1857
Colin Campbell
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S.
No.
Centre
Date of
Beginning
Lucknow
4 June, 1857
21 Mar., 1858
Colin Campbell
Jhansi
4 June, 1857
18 June, 1858
Huge Rose
Allahabad
5 June, 1857
March, 1858
Liyaqat Ali
Colonel Neil
Jagdishpur
Aug., 1857
Dec., 1858
William Taylor
and Vincet
Eyre
Date of Ending
Indian Leader
British officer
)t was not just the Sepoy mutiny because it was a popular revolt against the British
imperialism. The revolt was not just confined to the sepoys or soldiers, but was much broader
in base. The civilian population, aristocracy, peasants, religious leaders etc played active role in
the revolt.
The revolt was also not the first war of independence because of the following reasons:
1. India was merely a geographical term at that time; it was only during the early 20 th century
that a pan Indian consciousness generated in India.It was also not the first revolt as there
were series of civil, tribal and military revolts that took place before 1857.
2. The leaders of revolt like Rani Luxmi Bai, Nana Sahib, Tantya Tope, Begam Hazrat Mahal
etc had personal grievances against the British Raj.
3. Also the leaders like Nana Sahib, Rani Luxmibai and Bahadur Shah Zafar were initially
reluctant to join the revolt.
4. The aim of the leaders was not the independence of India, but to get back their kingdoms
which were annexed British on one pretext or the other.
It has been said that dead Julius Caesar was more powerful than Julius Caesar alive. The same may
be said about the Revolt of 1857. Whatever might have been its original character; it soon became
a symbol of challenge to the mighty British Empire in India and remained a shining star for the
rise and growth of the Indian national movement.
Causes of failure of Revolt of 1857
The following were the causes of failure:
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1. British Raj was better equipped with the technology and equipments as compared to the
revolutionaries. It had some brilliant officers which played key role in suppressing the revolt.
2. The revolt didn t spread to entire country. South )ndia remained quiet and Punjab and Bengal
were only marginally affected.
3. Disunity of Indians and poor planning.
4. There was no vision for the post mutiny institutions and the leaders didn t have the forward
looking program.
5. Lack of complete nationalism-Scindias, Holkars, Nizam and others actively helped the British.
6. Lack of coordination between sepoys, peasants, zamindars and other classes.
Impact of the Revolt of 1857
1. The major impact of the revolt was the end of East )ndia Company s rule in )ndia. By the
Government of India Act 1858, the British government took over the rule of India in its own
hand. A minister of the British government, called the Secretary of state for India was made
responsible for the governance of India.
2. The British Governor-General of India was now also given the title of Viceroy.
3. The revolt marked the end of British Imperialism and Princely States were assured against
annexation. The policy towards the native states changed from subordinate isolation to that of
subordinate union.
4. Far-reaching changes were made in the administration and increase of white soldiers in the
army.
5. India army was thoroughly reorganized and an ideology of martial race was developed to
recruit Sikhs and Gorkhas.
6. After the revolt, the British pursued the policy of divine and rule .
7. The British government decided not to interfere in the matter of religion of Indians. This
derailed the socio-religious reforms by government.
Important books on revolt of 1857
Book
Author
Karl Marx
P.C. Joshi
R.C. Mazumdar
S.B. Chowdhury
1857
S.N. Sen
4
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V.D. Savarkar
Tribe
Year
Leaders
Cause
Chuar
1766
Raja Jagannath
Bhills
1817
Sewaram
Agrarian hardship
Hos
1820
British occupation of
Singhbhum
Ramosi
1822
Kolis
1824
Dismantle of forests
Ahom
1828-33
..
Gomadhar kunwar
British occupation
Khasi
1829-32
Tiruth Singh
British occupation
Kol
1831-32
Buddhu Bhagat
Santhals
1855-56
British Rule
10
Naikda
1858
Rup Singh
11
1867-68
Ratna Nayak
Installation of British
1891
Dharni Nayak
protg on throne
12
13
Kacha Nagas
1882
Sambhuden
British intervention
14
Munda (Ulgulam)
1899
Birsa Munda
15
Bhills
1913
Govind Guru
A temperance and
purification movement
16
Oraons (Tana
Bhagat)
1914
Religious Reason
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Chenchus
1921-22
------------
18
Koyas/ Rampas
1922-24
British Rule
1932
A reformist movement
later directed against
excess of British rule
19
Naga
peasantry.
Kattabomman Revolt (1792-98): By Vira Pandya Kattabomman against imposition of British
Suzeraiity.
Paik Revolt (Orissa, 1804-06): Led by Bakshi Jagabandhu against British occupation and
revenue policy.
Velu Thampi (Travancore, 1805): Led by Velu Thampi against British extortions.
Kittur Revolt (Karnataka, 1824): Led by Chinnama and Ryappa against British interference
in Kittur.
Pagal Panthis (Maimansinh, 1825-33): Led by Karam Shah and Tipu. Religious nature.
Raju (Vizag, 1827): Led by Birabhadra Raju.
Faraizi (1838): Led by Haji Saraitullah and Dadu Mian for cause of tenants.
Satavandi (Maharashtra, 1839): Led by Phond Savant and Anna Sahib against British rule.
Kuka (1840): Led by Bhagat Jawahar Mal or Sian Saheb in Punjab.
Gadakari (1844): It was against revenue policy in Kolhapur.
Poligar (Karnool, 1846): It was led by Narasimha Reddy.
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Some of the organizations that were the predecessors of Indian National Congress were as follows:
S.
Organization
No.
Place
Year
Founder(s)
Landholders Society
Calcutta
London
Calcutta
Madras
Bombay Association
London
Poona
1870
Indian Society
London
Indian League
Calcutta
10
1876
11
Calcutta
1883
12
Madras
1884
13
Bombay 1885
Formation of Congress
The Indian National Union was formed in 1884 by A.O. Hume, an Englishman and a retired civil
servant, in association with various national leaders who called for a conference in Pune in
December 1885.
The venue was shifted to Bombay for various reasons (esp. outbreak of plague at Pune).
Indian National Union was later renamed as Indian National Congress.
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The first session of the Indian national Congress was held at Gokuldas Tejpal Sanskrit College
in Bombay under the presidentship of W.C. Bannerji and it was attended by 72 delegates from
all over India.
The "Moderate" phase
From 1885 to 1905 the leadership of INC was dominated by the leaders who are known as
moderates. They had the following views:
They believe that British rule should continue in India as it was gradually preparing the
Moderate Leaders
Dada Naoroji, A.O. Hume, Badruddin Tayebji, M.G. Ranade, W.C. Bannerji, Ferozshah Mehta,
Surendra Nath Bannerji, C. Shankaran Naiyar, Madan Mohan Malviya, V.S. Shrinivas Shastri, Tej
Bahadur Sapru, Gopal Krishna Gokhale, Anand Mohan Bose, E. Dinesh Wacha, Ras Bihari Ghosh,
Mohan Lal Ghosh, P. Anand Charlu, C.Y. Chintamani, R.C. Dutt, S. Subrahmanyam Aiyer, K.T.
Tailang, Madhusudan Das, Rahimtulla M. Sayani.
Extremist phase and Partition of Bengal
The )NC was dominated by extremists from
-17. The emergence of extremist phase was the
result of various factors. However, the failure of moderates to bring about some phenomenal
change in India and the rise of political consciousness in India were the two main reasons for the
emergence of extremists.
Reasons for the emergence of Extremists
It was gradually realized that British Raj was exploitative in its character and there are
inherent conflicts in the interests of British Raj and the Indian masses.
The rise in vernacular newspapers and expansion of middle class expanded the political base
of the congress. As a result the elitist demands by Moderate no longer satisfied the masses.
8
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International influences and events which demolished the myth of European supremacy. These
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3. Bipin Chandra Pal: He discarded orthodox Hinduism and entered Brahmo Samaj and visited
England and America. He founded English weekly New India. He led the Swadeshi movement.
He carried gospels of Boycott, Swadeshi, National Education, Swaraj and the Passive
Resistance.
4. Sri Aurobindo Ghosh : He passed ICS exam with record marks in Greek & Latin. He had
European upbringing. He worked for secret societies in Bengal and Maharashtra. He started
Bengali daily Jugantar. (e wrote seditious articles in Vande Matram . (e was trialed for
Maniktalla (Calcutta) Bomb Conspiracy Case. He finally retired to the life of a Yogi at
Pondicherry.
10
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Many social and political organizations mushroomed up during the Swadeshi wave in Bengal.
For example Krishna Kumar Mitra s Anti Circular society, Pulin Das s Dhaka Anushilan Samiti
and Ashwani Kumar s Barisal Swadeshi Bandhav.
Bone fire of foreign goods was conducted on a large scale in all major cities.
Tilak took the movement to different parts of India especially in Pune and Mumbai.
Ajit Singh and Lala Lajpat Roy spread the Swadeshi message in Punjab and other parts of
Northern India.
Syed Haidar Raza set up the agenda in Delhi. Rawalpindi, Kangra, Jammu, Multan and Hardwar
witnessed active participation in the Swadeshi Movement.
Chidambram Pillai took the movement to Madras Presidency which was also galvanized by
Bipin Chandra Pal s extensive lecture tour.
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The war over in 1919 and Indians expected reforms as promised by the government. Ironically
instead of introducing reforms in )ndia, the British government extended the emergency
measures for indefinite period on the recommendation of Rowlatt committee. The Rowlatt Act
was a law passed by the British in colonial India in March 1919.
Gandhi gave a call for Satyagraha against the Rowlatt Act on April 6, 1919 and took command of
the nationalist movement for the first time. On April 6, a "hartal" was organized where people
suspended all the business and fast as a sign of their hatred for the legislation. This is known as
the Rowlatt satyagraha.
In the Punjab the protest movement was very strong, and on April 10, two outstanding leaders of
the congress, Dr. Satya Pal and Dr. Saifuddin Kitchlew, were arrested and taken to an unknown
place.
To protest against the arrest of the two leaders, the protest took place at several places in Punjab.
A protest was held in Amritsar, which led to the infamous Jalliawalan massarce. At Jalliawalan
Bagh the British General Dyer opened fire at the peaceful protest meeting without any warning.
Gandhi returned back the title Kaisar-i-Hind gold medal and Rabindra Nath Tagore return back his
Knighthood to protest against Jallianwala Bagh massacre.
13
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Khilafat movement
The main objective of the Khilafat movement was to force the British Government to change its
attitude to Turkey and restore the Turkish Sultan to his former position. The All India Khilafat
Conference at Delhi called for the non cooperation and elected Gandhi as its president (Nov.
1919).
The following events radicalized the Khilafat movement:
Treaty of Serves with Turkey was considered as too harsh by Muslims.
The Hunter commission report on Punjab disturbances which gave clean chit to General Dyer
in Jallianwala massacre
Non cooperation movement (1920-22)
The Non cooperation was the first mass movement launched under the leadership of Gandhi. The
following were the causes for the launch of the movement:
1. The Punjab wrongs and the Hunter commission report after which the House of Lords in
Britain favored the action of General Dyer.
2. The ill treatment of Turkey and Caliph by British after 1st World War. The Muslims regarded
the Caliph of Turkey as their spiritual head and were upset by the Treaty of Serves by which
the Caliph lost control over the holy places.
3. The Montague-Chelmsford reforms introduced diarchy which failed to satisfy Indians.
4. To achieve Swaraj.
The movement changed the goal of Congress. Prior to Non cooperation movement, the Congress
aimed at attainment of self rule by constitutional and legal means, which changed to attainment of
self rule by peaceful and legitimate means.
In order to galvanize the mass movement, the changes were made in the organizational structure
and the working of Congress as well. These changes were:
1. A working committee of 15 members came into being to look after the day-to-day affairs.
2. The Provincial Congress Committees were organized for the first time on the linguistic basis
3. In order to penetrate at local level the ward committees were formed at the village levels
4. The membership fee was reduced to 4 annas per year to allow active participation of
economically weaker section as well.
The program of non-cooperation included:
1. Surrender of titles
2. Boycott of government affiliated educational institutions
14
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C.R. Das and Motilal Nehru put forward this changed strategy in Gaya session (1922) of the
Congress. There were leaders in Congress like Vallabhbhai Patel, Rajendra Prasad and
C.Rajgopalacharya who opposed these changes of council entry. The group within the Congress
which supported the changed strategy of council entry was called Pro-Changers while those
opposing the changes were called No Changers . (owever the proposal of the council entry was
defeated in the Gaya session. C.R. Das and Motilal Nehru resigned from the Congress and formed
the Swaraj Party.
The Swarajist claimed that they would transform the councils into the theatre of political struggle.
The councils would thus be wrecked from within by creating deadlocks on every measure.
The elections for the legislative councils were held in November 1923, the Swarajist performed
well in the election. They won 42 out of 101 seats in the Central Legislative Assembly, got a clear
majority in the Central Provinces, they were the largest party in Bengal; and did well in Bombay
and U.P. However their performance was not good in Madras and Punjab.
15
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The Swarajists demanded the release all the political prisoners, provincial autonomy, repealing of
the repressive laws imposed by the government. However, after the death of C.R. Das in 1925 they
drifted towards a policy of cooperation with the government. This led to dissension and the party
broke up in 1926.
Simon Commission (1927)
The Conservative Government of Britain in 1927 feared the victory of Labour Party in the
forthcoming elections suddenly decided that Labour Party would give Congress more than they
desire. The Conservative Government formed Indian Statutory Commission, popularly known as
the Simon Commission to recommend whether India was ready for the further constitutional
progress and on which lines.
The peculiar feature of this commission was that no Indian was included in this commission which
was about to play a crucial role in deciding the future of India.
The Commission was boycotted in India, not only by Congress but also by Liberal Federation,
Hindu Mahasabha and large section in Muslim League.
Nehrus Report
Lord Birkenhead, the Conservative Secretary of the State challenged Indians that they were not
capable to formulate a concrete scheme of the constitutional reforms which had the support of
wide section of political parties. He was of the view that a scheme of constitutional reform made
by one political party in India would be opposed by the others and Indian political parties lacked
the capabilities to form a consensus.
To meet this challenge All Parties Conferences were held in 1928. A scheme was finalized which is
popularly called Nehru Report as Motilal Nehru was its chief architect.
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Lahore Session
At its annual session held in Lahore in Dec. 1929, under the presidentship of Jawaharlal Nehru, the
)ndian National Congress passed a resolution declaring Poorna Swaraj Complete )ndependence
to be the goal of the national movement.
On Dec. 31, 1929, the newly adopted tricolor flag was unfurled and Jan 26 fixed as the
Independence Day which was to be celebrated every year, pleading to the people not to submit to
British rule any longer
17
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While the Civil Disobedience movement was continuing the Simon Commission submitted its
report in 1930, the report nowhere talked about even Dominion Status. In a conciliatory gesture,
the Viceroy suggested the Round Table conference.
The first Round Table Conference was held on 9th July under the chairmanship of the then
Prime Minister of Britain, Ramsay Macdonald. The congress along with most of the business
leaders (except Homi Modi) kept away from the conference. Muslim leaders like Muhammad Ali,
Muhammad Shafi, Aga Khan, Fazlul Haq, Jinnah etc, Hindu Mahasabha leaders like Moonje and
Jayakar, liberals like Sapru, Chintamani and Srinivas Shastri were present.
The government made a gesture of goodwill by releasing Gandhi and other Congress leaders. The
Viceroy Irwin directly held talks with Gandhi. In Feb. 1931, the talks ended with the famous
Gandhi-Irwin Pact.
Terms and conditions of the pact
The terms included an immediate release of all political prisoners not convicted of violence
Remission of fines not collected
Return of confiscated property not sold
Right to make salt
Right to peaceful picketing
In return the Congress agreed to withdrew the Civil Disobedience Movement and participate in
the second Round Table Conference
Second Round Table Conference was held on September 7, 1931. Gandhi was the sole
representative of the Congress. Gandhi demanded that a responsible government must be
established, immediately and in full, both at the Centre and in the Provinces. There was a deadlock
on the minority issue. The separate electorates were now demanded not only by the Muslims but
also by the depressed classes, Indian Christians and Europeans.
Phase )) of Civil Disobedience Movement
After the failure of Second Round Table Conference, the working committee of the Congress
resumed Civil Disobedience in. The second phase of the Civil Disobedience movement comprised
of the wide range of activities, partly because the list of the activities declared illegal by the
Government had lengthened and civil liberties were almost suppressed.
The government took strong repressive measures to curb the movement.
Communal award and Poona Pact
18
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Macdonald s announced the communal awards in August 1932. This communal award provided
separate electorates for each minority i.e. Muslim, Christians and Sikhs. Apart from these
minorities the awards also provided the separate electorates to depressed classes.
Gandhi began the fast unto death in opposition of the separate electorates for the depressed
classes. He demanded that representatives for the depressed classes should be elected by the
general electorates under a wide, if possible universal, common franchise. At the same time he
also didn t object to the demand for a larger number of the reserved seats for the depressed
classes.
In the end the agreement known as Poona Pact broke the impasse; this agreement took place
between Gandhi and Dr B.R. Ambadkar (the leader of depressed class). As per this Pact the idea of
separate electorates for the Depressed Classes was abandoned but the seats reserved for them in
the provincial legislatures were increased from 71 in the award to 147 and in the Central
Legislature to 18% of the total.
The Government of India Act, 1935
The Simon Commission report submitted in 1930 formed the basis for the Government of India
Act, 1935. The new Government of India Act received the royal assent on Aur. 4, 1935. The
continued and extended all the existing features of earlier constitutional reforms. But in addition
there were certain new principle introduced. It provided for a federal type of government. Thus,
the act:
1. Introduced provincial autonomy
2. Abolished diarchy in provinces
Made ministers responsible to the legislative and federation at the centre. The Act of 1935 was
condemned by nearly all sections of Indian public and was unanimously rejected by the Congress.
The Congress demanded itself the convening of a Constituent Assembly elected on the basis of
adult Although the Congress opposed the Act, yet it contested the elections when the constitution
was introduced on April 1, 1937; and formed ministries, first in 6 provinces and then in another 2.
The Muslim League was however, not happy with the Congress rule, esp. Mr. Jinnah, who
described it in those words: Congress was drunk with power and was oppressive against
Muslims .
The freedom movement and World War ))
The World War II broke out in September 1939 when Germany invaded Poland. Britain and
France after the attack on Poland were force to aid Poland. The British Government of India
immediately declared India to be at war with Germany without consulting the Congress or the
elected members of the Central Legislature.
19
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The Congress ministries in the seven provinces resigned on 1st November 1939 to manifest their
protest as India was declared to be at war without any consultations from the nationalists. Muslim
League celebrated the resignation of Congress ministries as Day of Deliverance from the rule of
Congress.
Pakistan Resolution/Lahore Resolution (March 24, 1940)
It was 1930 that Iqbal suggested the union of the Frontier Province, Baluchistan, Sindh and
Kashmir as Muslim state within the federations. This provided to be a creative idea which
germinated during the early thirties to burst into vigorous life with the advent of the new reforms.
The idealist Chaudhry Rehmat Ali developed this conception at Cambridge, where he inspired a
group of young Muslims and invented the term Pakstan later Pakistan in
5. His ideas
seemed visionary during that time, within 7 years they had been turned into a political
programme byJinnah with the new name as its slogan or banner. The ideology of Iqbal, the vision
of Rehamat Ali, and the fears of Muslims were thus united by the practical genius of Jinnah to blind
Muslim together as never before during the British period and lead effect an act on political
creation, i.e. Pakistan. Pakistan Resolution was an important landmark in this context. The Lahore
session of the Muslim League, held on March 24, 1940, passed Pakistan Resolution and rejected
the Federal scheme an envisaged in the government of India Act, 1935.
The August Offer (1940)
In order to win the public opinion in India, Linlithgow put up an offer to get the support of the
nationalist in the World War )) . The following were the major features of the August Offer
A promise of Dominion Status in an unspecified future
A post war body to be created to enact a constitution, however this was to happen only after
the approval from the British Parliament
)mmediate expansion in the Viceroy s executive council
Formation of a war advisory council.
Individual Satyagraha
The August offer shocked nationalists, and the Congress launched the individual Satyagraha. As
per the strategy of this limited Satyagraha the few individuals would be selected in every locality
that would mobilize people for the goal of complete independence and preach against the
participation in War.
Vinobha Bhave was the first Satyagrahi while Nehru was second.
Cripps Mission
The mission was sent to under the pressure from President Roosevelt of the USA and President
Chiang Kai Shek of China
20
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The aim was to secure the active cooperation of Indians in war by promising some
constitutional reforms
The declaration promised India Dominion Status and a constitution making body after the war
whose members would be elected by the provincial assemblies and nominated by the Princely
States
The demand for separate Pakistan was accommodated by the clause that any province which
do not accept the constitution has right to secede.
The Congress objected the proposal of Cripps Mission on the following grounds:
The demand for complete independence was not fulfilled, rather the Mission promised
Dominion Status, that too after the war
The Congress leaders objected the nomination of the candidates in the constitution making
body by the rulers of the princely states rather than elected by the people
The Congress was vehemently opposed to the creation of separate Pakistan
Quit India Movement
The causes for the launch of Quit India Movement were:
The failure of the Cripp s Mission was an eye opener for the nationalist
The popular discontent because of the war time shortages and inflation added to the miseries
of the common mass
The news of Allied reverses in World War and British withdrawal from South-East Asia and
Burma leaving local people at the mercy of Japanese
Course of Events
Quit India resolution was passed on 6th August 1942 at Bombay.
The Congress envisaged a mass struggle on the non-violent lines on the widest possible scale
)t was made clear that if Congress leadership gets removed by arrest, every )ndian who
desires freedom and strives for it must be his own guide .
The government had armed itself with the draconian measures and suppressed the basic civil
liberties.
Gandhi and all the leaders of the Congress working committee were arrested on the early
hours of August 9, 1942.
There was a three month strike in Ahmedabad, the Stalinguard of India
Usha Metha ran an illegal radio station
Rajgopalacharya and Communists opposed the Quit India Movement
The three parallel governments were formed at:
21
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The boundary commission was to be headed by Radcliffe and the awards were to be
announced after independence.
The Indian Independence Act, 1947
The Bill containing the provisions of the Mountbatten Plan of June 3, 1947, was introduced in the
British Parliament and passed as the Indian Independence Act, 1947. The Act laid down detailed
measures for the partition of India and speedy transfer of political powers to the new government
of India & Pakistan.
Integration of States
By Aug. 15, 1947, all states except Kashmir, Junagadh & Hyderabad had signed the Instrument of
Accession with India. The Maharaja of Kashmir acceded to India in Oct., 1947 when irregular
Pakistani troops invaded his state. The Nawab of Junagadh was a Muslim whereas most of its
people were Hindus. In Feb. 1948, through a referendum the people of this state decided to join
India. The Nawab of Junagadh, therefore, left for Pakistan. The Nizam of Hyderabad was forced to
accede to the Indian Union under the pressure of internal anarchy and military action against him
in Sep., 1948.
French Colonies: By the end of 1954, French colonial rule in Pondicherry, Chandranagar, Mahe,
Karaikal and Yanam came to an end. These territories were integrated with India.
Portuguese Colonies: The Portuguese colonies in India were Goa, Daman, Die, Dadra and Nagar
Haveli. In 1954, Dadra and Nagar Haveli were liberated by freedom fighters. Indian troops
liberated Goa, Daman and Diu from the Portuguese in 1961.
25
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