Mathematics SL guide

17

1.1

Further guidance

Applications.

Examples include compound interest and

population growth.

Arithmetic sequences and series; sum of finite Technology may be used to generate and
arithmetic series; geometric sequences and series; display sequences in several ways.
sum of finite and infinite geometric series.
Link to 2.6, exponential functions.
Sigma notation.

Content

The aim of this topic is to introduce students to some basic algebraic concepts and applications.

Topic 1Algebra

Syllabus content

Syllabus

TOK: What is Zenos dichotomy paradox?

How far can mathematical facts be from
intuition?

TOK: Debate over the validity of the notion of

infinity: finitists such as L. Kronecker
consider that a mathematical object does not
exist unless it can be constructed from natural
numbers in a finite number of steps.

TOK: How did Gauss add up integers from

1 to 100? Discuss the idea of mathematical
intuition as the basis for formal proof.

Int: Aryabhatta is sometimes considered the

father of algebra. Compare with
al-Khawarizmi.

Int: The chess legend (Sissa ibn Dahir).

Links

9 hours

18

1.3

1.2

Not required:
formal treatment of permutations and formula
for n Pr .

Calculation of binomial coefficients using

n
Pascals triangle and .
r

expansion of (a  b) n , n ` .

The binomial theorem:

Change of base.

Laws of exponents; laws of logarithms.

Elementary treatment of exponents and

logarithms.

Content

8;

.
log 5 25 2

log 5 125

ln 4

Int: The so-called Pascals triangle was

known in China much earlier than Pascal.

n
should be found using both the formula
r
and technology.

Link to 5.8, binomial distribution.

6
Example: finding from inputting
r
n
y 6 Cr X and then reading coefficients from
the table.

Aim 8: Pascals triangle. Attributing the origin

of a mathematical discovery to the wrong
mathematician.

TOK: Are logarithms an invention or

discovery? (This topic is an opportunity for
teachers to generate reflection on the nature of
mathematics.)

Appl: Chemistry 18.1 (Calculation of pH ).

Links

Counting principles may be used in the

development of the theorem.

Link to 2.6, logarithmic functions.

log 25 125

Examples: log 4 7

ln 7

3
log16 8 ;
4
4
log 32 5log 2 ; (23 )
212 .

Examples: 16 4

Further guidance

Syllabus content

Mathematics SL guide

24 hours

Mathematics SL guide

2.2

2.1

f ( x) .

An analytic approach is also expected for

simple functions, including all those listed
under topic 2.
Link to 6.3, local maximum and minimum
points.

The graph of y f 1 ( x ) as the reflection in

the line y x of the graph of y f ( x) .

Note the difference in the command terms

draw and sketch.

Use of technology to graph a variety of

functions, including ones not specifically
mentioned.

Investigation of key features of graphs, such as

maximum and minimum values, intercepts,
horizontal and vertical asymptotes, symmetry,
and consideration of domain and range.

Function graphing skills.

The graph of a function; its equation y

On examination papers, students will only be

asked to find the inverse of a one-to-one function.

Not required:
domain restriction.

x.

( f D f 1 )( x) ( f 1 D f )( x)

Identity function. Inverse function f 1 .

f ( g ( x)) .

 f D g  ( x)

Composite functions.

A graph is helpful in visualizing the range.

Example: for x 6 2  x , domain is x d 2 ,

range is y t 0 .

Concept of function f : x 6 f ( x) .

Domain, range; image (value).

Further guidance

Content

TOK: How accurate is a visual representation

of a mathematical concept? (Limits of graphs
in delivering information about functions and
phenomena in general, relevance of modes of
representation.)

Appl: Chemistry 11.3.1 (sketching and

interpreting graphs); geographic skills.

TOK: Is mathematics a formal language?

TOK: Is zero the same as nothing?

Int: The development of functions, Rene

Descartes (France), Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz
(Germany) and Leonhard Euler (Switzerland).

Links

The aims of this topic are to explore the notion of a function as a unifying theme in mathematics, and to apply functional methods to a variety of
mathematical situations. It is expected that extensive use will be made of technology in both the development and the application of this topic, rather than
elaborate analytical techniques. On examination papers, questions may be set requiring the graphing of functions that do not explicitly appear on the
syllabus, and students may need to choose the appropriate viewing window. For those functions explicitly mentioned, questions may also be set on
composition of these functions with the linear function y ax  b .

Topic 2Functions and equations

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2.4

2.3

f ( x)  b ; y
 f ( x) ;

Candidates are expected to be able to change

from one form to another.
Links to 2.3, transformations; 2.7, quadratic
equations.

The quadratic function x 6 ax 2  bx  c : its

graph, y-intercept (0, c) . Axis of symmetry.

The form x 6 a ( x  p ) ( x  q ) ,
x-intercepts ( p , 0) and (q , 0) .

The form x 6 a ( x  h) 2  k , vertex (h , k ) .

Example: y x 2 used to obtain y 3 x 2  2 by

a stretch of scale factor 3 in the y-direction
0
followed by a translation of .
2

f  qx  .

1
:
q

3
Translation by the vector denotes
2
horizontal shift of 3 units to the right, and
vertical shift of 2 down.

Composite transformations.

Stretch in the x-direction with scale factor

pf ( x) .

f ( x  a) .

Vertical stretch with scale factor p: y

Reflections (in both axes): y

y f ( x) .

Translations: y

Appl: Physics 9.1 (HL only) (projectile

motion).

Appl: Physics 4.2 (simple harmonic motion).

Appl: Physics 2.1 (kinematics).

Appl: Chemistry 17.2 (equilibrium law).

Technology should be used to investigate these Appl: Economics 1.1 (shifting of supply and
transformations.
demand curves).

Transformations of graphs.

Links

Further guidance

Content

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Mathematics SL guide

Mathematics SL guide

2.6

2.5

cx  d

ax  b

and its

ax

e x ln a ; log a a x

x ; a loga x

x, x !0.

Relationships between these functions:

Logarithmic functions and their graphs:

x 6 log a x , x ! 0 , x 6 ln x , x ! 0 .

x6a , a!0, x6e .

Exponential functions and their graphs:

Vertical and horizontal asymptotes.

graph.

The rational function x 6

1
, x z 0 : its
x
graph and self-inverse nature.

The reciprocal function x 6

Content

x7
5
, xz .
2x  5
2

4
2
, xz ;
3x  2
3

Links to 1.1, geometric sequences; 1.2, laws of

exponents and logarithms; 2.1, inverse
functions; 2.2, graphs of inverses; and 6.1,
limits.

Diagrams should include all asymptotes and

intercepts.

Examples: h( x)

Further guidance

Int: The Babylonian method of multiplication:

( a  b) 2  a 2  b 2
. Sulba Sutras in ancient
ab
2
India and the Bakhshali Manuscript contained
an algebraic formula for solving quadratic
equations.

Links

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2.8

2.7

Applications of graphing skills and solving

equations that relate to real-life situations.

Solving exponential equations.

The discriminant ' b 2  4ac and the nature

of the roots, that is, two distinct real roots, two
equal real roots, no real roots.

The quadratic formula.

Solving ax 2  bx  c 0 , a z 0 .

Links to 2.2, function graphing skills; and 2.3

2.6, equations involving specific functions.

Use of technology to solve a variety of

equations, including those where there is no
appropriate analytic approach.

9 x1 .

Link to 1.1, geometric series.

Link to 1.2, exponents and logarithms.

1
Examples: 2 x1 10 ,
3

Example: Find k given that the equation

3kx 2  2 x  k 0 has two equal real roots.

sin x, x 4  5 x  6 0 .

Solutions may be referred to as roots of

equations or zeros of functions.

Solving equations, both graphically and

analytically.

Examples: e x

Further guidance

Content

Appl: Physics 7.2.77.2.9, 13.2.5, 13.2.6,

13.2.8 (radioactive decay and half-life)

Appl: Compound interest, growth and decay;

projectile motion; braking distance; electrical
circuits.

Links

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Mathematics SL guide

16 hours

Mathematics SL guide

3.2

3.1

sin T
.
cos T

0, , , , and their multiples.
6 4 3 2

Exact values of trigonometric ratios of

Definition of tan T as

sin



, cos
2
4

Examples:



, tan 210q
2


.
3

The equation of a straight line through the

origin is y x tan T .

Radian measure may be expressed as exact

multiples of , or decimals.

The circle: radian measure of angles; length of

an arc; area of a sector.

Definition of cos T and sin T in terms of the

unit circle.

Further guidance

Content

TOK: Trigonometry was developed by

successive civilizations and cultures. How is
mathematical knowledge considered from a
sociocultural perspective?

Int: The first work to refer explicitly to the

sine as a function of an angle is the
Aryabhatiya of Aryabhata (ca. 510).

Aim 8: Who really invented Pythagoras

theorem?

TOK: Euclids axioms as the building blocks

of Euclidean geometry. Link to non-Euclidean
geometry.

TOK: Which is a better measure of angle:

radian or degree? What are the best criteria
by which to decide?

Int: Why are there 360 degrees in a complete

turn? Links to Babylonian mathematics.

Int: Hipparchus, Menelaus and Ptolemy.

Int: Seki Takakazu calculating to ten

decimal places.

Links

The aims of this topic are to explore the circular functions and to solve problems using trigonometry. On examination papers, radian measure should be
assumed unless otherwise indicated.

Topic 3Circular functions and trigonometry

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3.4

3.3

Applications.

Transformations.

Composite functions of the form

f ( x) a sin  b ( x  c)   d .

The circular functions sin x , cos x and tan x :

their domains and ranges; amplitude, their
periodic nature; and their graphs.

Relationship between trigonometric ratios.

Double angle identities for sine and cosine.

tan x  , f ( x) 2cos  3( x  4)   1 .
4

Examples include height of tide, motion of a

Ferris wheel.

Link to 2.3, transformation of graphs.

Example: y sin x used to obtain y 3sin 2 x

by a stretch of scale factor 3 in the y-direction
1
and a stretch of scale factor in the
2
x-direction.

f ( x)

Examples:

Given cos x

3
, and x is acute, find sin 2x
4
without finding x.

Given sin T , finding possible values of tan T

without finding T .

Examples:

Simple geometrical diagrams and/or

technology may be used to illustrate the double
angle formulae (and other trigonometric
identities).

The Pythagorean identity cos 2 T  sin 2 T

1.

Further guidance

Content

Appl: Physics 4.2 (simple harmonic motion).

Links

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Mathematics SL guide

Mathematics SL guide

3.6

3.5

Applications.

Area of a triangle,

ab sin C .

ab
c

a  b  2a b .

Examples include navigation, problems in two

and three dimensions, including angles of
elevation and depression.

Link with 4.2, scalar product, noting that:

The cosine rule.

The sine rule, including the ambiguous case.

Pythagoras theorem is a special case of the

cosine rule.

2sin x cos 2 x ,  d x d .

2sin 2 x  5cos x  1 0 for 0 d x  4S ,

Examples:

2 tan  3( x  4)  1 ,  d x d  .

2sin 2 x 3cos x , 0o d x d 180o ,

Examples: 2sin x 1 , 0 d x d 2 ,

Further guidance

Solution of triangles.

the general solution of trigonometric equations.

Not required:

Equations leading to quadratic equations in

sin x, cos x or tan x .

Solving trigonometric equations in a finite

interval, both graphically and analytically.

Content

TOK: Non-Euclidean geometry: angle sum on

a globe greater than 180.

Int: Cosine rule: Al-Kashi and Pythagoras.

Aim 8: Attributing the origin of a

mathematical discovery to the wrong
mathematician.

Links

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26

16 hours

4.1

The difference of v and w is

v  w v  ( w ) . Vector sums and differences
can be represented by the diagonals of a
parallelogram.
Multiplication by a scalar can be illustrated by
enlargement.

the sum and difference of two vectors; the

zero vector, the vector v ;

multiplication by a scalar, kv ; parallel

vectors;

AB OB OA b  a .

position vectors OA a ;

unit vectors; base vectors; i, j and k;

magnitude of a vector, v ;

Mathematics SL guide

magnitude of AB .

Distance between points A and B is the

Applications to simple geometric figures are

essential.

Algebraic and geometric approaches to the

following:

Components of a vector; column

v1

representation; v v2 v1i  v2 j  v3 k .
v
3

Link to three-dimensional geometry, x, y and z- Appl: Physics 1.3.2 (vector sums and
axes.
differences) Physics 2.2.2, 2.2.3 (vector
resultants).
Components are with respect to the unit
TOK: How do we relate a theory to the
vectors i, j and k (standard basis).
author? Who developed vector analysis:
JW Gibbs or O Heaviside?

Vectors as displacements in the plane and in

three dimensions.

Links

Further guidance

Content

The aim of this topic is to provide an elementary introduction to vectors, including both algebraic and geometric approaches. The use of dynamic geometry
software is extremely helpful to visualize situations in three dimensions.

Topic 4Vectors

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Mathematics SL guide

4.4

4.3

4.2

Determining whether two lines intersect.

Finding the point of intersection of two lines.

Distinguishing between coincident and parallel

lines.

The angle between two lines.

Vector equation of a line in two and three

dimensions: r a  tb .

The angle between two vectors.

Perpendicular vectors; parallel vectors.

The scalar product of two vectors.

Content

kv , v w

v w.

Interpretation of t as time and b as velocity,

with b representing speed.

Relevance of a (position) and b (direction).

For parallel vectors, w

For non-zero vectors, v w 0 is equivalent to

the vectors being perpendicular.

Link to 3.6, cosine rule.

The scalar product is also known as the dot

product.

Further guidance

TOK: Are algebra and geometry two separate

domains of knowledge? (Vector algebra is a
good opportunity to discuss how geometrical
properties are described and generalized by
algebraic methods.)

Aim 8: Vector theory is used for tracking

displacement of objects, including for peaceful
and harmful purposes.

Links

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35 hours

5.1

Not required:
frequency density histograms.

Grouped data: use of mid-interval values for

calculations; interval width; upper and lower
interval boundaries; modal class.

box-and-whisker plots; outliers.

Technology may be used to produce
histograms and box-and-whisker plots.

Outlier is defined as more than 1.5 u IQR from

the nearest quartile.

Continuous and discrete data.

Concepts of population, sample, random

sample, discrete and continuous data.

Presentation of data: frequency distributions

(tables); frequency histograms with equal class
intervals;

Further guidance

Content

Int: The St Petersburg paradox, Chebychev,

Pavlovsky.

Aim 8: Misleading statistics.

Appl: Psychology: descriptive statistics,

random sample (various places in the guide).

Links

The aim of this topic is to introduce basic concepts. It is expected that most of the calculations required will be done using technology, but explanations of
calculations by hand may enhance understanding. The emphasis is on understanding and interpreting the results obtained, in context. Statistical tables will no
longer be allowed in examinations. While many of the calculations required in examinations are estimates, it is likely that the command terms write down,
find and calculate will be used.

Topic 5Statistics and probability

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Mathematics SL guide

Mathematics SL guide

5.3

5.2

Cumulative frequency; cumulative frequency

graphs; use to find median, quartiles,
percentiles.

Applications.
Values of the median and quartiles produced
by technology may be different from those
obtained from a cumulative frequency graph.

If all the data items are doubled, the median is

doubled, but the variance is increased by a
factor of 4.

If 5 is subtracted from all the data items, then

the mean is decreased by 5, but the standard
deviation is unchanged.

Examples:

Link to 2.3, transformations.

Effect of constant changes to the original data.

TOK: How easy is it to lie with statistics?

TOK: Do different measures of central

tendency express different properties of the
data? Are these measures invented or
discovered? Could mathematics make
alternative, equally true, formulae? What does
this tell us about mathematical truths?

Int: Discussion of the different formulae for

variance.

Appl: Biology 1.1.2 (calculating mean and

standard deviation ); Biology 1.1.4 (comparing
means and spreads between two or more
samples).

Appl: Statistical calculations to show patterns

and changes; geographic skills; statistical
graphs.

Calculation of mean using formula and

technology. Students should use mid-interval
values to estimate the mean of grouped data.
Calculation of standard deviation/variance
using only technology.

Appl: Psychology: descriptive statistics

(various places in the guide).

Links

On examination papers, data will be treated as

the population.

Further guidance

Dispersion: range, interquartile range,

variance, standard deviation.

Quartiles, percentiles.

Central tendency: mean, median, mode.

Statistical measures and their interpretations.

Content

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29

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5.5

5.4

Independent variable x, dependent variable y.

Technology should be used to calculate r.
However, hand calculations of r may enhance
understanding.

Linear correlation of bivariate data.

Pearsons productmoment correlation

coefficient r.

Interpolation, extrapolation.

Use of the equation for prediction purposes.

n( A)
.
n(U )

Use of Venn diagrams, tree diagrams and

tables of outcomes.

The complementary events A and Ac (not A).

The probability of an event A is P(A)

Concepts of trial, outcome, equally likely

outcomes, sample space (U) and event.

Not required:
the coefficient of determination R2.

Links to 5.1, frequency; 5.3, cumulative

frequency.

Simulations may be used to enhance this topic.

Experiments using coins, dice, cards and so on,

can enhance understanding of the distinction
between (experimental) relative frequency and
(theoretical) probability.

The sample space can be represented

diagrammatically in many ways.

Technology should be used find the equation.

Equation of the regression line of y on x.

Mathematical and contextual interpretation.

The line of best fit passes through the mean

point.

Scatter diagrams; lines of best fit.

Positive, zero, negative; strong, weak, no

correlation.

Further guidance

Content

TOK: To what extent does mathematics offer

models of real life? Is there always a function
to model data behaviour?

TOK: Can all data be modelled by a (known)

mathematical function? Consider the reliability
and validity of mathematical models in
describing real-life phenomena.

TOK: Can we predict the value of x from y,

using this equation?

Appl: Biology 1.1.6 (correlation does not

imply causation).

Measures of correlation; geographic skills.

Appl: Geography (geographic skills).

Appl: Chemistry 11.3.3 (curves of best fit).

Links

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Mathematics SL guide

Mathematics SL guide

5.7

5.6

Expected value (mean), E(X ) for discrete data. E( X ) 0 indicates a fair game where X
represents the gain of one of the players.
Applications.
Examples include games of chance.

Concept of discrete random variables and their

probability distributions.

Probabilities with and without replacement.

Simple examples only, such as:
1
P( X x)
(4  x) for x ^1, 2,3` ;
18
5 6 7
P( X x)
, , .
18 18 18

Problems are often best solved with the aid of a

Venn diagram or tree diagram, without explicit
use of formulae.

Mutually exclusive events: P( A B ) 0 .

Conditional probability; the definition

P( A B )
.
P A | B
P( B )
Independent events; the definition
P  A | B  P( A) P  A | Bc  .

The non-exclusivity of or.

Further guidance

Combined events, P( A B ) .

Content

TOK: Can gambling be considered as an

application of mathematics? (This is a good
opportunity to generate a debate on the nature,
role and ethics of mathematics regarding its
applications.)

TOK: Is mathematics useful to measure risks?

Aim 8: The gambling issue: use of probability

in casinos. Could or should mathematics help
increase incomes in gambling?

Links

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5.9

5.8

Probabilities and values of the variable must be Appl: Biology 1.1.3 (links to normal
distribution).
found using technology.

Normal distributions and curves.

Properties of the normal distribution.

z-scores).
The standardized value ( z ) gives the number
of standard deviations from the mean.

Appl: Psychology: descriptive statistics

(various places in the guide).

Technology is usually the best way of

calculating binomial probabilities.

Not required:
formal proof of mean and variance.

Link to 2.3, transformations.

Conditions under which random variables have

this distribution.

Mean and variance of the binomial

distribution.

Standardization of normal variables (z-values,

Link to 1.3, binomial theorem.

Binomial distribution.

Links

Further guidance

Content

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Mathematics SL guide

40 hours

6.1

Mathematics SL guide

1
.
3

Not required:
analytic methods of calculating limits.

Technology can be used to explore graphs and

their derivatives.

Use of both analytic approaches and

technology.

Tangents and normals, and their equations.

dy
and f c  x  ,
dx

Identifying intervals on which functions are

increasing or decreasing.

for the first derivative.

Use of both forms of notation,

Link to 1.3, binomial theorem.

Technology could be used to illustrate other

derivatives.

Use of this definition for derivatives of simple

polynomial functions only.

Links to 1.1, infinite geometric series; 2.52.7,

rational and exponential functions, and
asymptotes.

2x  3
Example: lim

x of
x 1

Technology should be used to explore ideas of

limits, numerically and graphically.

Example: 0.3, 0.33, 0.333, ... converges to

Further guidance

Derivative interpreted as gradient function and

as rate of change.

Definition of derivative from first principles as

f ( x  h)  f ( x )
f c( x) lim
.
h o0
h

Limit notation.

Informal ideas of limit and convergence.

Content

TOK: Opportunities for discussing hypothesis

formation and testing, and then the formal
proof can be tackled by comparing certain
cases, through an investigative approach.

TOK: What value does the knowledge of

limits have? Is infinitesimal behaviour
applicable to real life?

Aim 8: The debate over whether Newton or

Leibnitz discovered certain calculus concepts.

Appl: Chemistry 11.3.4 (interpreting the

gradient of a curve).

Appl: Economics 1.5 (marginal cost, marginal

revenue, marginal profit).

Links

The aim of this topic is to introduce students to the basic concepts and techniques of differential and integral calculus and their applications.

Topic 6Calculus

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6.2

34

Link to 2.1, composition of functions.

Technology may be used to investigate the chain
rule.
Use of both forms of notation,
d2 y
and f cc( x) .
dx 2
dn y
and f  n  ( x) .
n
dx

The product and quotient rules.

The second derivative.

Extension to higher derivatives.

Further guidance

The chain rule for composite functions.

Differentiation of a sum and a real multiple of

these functions.

e x and ln x .

Derivative of x n (n _) , sin x , cos x , tan x ,

Content

Links

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Mathematics SL guide

6.3

Mathematics SL guide

for example, y

x1 3 at (0,0) .

Link to 2.2, graphing functions.

Not required:
points of inflexion where f cc( x) is not defined:

Examples include profit, area, volume.

Use of the first or second derivative test to

justify maximum and/or minimum values.

Technology can display the graph of a

derivative without explicitly finding an
expression for the derivative.

Optimization.

f cc( x) 0 is not a sufficient condition for a

point of inflexion: for example,
y x 4 at (0,0) .

At a point of inflexion , f cc( x) 0 and changes

sign (concavity change).

Use of the terms concave-up for f cc( x) ! 0 ,

and concave-down for f cc( x)  0 .

Both global (for large x ) and local

behaviour.

Applications.

Links

Using change of sign of the first derivative and Appl: profit, area, volume.
using sign of the second derivative.

Further guidance

Graphical behaviour of functions,

including the relationship between the
graphs of f , f c and f cc .

Points of inflexion with zero and non-zero

gradients.

Testing for maximum or minimum.

Local maximum and minimum points.

Content

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6.6

6.5

6.4

f c( x )
cos(2 x  3)

g c( x )dx
g (b )  g ( a ) .

Mathematics SL guide

Total distance travelled.

Kinematic problems involving displacement s,

velocity v and acceleration a.

ds
; a
dt

dv
dt

d2 s
.
dt 2

Total distance travelled

t2
t1

v dt .

Technology may be used to enhance

understanding of area and volume.

Areas between curves.

Volumes of revolution about the x-axis.

Students are expected to first write a correct

expression before calculating the area.

Areas under curves (between the curve and the

x-axis).

The value of some definite integrals can only

be found using technology.

sin x

cos x dx .

sin(2 x  3)  C .

Definite integrals, both analytically and using

technology.

dx ,

Example:
dy
if
3x 2  x and y 10 when x 0 , then
dx
1
y x 3  x 2  10 .
2

f ( x)

Anti-differentiation with a boundary condition

to determine the constant term.

x sin x

ln x  C , x ! 0 .

Example:

x dx

Further guidance

Integration by inspection, or substitution of the Examples:

4
form f ( g ( x)) g '( x) dx .
2
2 x  x  1 dx,

The composites of any of these with the linear

function ax  b .

Indefinite integral of x n ( n _) , sin x , cos x ,

1
and e x .
x

Indefinite integration as anti-differentiation.

Content

Appl: Physics 2.1 (kinematics).

Int: Ibn Al Haytham: first mathematician to

calculate the integral of a function, in order to
find the volume of a paraboloid.

Accurate calculation of the volume of a

cylinder by Chinese mathematician Liu Hui

Use of infinitesimals by Greek geometers.

Int: Successful calculation of the volume of

the pyramidal frustum by ancient Egyptians
(Egyptian Moscow papyrus).

Links

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