CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION
1.1 INTRODUCTION

CHAPTER 2
2. Block diagram of Embedded based customized wireless message circular
system for college, industries.
2.1.1 TRANSMIT BLOCK DIAGRAM:

POWER CIRCUIT DC 5V

PHOTODIODE

PHOTODIODE
TRANSISTOR

LM324
Comparator IC

Fig: 2.1 Block diagram of development board

CHAPTER-3

HARDWARE DETAILS
3.1 POWER SUPPLY
The Power Supply unit is used to provide a constant 5 volts Regulated Supply
to different ICs this is standard circuits using external 12 VDC adapter and fixed 3pin voltage regulator. Diode is added in series to avoid Reverse Voltage Protection.
BLOCK DIAGRAM:

Fig: 3.1 Block diagram of Power Supply

3.1.1 STEP DOWN TRANSFORMER:
When AC is applied to the primary winding of the power transformer it can
either be stepped down or up depending on the value of DC needed. In our circuit the
transformer of 230v/15-0-15v is used to perform the step down operation where a
230V AC appears as 15V AC across the secondary winding. One alteration of input
causes the top of the transformer to be positive and the bottom negative. The next
alteration will temporarily cause the reverse. The current rating of the transformer
used in our project is 2A. Apart from stepping down AC voltages, it gives isolation
between the power source and power supply circuitries.

3.1.2 RECTIFIER UNIT:

In the power supply unit, rectification is normally achieved using a solid state
diode. Diode has the property that will let the electron flow easily in one direction at
proper biasing condition. As AC is applied to the diode, electrons only flow when the
node and cathode is negative. Reversing the polarity of voltage will not permit
electron flow.
A commonly used circuit for supplying large amounts of DC power is the
bridge rectifier. A bridge rectifier of four diodes (4*IN4007) are used to achieve full
wave rectification. Two diodes will conduct during the negative cycle and the other
two will conduct during the positive half cycle. The DC voltage appearing across the
output terminals of the bridge rectifier will be somewhat lass than 90% of the applied
rms value. Normally one alteration of the input voltage will reverse the polarities.
Opposite ends of the transformer will therefore always be 180 deg out of phase with
each other.
For a positive cycle, two diodes are connected to the positive voltage at the top
winding and only one diode conducts. At the same time one of the other two diodes
conducts for the negative voltage that is applied from the bottom winding due to the
forward bias for that diode. In this circuit due to positive half cycleD1 & D2 will
conduct to give 10.8v pulsating DC. The DC output has a ripple frequency of 100Hz.
Since each altercation produces a resulting output pulse, frequency = 2*50 Hz. The
output obtained is not a pure DC and therefore filtration has to be done.
3.1.3 FILTERING UNIT:
Filter circuits which are usually capacitors acting as a surge arrester always
follow the rectifier unit. This capacitor is also called as a decoupling capacitor or a
bypassing capacitor, is used not only to short the ripple with frequency of 120Hz to
ground but also to leave the frequency of the DC to appear at the output. A load
resistor R1 is connected so that a reference to the ground is maintained. C1R1 is for
bypassing ripples. C2R2 is used as a low pass filter, i.e. it passes only low frequency
signals and bypasses high frequency signals. The load resistor should be 1% to 2.5%
of the load.
1000f/25v

: for the reduction of ripples from the pulsating.

10f/25v

: for maintaining the stability of the voltage at the load side.O,

1f

: for bypassing the high frequency disturbances.

3.1.4 7805 VOLTAGE REGULATORS:

The LM78XX series of three terminal regulators is available with several
fixed output voltages making them useful in a wide range of applications. One of
these is local on card regulation, eliminating the distribution problems associated with
single point regulation. The voltages available allow these regulators to be used in
logic systems, instrumentation, HiFi, and other solid state electronic equipment.
Although designed primarily as fixed voltage regulators these devices can be used
with external components to obtain adjustable voltages and currents. The LM78XX
series is available in an aluminum TO-3 package which will allow over 1.0A load
current if adequate heat sinking is provided. Current limiting is included to limit the
peak output current to a safe value. Safe area protection for the output transistor is
provided to limit internal power dissipation.
If internal power dissipation becomes too high for the heat sinking provided,
the thermal shutdown circuit takes over preventing the IC from overheating.
Considerable effort was expanded to make the LM78XX series of regulators easy to
use and minimize the number of external components. It is not necessary to bypass
the output, although this does improve transient response. Input bypassing is needed
only if the regulator is located far from the filter capacitor of the power supply. For
output voltage other than 5V, 12V and 15V the LM117 series provides an output
voltage range from 1.2V to 57V.
Features:
Output current in excess of 1A
Internal thermal overload protection
No external components required
Output transistor safe area protection
Internal short circuit current limit
Available in the aluminum TO-3 package

Fig: 3.2 plastic Package of Voltage Regulator

3.1.5 THREE TERMINAL POSITIVE VOLTAGE REGULATOR:
These voltage regulators are monolithic integrated circuits designed as fixed
voltage regulators for a wide variety of applications including local, oncard
regulation. These regulators employ internal current limiting, thermal shutdown, and
safearea compensation. With adequate heat sinking they can deliver output currents
in excess of 1.0 A. Although designed primarily as a fixed voltage regulator, these
devices can be used with external components to obtain adjustable voltages and
currents.

Output Current in Excess of 1.0 A

No External Components Required

Internal Thermal Overload Protection

Internal Short Circuit Current Limiting

Output Transistor SafeArea Compensation

Output Voltage Offered in 2% and 4% Tolerance

Available in Surface Mount D2PAK and Standard 3Lead Transistor

3.1.6 STANDARD APPLICATION

Fig: 3.3 MC78XX Voltage Regulator

A common ground is required between the input and the output voltages. The
input voltage must remain typically 2.0 V above the output voltage even during the
low point on the input ripple voltage.
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XX- These two digits of the type number indicate nominal voltage.
Cin-

is required if regulator is located an appreciable distance from power supply

filter.
CO- is not needed for stability; however, it does improve transient response. Values
of
less than 0.1 mF could cause instability.

Resistor
Resistor is a passive component used to control current in a circuit.
Its resistance is given by the ratio of voltage applied across its
terminals to the current passing through it. Thus a particular value
of resistor, for fixed voltage, limits the current through it. They are
omnipresent in electronic circuits.
An electric resistor is a two-terminal passive component specifically used to
oppose and limit current. A resistor works on the principle of Ohms Law which
states that voltage across the terminals of a resistor is directly proportional to
the current flowing through it.
The different value of resistances are used to limit the currents or
get the desired voltage drop according to the current-voltage rating
of the device to be connected in the circuit. For example, if
an LED of rating 2.3V and 6mA is to be connected with a supply of
5V, a voltage drop of 2.7V (5V-2.3V) and limiting current of 6mA is
required. This can be achieved by providing a resistor of 450
connected in series with the LED.
Resistors can be either fixed or variable. The low power resistors are
comparatively smaller in size than high power resistors. The
resistance of a resistor can be estimated by their colour codes or
can be measured by a multimeter. There are some non linear
resistors also whose resistance changes with temperature or light.
Negative temperature coefficient (NTC), positive temperature
coefficient (PTC) and light dependent resistor (LDR) are some such
resistors. These special resistors are commonly used as sensors.
Read and learn about internal structure and working of a resistor.
Pin Diagram:

Capacitor
Capacitor is a passive component used to store charge. The charge
(q) stored in a capacitor is the product of its capacitance (C) value
and the voltage (V) applied to it. Capacitors offer infinite reactance
to zero frequency so they are used for blocking DC components or
bypassing the AC signals. The capacitor undergoes through a
recursive cycle of charging and discharging in AC circuits where the
voltage and current across it depends on the RC time constant. For
this reason, capacitors are used for smoothing power supply
variations. Other uses include, coupling the various stages of audio
system, tuning in radio circuits etc. These are used to store energy
like in a camera flash.
Capacitors may be non-polarized/polarized and fixed/variable. Electrolytic
capacitors are polarized while ceramic and paper capacitors are examples of
non polarized capacitors. Since capacitors store charge, they must be
carefully discharged before troubleshooting the circuits. The maximum voltage
rating of the capacitors used must always be greater than the supply
voltage. Click to learn more about working of a capacitor along with its internal
structure.

Diode
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A Diode is the simplest two-terminal unilateral semiconductor device. It

allows current to flow only in one direction and blocks the current that flows in
the opposite direction. The two terminals of the diode are called as anode and
cathode. The symbol of diode is as shown in the figure below.

The characteristics of a diode closely match to that of a switch. An ideal

switch when open does not conduct current in either directions and in closed
state conducts in both directions. The characteristic of a diode is as shown
in
the
figure
below.

Ideally, in one direction that is indicated by the arrow head diode must behave
short circuited and in other one that opposite to that of the direction of arrow
head must be open circuited. By ideal characteristics, the diodes is designed
to meet these features theoretically but are not achieved practically. So the
practical diode characteristics are only close to that of the desired.

Application:
Diodes are used in various applications like rectification, clipper, clamper,
voltage multiplier, comparator, sampling gates and filters.
1. Rectification The rectification means converting AC voltage into DC
voltage. The common rectification circuits are half wave rectifier (HWR), full
wave rectifier (FWR) and bridge rectifier.

Half wave rectifier: This circuit rectifies either positive or negative

pulse of the input AC. The figure is as shown below:

Full wave rectifier: This circuit converts the entire AC signal into
DC. The figure is as shown below:

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Bridge rectifier: This circuit converts the entire AC signal into DC.

The figure is as shown below:

2. Clipper- Diode can be used to clip off some portion of pulse without
distorting the remaining part of the waveform. The figure is as shown below:

3. Clamper A clamping circuit restricts the voltage levels to exceed a limit

by shifting the DC level. The peak to peak is not affected by clamping. Diodes
with resistors and capacitors are used to make clamping circuits. Sometimes

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independent DC sources can be used to provide additional shift. The figure is

as shown below:

Characteristics:

The current that flows through a diode is given by the equation:

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where ID - diode current. (Positive for forward and negative for reverse)
IS - constant reverse saturation current
V - applied voltage. (Positive for forward and negative for reverse)
- factor dependent upon the nature of semiconductor. (1 for
germanium and 2 for silicon)
VT - volt equivalent of temperature which is given by T/11600. (T is
Temperature in Kelvin)
When a forward voltage is applied at the terminals of a diode, the diode
begins to conduct. During conduction, the cut in or threshold voltage exceeds
the applied forward voltage. The threshold voltage for a germanium diode is
0.3V and for silicon diode is 0.7V. The forward current (miliampere range)
initially increases linearly and then increases exponentially for high currents.
When a a reverse voltage is applied, a reverse saturation current flows
through the diode. The diode continues to be in the non conducting state until
the reverse voltage drops below the zener voltage. As the reverse voltage
approximates the peak inverse voltage a breakdown called as the Avalanche
breakdown occurs. During the breakdown, the minority charge carriers ionize
the stable atoms which are followed by a chain ionization to generate a large
number of free charge carriers. Thus the diode becomes short circuited and
gets damaged.
Note: When diodes are connected in series their equivalent peak inverse
voltage is increased while in parallel connection the current carrying capacity
is increased.
As the temperature increases, the electron pairs generated thermally also
increases thereby increasing the conductivity in both directions. The reverse
saturation current also increases with the increase in temperature. The
change is 11% per C for a germanium diode and 8% per C for a silicon
diode. On the other hand the diode current is doubled for every 10C rise.
With increase in voltage, the firing voltage in forward characteristics is
reduced while peak reverse voltage is increased.
Note: The peak inverse voltage can be reduced by increasing the doping
level. The same concept is used to design zener diodes.
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BC547
BC547 is an NPN bi-polar junction transistor. A transistor, stands for transfer
of resistance, is commonly used to amplify current. A small current at its base
controls a larger current at collector & emitter terminals.
BC547 is mainly used for amplification and switching purposes. It has a
maximum current gain of 800. Its equivalent transistors are BC548 and
BC549.
The transistor terminals require a fixed DC voltage to operate in the desired
region of its characteristic curves. This is known as the biasing. For
amplification applications, the transistor is biased such that it is partly on for
all input conditions. The input signal at base is amplified and taken at the
emitter. BC547 is used in common emitter configuration for amplifiers. The
voltage divider is the commonly used biasing mode. For switching
applications, transistor is biased so that it remains fully on if there is a signal
at its base. In the absence of base signal, it gets completely off.

A BC547 transistor is a negative-positive-negative (NPN) transistor that is

used for many purposes. Together with other electronic components, such as
resistors, coils, and capacitors, it can be used as the active component for
switches and amplifiers. Like all other NPN transistors, this type has
an emitter terminal, a base or control terminal, and a collector terminal. In a
typical configuration, the current flowing from the base to the emitter controls
the collector current. A short vertical line, which is the base, can indicate
the transistorschematic for an NPN transistor, and the emitter, which is a
diagonal line connecting to the base, is an arrowhead pointing away from the
base.
There are various types of transistors, and the BC547 is a bipolar
junction transistor (BJT). There are also transistors that have one junction,
such as the junction field-effect transistor, or no junctions at all, such as the
metal

oxide

field-effect transistor (MOSFET).

During

the

design

and

manufacture of transistors, the characteristics can be predefined and

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achieved. The negative (N)-type material inside an NPN transistor has an

excess of electrons, while the positive (P)-type material has a lack of
electrons, both due to a contamination process called doping.
The BC547 transistor comes in one package. When several are placed in a
single package, it is usually referred to as a transistor array. Arrays are
commonly used in digital switching. Eight transistors may be placed in one
package to make layout much easier, for example.

3.1.7 TRANSFORMER:

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Fig: 3.4 Transformer

Transformers convert AC electricity from one voltage to another with little

loss of power. Transformers work only with AC and this is one of the reasons why
mains electricity is AC.
Step-up transformers increase voltage, step-down transformers reduce voltage.
Most power supplies use a step-down transformer to reduce the dangerously high
mains voltage (230V in UK) to a safer low voltage.
The input coil is called the primary and the output coil is called the
secondary. There is no electrical connection between the two coils, instead they are
linked by an alternating magnetic field created in the soft-iron core of the transformer.
The two lines in the middle of the circuit symbol represent the core.

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Fig: 3.5 Step Down Transformer

Transformers waste very little power so the power out is (almost) equal to the power
in. Note that as voltage is stepped down current is stepped up.

The ratio of the number of turns on each coil, called the turns ratio,
determines the ratio of the voltages. A step-down transformer has a large number of
turns on its primary (input) coil which is connected to the high voltage mains supply,
and a small number of turns on its secondary (output) coil to give a low output
voltage.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

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Fig: 3.6 Circuit Diagram Of Power Supply

3.1.8 CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION:
The +5 volt power supply is based on the commercial 7805 voltage
regulator IC.This IC contains all the circuitry needed to accept any input voltage
from 8 to 18 volts and produce a steady +5 volt output, accurate to within 5%
(0.25 volt). It also contains current-limiting circuitry and thermal overload
protection, so that the IC won't be damaged in case of excessive load current; it
will reduce its output voltage instead.
The 1000f capacitor serves as a "reservoir" which maintains a
reasonable input voltage to the 7805 throughout the entire cycle of the ac line
voltage. The two rectifier diodes keep recharging the reservoir capacitor on
alternate half-cycles of the line voltage, and the capacitor is quite capable of
sustaining any reasonable load in between charging pulses.
The 10f and .01f capacitors serve to help keep the power supply output
voltage constant when load conditions change. The electrolytic capacitor
smooths out any long-term or low frequency variations. However, at high
frequencies this capacitor is not very efficient. Therefore, the .01f is included to
bypass high-frequency changes, such as digital IC switching effects, to ground.

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The LED and its series resistor serve as a pilot light to indicate when the
power supply is on. I like to use a miniature LED here, so it will serve that
function without being obtrusive or distracting while I'm performing an
experiment. I also use this LED to tell me when the reservoir capacitor is
completely discharged after power is turned off. Then I know it's safe to remove
or install components for the next experiment.

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