The middle Ages

*The Roman Empire grew weaker

*Tribes of barbarians increased raids

*Rome was captured by the Goths

*New capital was built-Constantinople- Eastern Roman Empire

*Army leaves Britain in 410AD

The Byzantine Empire or Eastern Roman Empire was the Roman Empire during
the middle Ages, centered on the capital of Constantinople, and ruled by
Emperors. It was called the Roman Empire by its inhabitants and its neighbors,
and was also known as Romania (Greek: Ῥωμανία, Rhōmanía). As the distinction
between "Roman Empire" and "Byzantine Empire" is purely a modern
convention, it is not possible to assign a date of separation, but an important
point is the Emperor Constantine I's transfer of the capital from Nicomedia (in
Anatolia) to Byzantium on the Bosporus, which became Constantinople
(alternatively "New Rome").

STAMFORD BRIDGE- 1066

Edward confessor-1066, been king since 1042-no children, no surviving siblings

Prince Edgar- closest blood relative – Edwards’ nephews’ son- no siblings, little
experience in government or war

Edward died 5th January

He named Harold Goodwin as his successor, earl of Wessex- leader of the army,
his sister Edith had been Edwards’ wife

Duke William of Normandy was angry, he had visited the confessor king in 1051
and claimed that the king had promised hi m the throne. Harold had also been to
Normandy in 1064 and that while he was there Harold had sworn an oath on a
box of holy relics, promising to help William to the throne. William prepared to
invade England.

There was a 3rd man with a claim to the English throne, Harold Hardrada, King of
Norway. He said that Before Saxon king Edward, the Viking warrior Cnut had
been king from 1016 to 1042. He also had the support of a large army and of
Harold Goodwin’s’ brother Tostig who quarrelled with his brother and now
wanted revenge.

August 1066 Duke William was ready to sail from Normandy. Ki9ng Harold
gathered his army and stationed them along the south coast to await the attack.
All through-out the summer Harold’s fleet lay off the Isle of Wright, guarding the
channel.

Northerly winds, however, kept William in the port of Saint Valery. On the 8th
September, Harold was forced to disband the army so that they could collect
their harvest, for he could feed them no longer.

Two disasters quickly followed, 1. The English fleet was caught in gales in the
channel, and many ships were wrecked. 2. Tostig and Hardrada landed in the
Humber estuary with an invasion fleet of 300 ships.

The unprepared English army was defeated on 20th September in the battle of
Fulford. Hardrada controlled the north.

Harold hurried north with his housecarls, a highly-trained bodyguard, gathering

forces along the way. He made very fast progress. On the morning of the 25th
September, he surprised Hardrada’s troops as they rested at Stamford Bridge,
just outside of York. It was an unusually bloody battle, and the invading army
was slaughtered. Hardrada and Tostig were both killed, and so few others
survived that only 24 of the 300 ships returned. King Harold had seen of one
challenge, but only three days later the winds changed. On 28 September,
Williams’ invasion fleet left Normandy.

EDWARD THE CONFESSOR England’s king in 1066

PRINCE EDGAR Nearest blood relative, but only a child

HAROLD GOODWIN Earl of Wessex, was named as the next

king, leader of Edward the Confessors
army, related to royal family, but only
by marriage, sister married Edward
DUKE WILLIAM OF NORMANDY Claimed that Edward promised the
throne to him, he also claimed that
Harold Goodwin swore to help him win
over the throne, over a box of holy
relics. He prepared to invade England;
he believed he had the right to the
throne.
HAROLD HARDRADA King of Normandy, also claimed the
throne
TOSTIG Harold Goodwin’s brother, teamed up
with Hardrada, in order to seek
revenge upon his brother due to a
quarrel.

BATTLE OF HASTINGS
On the 28th September, William landed at Pevensey in Sussex, with about 5000
men. The news was brought to Harold who was now in York. Harold was weary
after 2 big battles, hurried southwards, with his best soldiers, the rest of the
army followed more slowly. October 13th, Harold reaches Senlac hill on the edge
of the forest near Hastings. He fortifies the top. October 14th, William advances
from Hastings and attacks the Saxons position. The Norman knights are driven
back all day.

October 14th. William advances from Hastings and attacks the Saxons position.
The Norman knights are driven back all day. By the afternoon William is
desperate, he ordered his archers to shoot high in the air. Harold’s two older
brothers are killed. The Norman knights pretend to retreat to get the Saxons out
of their defensive position and chase them.

When on high ground, the Norman horsemen turn and destroy the Saxon foot
soldiers. Harold himself is killed. His other men vanish into the forest. William
has won the battle. After marching through Sussex, Kent, Surrey, North
Hampshire, Berkshire and Hertfordshire, William comes to London. He is crowned
king on Christmas day 1066.

THE BAYEUX TAPESTRY

The Bayeux tapestry was created to commemorate the victory of William of
Normandy. It is a needle work that stretches 70m and is 50cm wide. It is made
up of 72 panels and shows events that took place between 1064-1066.It is
believed to have been created by Odo, bishop of Bayeux, and step-brother of
William. It is kept in France.

The Norman Conquest

The Norman Conquest succeeded in ending around 600 years of continual
fighting for control over England. William the conqueror and his Norman troops
were a strong force. They defeated English rebellions and many Viking raids on
England.

This consistent hold on power allowed William the conqueror and his Norman
earls to bring law and order and security. 1066 is the date that historians give to
the end of the dark ages.

FIRST STEP IN NORMAN CONTROL

The Norman army made big sweeps to different parts of the country, killing
people and animals and burning down home. This was to terrify the people into
keeping quiet and to punish them for rebelling. Devon, the midlands, East Anglia
and Yorkshire especially were very harshly treated.

THE SECOND PART OF THE NORMANS TAKING CONROL

The Normans built castles all over the country. In them were trusted nobles and
their knights to keep order. At first, to save time, the castles were wooded forts
often built on mound of earth. Late on, huge stone castles were made.
THIRRD STEP IN WHICH THE NORMANS TOOK CONTROL

Keeping order for a long time with soldiers is difficult. People hate the army and
are ready to rebel. For a real settlement the Norman kings used what is called
the feudal system. In some parts of Britain the Saxons Already had a kind of
feudal system, but the Normans made it much more important. Under this
system, everyone in the country, except the king, had a master or lord above
him to give him orders.

KIN

Tenants

Sub-

Peasant

PARTS OF A MANOR

FARMING STRIPS

TITHE BARN

MEADOW

WATERMILL

OPEN FIELDS

BAILIFFS HOUSE

FIRST FIELD

TOFTS
 TRACKS

CHURCH

MANOR HOUSE

SECOND FIELD

WELL

PASTURE

THIRD FIELD

PEASENTS

Tenants/freemen Serfs/villains Cottars

(Able to come and go as they please) (Tied to the manor)

(Sewing/craft)

In a Lords absence, 3 officials acted on his behalf.

1. The steward- who travelled from manor to manor checking on other officials and
the Manor Court
2. The Bailiff- a freeman appointed at each manor accounts, collects taxes, decides
what crops to grow and where, and to sort out problems between villeins. He also
made decisions about punishments at manor court.
3. The Reeve- appointed at each manor to supervise the villeins, and enforce
decisions made by the manor courts.

Heraldry
Heraldry helped soldiers identify one another during a battle. Noble families
designed pattern and symbols to paint on their shields that would represent their
family. These shields were called “COATS OF ARMS”. And they were probably
displayed on doors, plates and furniture.
CASTLES
The first English castles were built in about 1066, the Norman Conquest. They
helped the Normans to control the English. The 1st castles the built were called
moat and bailey castles. The motte was a huge hill or mound that had a wooden
building called a keep (or watch-tower) on top. The Bailey was a large area in
front of the motte. They were made of wood, but it was easy to build, carry, and
find.
Stone castles, on the other hand, were sturdy and strong. They were a sign of
wealth and status.
 Weapons
The medieval era saw many castles constructed. A totally new form of warfare
and weapons were introduced to England with the castles- medieval

ARMOUR USED DEFENCE STRATEGIES ATTACK WEAPONS AND

STRATEGIES
METALPLATED ARMOUR ARCHERS
STEEL PLATED SWORDS LADDERS TO SCALE WALLS
MAIL ROCKS MINES
BREASTPLATED HIGH, THICK WALLS BATTERING RAMS
HELMS KEEP SPEARS
MOAT TREBUCHET
WITHDRAWAL BALLISTA
MANGONEL
FIRE

siege warfare. Siege warfare tactics and weapons

KNIGHTS
CODE OF CHIVALRY

THE RULES THAT KNIGHTS PROMISED TO OBEY WERE CALLEDTHE CODE OF

CHIVALRY. These rules show the importance of knights in medieval society. And
the way they were expected to behave. The rules were:

-Protect and obey the church

-Be loyal to the king and country

-To be loyal to your feudal Lord

-Fight against evil and infidel

-Never retreat in battle

-Protect the weak and the good

-Be generous, loving, loyal and godly

-defend a woman’s honour

-be the champion of justice

At the age of 7- PAGE

He was to study under the guide of a noble-woman. He was to learn how to be

polite, serve god, to read and write
At the age of 14-SQUIRE

He was, through service to a knight, learn how to become one , and all it entails,
such as looking after armour, weaponry, horses, continue training in military
service, social graces and cultural pursuits.

At the age of approx. 21-KNIGHT

Appointed into knight hood.

CRIME and PUNISHMENT

Crimes- whinging, gossiping, witchcraft, unfaithfulness, treason,

Punishments- thumbscrews, hung, drawn and quartered, burnt, stretched,

dunking, stocks, fines, locked up with wild animals, beheading, executed,
torture, ordeal by fire, ordeal by water, oaths

THE CRUSADES
In 1071, the fanatic Seljuk Turks from the north, who had recently converted to
Islam, made ferocious attacks upon Christian pilgrims in the holy lands. It was no
longer safe for the Christian pilgrims.

The Emperor of Byzantine appealed to the Pope Urban II for help in re-
establishing passage to the Holy Land. In 1095, the Pope, at a council meeting at
Clermont, France, called upon the knights of Christendom (the Christian world) to
restore the Holy Land from the infidel. During the next month, the Pope sent
envoys throughout Europe to spread the message of the crusade. All over
Europe and England people were preparing to “Take the Cross”, or go into battle
in defence of Christianity.

In the enforced relative order and peace of British society since William the
conqueror, British knights and barons found it an excellent opportunity to
practice their knightly skills. Young nobles saw it as an opportunity to make their
fortunes by winning lands from the infidel.

The armies of Crusaders were also made up of serfs who had left their homeland
for a number of reasons a. Some had been granted freedom by their lords if they
attended the crusade, and willingly jumped at the opportunity. Others had found
their lives hard with bad harvest, famine, plagues, harsh lords or simply not
enough land to go around.

There was, of course, the original religious zeal that sent people to the crusades.
They believed if they in the cause of God, they would go on to heaven. Their
religious fervour spurred them on.

RESULTS OF THE CRUSADE

-The crusaders failed to free the holy lands

-The meeting of the east (Muslim land) and west (Europe)

-Increasing power of the Pope

-Death of many lords, knights, barons etc. Destroyed the feudal system

WHAT WAS THE POINT OF FIGHTING THE CRUSADES? The main reason for
fighting the crusades was religion. The Christians and Muslims were both fighting
for what they both believed to be holy land.
WHERE WERE THE CRUSADES FOUGHT? In the holy lands, Modern day Israel,
and throughout the Middle East
WHO FOUGHT IN THE CRUSADES? The Muslims, the Christians the nobles,
kings, peasants, serfs, freemen

THE TOWN
The shambles- the street was the best known in the medieval city of York.
Hardly wider than an alley, it has rows of neat little shops. The upper stories
overhang the alley so neighbours could be very close. The shambles is where (in
the age before refrigeration) the butchers had their shops. In a city with a
reputation for its stink, this part must have been the smelliest.

MEDIEVAL SHOPS- In market towns there were symbols over many shop
doorways. This was especially important in the middle Ages, as many people
could not read. Shops were specialised; they were very small (often only an
arched recess on the ground floor of the building) and sold only one type of
good, such as fish, cloth, hats, or bread. Often, all the shops of one street would
sell the same product as their name suggested, for example, Fish street, Baker
Street, Candler Street, Clothier Street, and butchers row, which are all in London.

Shop symbols included;

Striped pole- barber

Shoe- cobbler

Vase jar- potter

Chicken- poulterer

TRADE

Early tradesmen used to barter their goods. One man might exchange poultry for
cloth; or offer pottery or weaving for vegetables or shoes. Bartering however,
was often difficult as there was conflict over the value of the goods or the goods
might be too bulky to easily bring to the marketplace. People begun using
weights of precious metals instead, and so coins were developed.
Towns could make money by charging rent for market stalls or tolls on goods
coming into the town. As towns begun to make their own money, they could
begin to bargain with the king or Lord in order to gain freedom from feudal
obligations.

CRAFTS MEN

People engaged in one part of kind of craft tended to live together in one part of
the town. Among the craftsmen and traders were carpenters, weavers, dyers,
tailors, millers, butchers, cooks, bakers, candlestick makers, tilers, coopers,
goldsmiths, wheelwrights and drapers.

THE BLACK DEATHS

During the 14th century, most of Europe was struck by a devastating disease
called the Black Death, or bubonic plague. Infected fleas were carried in the fur
of rats into every home and people. The children’s rhyme, “Ring a Ring a Rosie’,
which refers to herb treatment and death, is based on the Black Death.

Although the Black Death was controlled in Europe by 1351, it recurred at

regular intervals for the next 150 year. It was not until the Great Fire of London
in the 17th century, which destroyed the source of filth and congestion that
fuelled the plague, that London was free of the plague.

WITCHCRAFT

Witch craft was a very serious crime in the, Middle Ages. People believed that
witches were the devils followers on earth, and that they used their special
powers to bring suffering and unhappiness into the word. People blamed witches
of all kinds of natural disasters, famine, plague, and drought, the failure of
harvest or even of the stillbirth of a baby. Sometimes people accused others of
being witches because of jealousy or a desire of revenge. Whatever the reason,
it was not hard to find ‘evidence’ to convict someone.

THE CHURCHES LAW

The Catholic Church used its own courts and its own law to try and control
people’s behaviour. People would be fined or even whipped if they worked on
Sundays and holy days. The most serious crime against the church was that of
heresy, the offence of criticising the church of its teachings. Church courts also
heard cases involving fights husbands and wives.

CHRISTIANITY IN THE MIDDLE AGES

Timeline-

• Christianity begun 2000 years ago

• * Christianity became illegal
• * Emperor Constantine changed the la, by AD 392, it became the official
religion
• * Christianity spread powerful through Europe
• * Church decided who went to Heaven and Hell, purgatory

THE RENAISSENCE
WHTA WAS HTE RENAISSENCE?
The renaissance is a French word for ‘rebirth’. It is used to describe a
period in European history when there was a renewed interest in the work
of ancient Greek and roman scholars and artists, an increase in the spread
of new ideas, and a remarkable outpouring of artistic creativity.
HOW DID THE RENAISSENCE BEGIN?
The Renaissance begun in the city-states of northern Italy, such as Milan,
Florence and Venice. By the 14th century, these cities had become strong
trading centres. This made Italian merchants wealthy- many used this
wealth to crate beautiful houses decorated with wonderful artworks. This
also meant that the artists of the town received encouragement and
money from merchants (who become known as patrons, or supporters of
the arts.
Trade also brought knowledge to the Italian cities. They had strong links
with the Muslim world and Byzantine world.-in the e13th century. The links
gave them different ideas, after the fall of CONSTANTINOPLE, capital of
BYZANTINE EMPIRE to a Muslim army in 1453, many Greek soldiers fled to
northern Italy. They brought with them their collections of ancient
manuscripts.
Learning and artistic activity slowly spread throughout Germany, Belgium,
Holland, and England.
THE REFORMATION
Martin Luther- 1483- 1546
95 statements
Declared heretic 1520
Translated bible from Latin into German

PRINTING PRESS
Invented 1440’s
In Germany

AGE OF DISCOVERY
The period known as the Renaissance was also known as the time when
European exploration of the globe begun in earnest. The 12th century
crusades opened European eyes to the highly civilised culture in the east.
Not only did returning crusaders bring back knowledge of science,
geography, medicine and mathematics, but also new products including
spices, silk, sugar and precious stones. Trade in these goods proved
lucrative to those merchants willing to travel. By the mid 1400’s, the
situation had changed. Trade routes were closed down or made unsafe
following the collapse of the long standing Byzantine and Mongolian
Empires. A safe route to the Indies had to be found from Western Europe.

THE AGE OF EXPLORATION

The 155th to the 1800th century
Terra Incognita- unknown land

Colonisation- the term refers to the process in which people from a

specific community take over control of an area over someone else. A
district or country that is ruled by a different country is called a ‘colony’.

Economic-places where colonies were established produced natural

resources, good and raw materials such as gold, tobacco, spices, cotton,
silks and even slaves. Colonies also provided a place from the European
countries to sell goods and generated even more wealth.

Power-many people believed that they could gain power and status by
conquering new land. It was an opportunity to make up in social standing.
E.g. - peasants to noble

THE AZTECS
City in the lake-
The Aztecs built their capital city, Tenochtitlan, on an island in
the middle of Lake Texcoco in the central Valley of Mexico. It was
founded around AD 1325, and soon grew into one of the largest cities in
the world. Historians estimate that over 2000,000 people lived there
by 1500. As the centre of Aztec government, the city saw traders,
ambassadors, scribes and porters streaming in with huge loads of tribute
from all over Mesoamerica. Thousands of enemy soldiers captured in
battle were also brought there to be sacrificed to the gods.

The city was divided into 4 districts- Flowery palace, Mosquito Fen,
Heron’s Home and, at the centre, the Sacred Precinct. The four
districts of the city were linked to one another, and to the mainland, by
countless little canals and surfaces of the lake. Fresh drinking water
forms the nearby Mountains was carried by a tall stone aqueduct.

According to the legend, the Aztecs chose the site for Tenochtitlan after
they received a message from the god Huitzilopochtli. He told them to
 build their city where they saw an eagle sitting on a cactus eating a snake.
Priests and rulers told legends like this to give reasons for their past
actions and make people accept their future plans.

AZTEC SOCIETY
The Aztecs are one example of the many sophisticated societies in
ancient history. The Aztecs built huge ceremonial temple- pyramids. They
had marvellous astronomical knowledge and possessed fabulous
craftsman. The Aztecs lived in an area called Meso-america, which
involved the modern day countries such as Mexico, Guatemala, Honduras,
El Salvador and Belize. This Area is located between the north and South
America.

14th century- Aztec tribes begun

The Aztecs transformed themselves from a nomadic tribe in to a huge

civilisation.

Despite their sophistication they were hugely into human sacrifices, believing it
to be the only way for t them to survive.

DYKES- a long wall that protected a city from brackish water

AQUEDUCTS- long wide canals/ water ways that held the cities supply of
water

BRACKISH-salty water

The Aztec Empire

There were 38 provinces in the Aztec Empire which was as large as Modern – day
– Mexico. It had a population of over 12,000,000 people. Tenochtitlan, their city,
was the religious and administrative centre of the Aztec Empire

Aztec Government- the Aztecs lived in a highly organised society. They were
governed by a male ruler who was chosen from a royal family.

Aztec Society- 2 social classes, clearly defined roles for men and women,
NOBILITY –PILLI, COMMONERS- MACEHUALLES. A commoner could become a
noble in a brave act of war. All boys go to school at 15. School called hose of
youth. They learned history, art of war, a trade, religion, and citizenship. Aztec
law was harsh and simple.

Aztec Beliefs - more than 300 gods. Each one was responsible for a different
part of life.

Aztec Writing- used calendars and developed writing. Used glyphs. Made
books called codex. Long strips of paper or animal skins. Aztec government 48
000 sheets of paper per year.
 CHINAMPAS
Chinampa is a method of ancient Mesoamerican agriculture which used small,
rectangle-shaped areas of fertile arable land to grow crops on the shallow lake
beds in the Valley of Mexico.
Often referred to as "floating gardens," Chinampa were artificial islands that
usually measured roughly 30 m × 2.5 m (98 ft × 8.2 ft), although they were
sometimes longer. They were created by staking out the shallow lake bed and
then fencing in the rectangle with wattle. The fenced-off area was then layered
with mud, lake sediment, and decaying vegetation, eventually bringing it above
the level of the lake. Often trees such as āhuexōtl (Salix bonplandiana)[1] and
āhuēhuētl (Taxodium mucronatum)[2] were planted at the corners to secure the
Chinampa. Chinampa were separated by channels wide enough for a canoe to
pass.
The earliest fields that have been securely dated are from the Middle Post classic
period, 1150 – 1350 CE. Chinampa were used primarily in Lakes Xochimilco and
Chalco near the springs that lined the south shore of those lakes. The Aztecs not
only conducted military campaigns to obtain control over these regions but,
according to some researchers, undertook significant state-led efforts to increase
their extent. Chinampa farms also ringed Tenochtitlán, the Aztec capital, which
was considerably enlarged over time due to the use of chinampas. Smaller-scale
farms have also been identified near the island-city of Xaltocan and on the east
side of Lake Texcoco. With the destruction of the dams and sluice gates during
the Spanish conquest of Mexico, many Chinampa fields were abandoned,
although remnants are still in use today in what remains of Lake Xochimilco.
The primary Chinampa crops were maize, beans, squash, amaranth, tomatoes,
and chili peppers, although Chinampa were also used to grow flowers. It is
estimated that food provided by Chinampa made up one-half to two-thirds of the
food consumed by the city of Tenochtitlan. Chinampa were fertilized using lake
sediments as well as human excrement.
The word Chinampa comes from the Nahua word chināmitl, meaning "square
made of canes".
Telepuchcalli- house of youth.

AZTEC DOWNFALL
At the beginning of 1519- Aztec year one reed, Montezuma , Aztec king, Cortes ,
Spanish conquistador,

April 21, 1519--the year Ce Acatl (One Reed) by Aztec reckoning-- marked the
opening of a short but decisive chapter in Mexico's history. On that day a fleet of
11 Spanish galleons sailing along the eastern gulf coast dropped anchor just off
the wind-swept beach on the island of San Juan de Ulúa. Under the command of
the wily, daring Hernán Cortés, the vessels bore 550 Spanish soldiers and sailors,
as well as 16 horses, the first of the species to tread the American continent.
The party disembarked to set up camp on the dunes behind the beach. In a
friendly reception from the native Totonac Indians, greetings and gifts were
exchanged. Cognizant of the existence of a great inland Empire, Cortés promptly
dispatched a message requesting an audience with Aztec ruler Moctezuma II.
(The term "Aztec" will be used throughout, although some historians prefer the
less familiar designation "Mexica" for the last of Mexico's formidable pre-Hispanic
civilizations.)
Runners had already carried word to the "Lord of Cuhúa" in Tenochitlán, the
capital city set on an island in Lake Texcoco some 200 hundred miles away. They
reported the arrival of fair-skinned, bearded strangers and fearsome "man-
beasts" (cavalry) who had descended from "towers floating on the sea."
Cortés wasted no time in staking a claim for God and King, ceremoniously
founding a settlement on the coast that he christened Villa Rica de la Vera Cruz,
in reference to the fleet's arrival on Good Friday to what he believed to be a vast
land of plenty. The Spanish Conquest had begun.
All odds were against this tiny band of adventurers who would soon venture into
unknown territory to topple the mighty Aztec Empire. It could never have
happened were it not for Cortés' remarkable fortitude and cunning, coupled with
an incredible series of coincidental prior events.
In the wake the "discovery" of the Western Hemisphere by Christopher Columbus
(1492), Spanish and Portuguese explorers continued the quest for riches in the
New World. Among these were Francisco Hernández de Córdoba and Juan de
Grijalba who, under the orders of Diego Veláquez, Spanish Governor of Cuba, set
out on ill-fated ventures to the Yucatan and Mexico's gulf coast (1517-1518).
Velázquez then commissioned the 34 year-old Cortés to lead a new expedition
westward, but alarmed by escalating costs, had a last-minute change of heart.
The eager and ever-astute Cortés eluded cancellation of the enterprise by hastily
setting sail. The fleet first landed on the island of Cozumel off the Yucatan
peninsula. There Cortés ransomed fellow Spaniard Gerónimo de Aguilar who had
been forced to live among the Mayas after surviving a 1511 shipwreck during a
prior expedition. Aguilar proved an invaluable asset to Cortés, acting as his
personal interpreter of both native language and culture.
Communication problems arose anew, however, as the Spaniards sailed farther
north, encountering natives who spoke a different tongue. Fortuitously, the spoils
of victory over a Tabascan chieftain at Potonchán included a gift of twenty native
maidens, one of whom was fluent in both the Náhuatl and Mayan tongues. The
comely and clever Malintzin was promptly baptized with a Spanish name, Marina,
and appointed the task of intervening in further contacts with indigenous
peoples. She translated Náhuatl to Mayan for Aguilar, who then put her words
into Spanish.
Doña Marina soon earned her place as Cortés' most intimate adviser by first
mastering Spanish and then becoming his mistress. Eventually she bore him a
son, Martín, the first mixed-blood Mexican or mestizo. For having aided the
Spaniards, today she is widely considered a traitor to her own people. The
moniker by which she is mostly commonly known, la Malinche, gave rise to the
modern-day term malinchista used in reference a Mexican who takes a fancy to
anything of foreign origin.
Meanwhile, back in Tenochitlán, Moctezuma was in a quandary as to how to best
deal with the unwelcome strangers. Ancient legend prophesied that
Quetzalcoátl, the bearded, fair-skinned Toltec ruler-god, would return from the
east in the year Ce Acatl to reclaim his kingdom. Evil omens that had
confounded the Aztec priests and sorcerers over the previous decade only
heightened Moctezuma's anxiety. First, despite fair weather, the waters of Lake
Texcoco had suddenly boiled up, flooding the island of their capital city. Then an
inexplicable conflagration had consumed the temple of their chief god,
Huitzilopochtli. The voice of a woman wailing in the night had repeatedly
disturbed the city's slumber. Immense comets with fiery tails had been seen
shooting through day-time skies and a great column of fire had appeared in the
east every night for an entire year. All of these were taken to be signs of
Quetzalcoátl's imminent return.
A hostile reception of the mighty Plumed Serpent or his emissaries was
unthinkable. So Moctezuma sent Cortés a cordial message, but cautioned him
against proceeding to the Aztec capital. It was, he noted, an arduous journey
through deserts, mountains and dangerous enemy territories. He also sent many
fine gifts, tokens of his esteem which he hoped would placate the strangers or,
better still, spur them to return from whence they came.
The gold and other Aztec finery only whetted the Spaniards' appetite for new
world riches. Determined to carry forward, the next moves Cortés made were as
astute as they were bold. After dispatching trusted envoys back to Spain to
deliver letters and Aztec treasure to his monarch, Carlos V, he stripped and
scuttled the remainder of his fleet. This drastic measure constituted a blatant act
of rebellion against his direct superior, Governor Velázquez, but by effectively
eliminating any means of desertion, Cortés hoped to assure the do-or-die loyalty
of his men.
Through cunning and intrigue Cortés forged an alliance with the Totonacs at the
coastal city-state Cempoala, then under Aztec dominion. The Spanish army was
thus beefed up with more than a thousand native warriors plus 200 porters. With
a small party left to hold the fort at Vera Cruz, Cortés commenced the hazardous
journey towards the Aztec capital.
To the east of the great twin volcanoes Popocatépetl and Ixtaccíhuatl lay the first
obstacle, the small kingdom of Tlaxcala whose fierce mountain people who had
long managed to defy Aztec dominance. Suspecting the odd strangers to be
agents of Moctezuma the Tlaxcalans promptly engaged the Spaniards in battle.
Superior weaponry and military tactics, added to internecine rivalry between
Tlaxcalan generals, helped Cortés prevail despite the fact that his troops were
greatly outnumbered. The subsequent Spanish-Tlaxcalan alliance proved to be a
crucial factor in the ultimate downfall of the Aztecs.
Next came a dangerous interlude at the great ceremonial center, Cholula.
Warned by la Malinche that a plot was afoot to ambush and capture the
Spaniards, Cortés outfoxed the Cholulan caciques (native chieftains),
engineering a surprise attack in the city's center that left thousands dead. The
Tlaxcalans joined in the fray, razing Cholula in a two-day rampage.
Finally the Spaniards approached their destination, descending into the Valley of
Mexico from a high mountain pass between the great volcanoes. In early
November 1519, with Cortés in the lead, they filed across the southern causeway
into the magnificent Tenochtitlán. They were received with much ceremony by a
retinue of lords and nobles headed by Moctezuma himself, and escorted to their
quarters in the ancient palace of Atzayacatl, the emperor's father. The wary
Moctezuma made great efforts to play the perfect host, showing his unwanted
guests around the city and entertaining them with splendid banquets.
Aware of the precarious situation in which he had placed his band of
adventurers, Cortés made an extraordinarily bold move to secure their safety.
He took Moctezuma captive, holding him in the Spaniards quarters. This bizarre
state of affairs continued for eight months until news came that Spanish troops
sent by the Cuban Governor Velázquez had arrived at the coast had arrived to
place Cortés under arrest. Leaving a garrison in charge in the Aztec capital,
Cortés marched back eastward with a band of his finest soldiers. He defeated his
intended captors in battle at Cempoala, and soon was headed back to
Tenochtitlán with the newcomers in tow.
In his absence, Pedro de Alvarado, the garrison's commander, ordered an attack
on the Aztecs in the midst of what he viewed as an alarmingly frenetic religious
celebration. Enraged by the vicious slaughter, the native population rebelled.
Upon his return, Cortés tried to quell the hostilities by persuading Moctezuma to
mount the roof of Atzayacatl's palace and appeal to his people for peace. Their
response was to shower the emperor with insults, stones and arrows, inflicting
physical and mental injury that soon resulted in his death.
Under Moctezuma's successor, Cuitláhuac (who succumbed to smallpox several
months later), the Aztecs mounted a full-scale siege on the conquistadores. With
food and water scarce, the Spaniards and their Tlaxcalan allies attempted to slip
out of the city under cover of darkness on what is now known as La Noche Triste,
the Sad Night. An alarm was sounded and the Aztecs attacked with fury.
Hundred of soliders were killed or captured. Others, weighted down with the gold
and silver loot they had collected, fell into the canals and drowned. A
despondent Cortés collapsed and wept beneath the famous ahuehuete tree that
still stands today in the Mexico City suburb of Tacuba.
Damaged but not entirely disheartened, the surviving Spaniards and their allies
retreated back into Tlaxcalan territory to regroup. In subsequent months they
healed their wounds and trained for battle. Devising a new strategy, Cortés built
a fleet of brigantines for his next attack.
In January 1521 the conquistadores once again entered the valley of Mexico.
They staged a series of raids throughout the countryside and took the Aztec
stronghold at Texcoco, from whence they could launch the newly built fleet. In
May Cortés began his final assault on Tenochtitlán, bearing down from every
direction, with separate divisions assigned to each of the city's three causeways
and the flotilla moving in by water.
The Aztecs fought valiantly under leadership of the last Aztec emperor,
Cuauhtemoc, whose name translates as "falling eagle" or alternately "setting
sun." Ravaged by diseases introduced by the Spaniards, deprived of fresh water
and food supplies from the mainland, they withstood an 80-day siege,
surrendering August 13, 1521, only after their captured leader grasped the
dagger in Cortés' belt and pleaded, "I have done all that I could to defend my
people. Do with me now what you will."
Their fervor fueled by victory, the conquistadores lay the Aztec empire to waste,
erasing the remnants of the culture as best they could, scorching Tenochtitlán by
fire, leveling its majestic temples. The rubble would make up the foundations of
a new world, the cradle of a brand new people.
SPANISH MOTTO- GOD,GOLD AND GLORY

EATS: EAT SMALL DOGS, TACOS, CHOCOLATE,MAIZE, TORTILLAS, PEPERS,

TOMATOES, CHILLIES, AVACADOES