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The ASSUREModel
AnalyzeLrarners
StateObjectives
SelectMethods, Media, and Materials
Utilizc Media and Materials
RequireLearnerParticipation
Evaluateand Revise

{ , Demonstratcyour ability to follow the stepsinvolvedin systematicplanning


for the useof media (the ASSUREmodel).
List generalcharacteristics
of learnersand typesof specificcompetencies
that could affect mediaselection.
Describelearningstyle,including four typesof traits that affectit.
Discussthe rationalefor statingobjectivesfor instruction.your discussion
should include purposesor usesof objectives.
write objectivcsthat refer to the audience,behavi'or,conditions,and degree
of mastery.
Demonstrateyour ability to follow the basicproceduresfor selecting,
modifying, and designingmaterials,and indicatewhen eachchoiceii
appropriate.
Describewaysof modifying materialswithout actuallyaltering the originals.
create examplesof the five basicstepsin utilizing instructionalmaterials.
Identi$r generalshowmanshiptechniquesin referenceto planning,practice,
and prescntation.
Describemethodsfor elicitingstudentresponseduring and afterusingmedia.
Justi$ the requirernentfor lcarnerparticipationwhen using media.
compare and contrastthe techniquesfor evaluatingstudentachievement
and the techniquesfor evaluatingmediaand methods.
li

entry test
prerequisite
learning style
motivation
intrinsic motivator
extrinsicmotivator

cntenon
cognitivc domain
affective domain
motor skill domain
interpersonal domain

mediaformat
showmanship
feedback
practice
authentic assessment

A Model to Help Assure Leqrning

Lg,arners

glqlp, Pbiptives

's
os
the firststepin plonning b identifythe the navJstepfs to stob lhe o'blecilves
Yourleorners
moybe,{or exont speclflcollyos possible,Theoblectives
leorners.
of on moybe derivedhomo coursesyllobus,
troinees,
or mgmbers
nle, studenfs.
qs
slobd In o tgxtbook,tokenhom o curschool,
such o. $rndoy
orgonizofion
ricuiumguide.or developedby the in'
civic club, ,youthgroup,or froternolor
Theyshouldbe stotedin tetmsot
oonieolion.Youmurslkncnrw.r students $iruclor.
whattheleornbrwill bb obleib do os o
ro meettheob
io ,"1""r fre beg''rnedium
under
Theconditions
rut;ouaqce conbe qnolyzedtn resultof ln$hucfion.
l6th,1e$.
terrns o{ ll l ;generul chamcisristics, which,$esludenlor hoinEsls goingto
l2l specificentry oomp@ncleslknowl' performond lhE degreaof oeceptoble
shouldbe included.
oburtthetopicl, performonce
edge,skills,ondottitudes
style.
ondl3l leoming

THE ASSUREMODET
All cffective instruction requires carefirl planning'
Teaching with instructional media and technology is
certainly no exception.This chapter examineshow to
plan systematicallyfor thc effective use of instructional
mcdia and technologa. We have constructed a procedural model to which we have given the acronym
/SSUR-E-iI is intended to assareeffcctive instruction.
You can think of the teaching-learningProccssas
progressingthrough scverdstages.Gagn6(1985) refcrs
to thesestagesas "events of instruction.' Gagn6'sresearchrevealedthat well-designedlessonsbegin with
the arousalof students'interest and then move on to

Select Methods,
Media, g,nd i/,alerials

youroudlence
Onceyou hoveldentified
you hovees'
ond sbtedyouroblectives,
toblfshedthe beginningpoints {oudi'
knowledge,
skills,ond ot'
ence'spresent
ol
endingpoinlsloblectlvesf
titudesl'ond
Yourtosknow is to buildo
insfruction.
bridge between these two poinls by
choosingoppropriotemethods,technology, ond medio{ormsts,lhendeciding
fiesechoices'
on mobriolsto lmplrnenl
Thereoretlrreeoplionsl(l lselectovoiloble
ot
moteriols,
mobriols,{2)modifyexisting
(3fdesignnewmoteriols.

presentnew material,involve studentsin practicewith


tfieir understanding,and go on to folfcedback,assess
lowup activities. The ASSURE model incorporates
thesceventsof instruction.
Thc ASSURE model-a procedural guide for planning and conducting instruction that incoqporatesmedia
that training or instruction is
and technology--antsumes
required. A firll-blown processof instructional developto determine
ment would begin with a needsassessment
whether instruction is the appropriatesolution to a perfirrmanceproblem.
Thc ASSUREmodel focuseson planning surrounding the actualclassroomuseof media and technology.
It is lessambitious than modelsof instructional devel4

Evaluate

g,nd tevrbe

io hr "ff".ri*, lnshuction
shoridreoulra Afterinslruclion,if b nee6brory
to evohr*
ocilVem'entol
by leorners. ote ffs irlrpoctr,ond
engogement
effedivendgs,
snd rfo
Thdieshouldlie oclivities
thotollowleorn- ossessstudentleorning.To gel fte totcl
ogy willbe usedto itnplement
yooiinath- ers lrr procticerhe knowledgeor shlls piclure,youmuslevoluote
lheentireInrnokriolsondproc" dnd k: receVefeedbockcn the oppre' structiondl
ods.Frrsf.:prevlewfre
process.
Didfi leomersrneel
Ucr the implemenfcitiorr.
Next,"prepore prlotrsness
theobfetttves9Did the mefisds,nredh,
of ttrekeffortsbeforebeingfor
dreclossand reodylhe necessoyec{uip , moHyossessed
und technolqgy,drslstr,lhb
:fqines In
mentond foctlittes.
Thenconduclthe in"
Proclice
moyinrohestudenl
selFchecks, reochlngthe obiectives?Could oH stu
slructionusingthe utilizotio-n
instructirrn,
lnFrnetoctfu'F denhusethemoterblsproperly?
.tqghniques conpubrossisled
lies.cngroupgromes.
describedin thigond lolbrchoi:ters.
feedbockm<rybe
Wherever
lheresre discreponcies
be
Stu&rfs mffy ule the medioond mo- prqded $ he teocher,
o computer,
ofier fweenwhoiyou intended
ond whol you
or studenb,
o' reffevoluofi
on.
brjols indvlduolly,ot tn self-lnstruction,
ottoined,.you
will wonllo revisetheplon
ln smqflgrou*. os iri cooperolheleorn
for he nixl time.
lng.they moyusbprinbdmotdrlcls,
such
or wciitiroofts.or cornputeFMsed
technobgy;suchos tlre.lrtilgmel. ''

opment, which arc intended to guide thc entire


processof designinginstructional systems.Such models include the proceduresof the ASSURE model and
the processesof needsanalysis,subjectmatter analysis,
product design,prototype tryout, systemimplementation, and the like. Thcse larger-scaleinstructional development procedures typically involve teams of
specidistsand rcquirc major commitmentsof time and
money. (Further information about instructional design can be found in thc Referencesand Suggested
Readings at the end of this chapter.) Thc ASSURE
modcl, on the othcr hand, is meant for the individual
instructor to usewhen planning classroomuseof media and technology.

To illustrate how to use the six steps of the ASSURE model, we will provide an exampleof a "Blueprint" for each stcp aftcr it is dcscribcd. These steps
taken together constitute a (Blucprinto-or lesson
plan-that describesthe instructional planning used
by a middle school math tcacher who wanted to redesign a unit on statistics.The teacher felt that the
mathematicstcxtbook presentedstatistics(collecting
data, interpreting data, and presenting data) very inadequately.One particularly disappointing aspect of
textbook material covering this topic was that technology was not incorporated in thc tcaching. She believed that, considering today's technology-bascd
world, this skill deserved more attention than it
5

traditionally receivedin schools.Therefore,shechoseto


developa unit that addressedsomeof the basicstatistical skillsthrough the useof computer applications.
The "Classroom Link Portfolio' CD-ROM in the
backof this book letsyou usethe ASSUREmodel to create your own lessonplans. The program Presentseach
step of the model in a flexible format that allows you to
develop your own lessonplans by entering them into a
computer versionof the ASSUREmodel. Instructions on
how to use the "ClessroomLink Pordclio' CD-ROM
arc found online at the Companion Website for this
text (httpt / /www.prenhall.com/heinich), and on the
CD-ROM itself.

ANALVZE LEARNERS
If insuuctional mediaand technologyareto be usedcffcctivcly,thcre must bc a match bctweenthe charactcristics of the learner and thc content of the methods,
media, and materials.The first step in the ASSURE
model, therefore,is analysisof your audience.
It is not feasibleto analyzeeverytrait ofyour learners. Severalfactors, however, are critical for making
good methodsand media decisions:
o Generalcharacteristics
o Specificentry competencies
r Irarning styles
General characteristicsinclude broad identifring
descriptors such as age, gradc level, job or position,
and cultural or socioeconomicfactors. Specificentry
competenciesrefcr to knowledge and skills that learners either possessor lack: prerequisite skills, target
skills, and attitudes. Thc third factor, learning style,
rcfersto the spectrumofpsychologicaltraits that affcct
how we perceiveand respondto diffcrent stimuli, such
asanxiety,aptitude, visualor auditory preference,motivation, and so on.

General Characteristics
can
Even a superficialanalysisoflearncr characteristics
provide helpful leadsin sclcctinginstructionalmethods
and media. For example, studcnts with substandard
reading skills may be reached morc effcctively with
nonprint media. Ifyou aredealingwith a particularethnic or cultural subgroup, you might want to give high
priority to considerationsof ethnic and cultural idcntity
and valuesin selecting particular materials.
If learnerapathytoward the subjectmatter is a problem, considerusing a highly stimulating instructional
approach,such as a dramatic videotape,a simulation
game,or a technology-basedactivity.
karners entering a new conceptualareafor the first
timc may need more direct, concretekinds of experi-

ences,such asfield trips or role-playingexercises(refer


to Dale's Cone of Experiencein Chapter I). More advancedlearnersusuallyhavea sufficient basefor using
audiovisualor evenverbal materials.
Heterogeneousgroups,which include learnersvarying widely in their conceptualsophisticationor in the
amount of firsthand experiencethey have with the
topic, mayprofit from an audiovisualexperiencesuchas
a videotape.Such media presentationsprovide a common experiential base that can serve as an important
point of referencefor subsequentgroup discussionand
individual study.
For insuuctors dealing with a familiar audience,
will be somethingof a
analysisof generalcharacteristics
given. At timcs, however, audience analysismay be
morc difficult. Perhapsyour students are new to you,
and you havehad littlc time to observeand record their
characteristics.Or perhapsthey are a morc heterogencous group than is ordinarily found in the classroombusinesstrainces,for cxamplc, or a civic club, youth
group, or fraternalorganization-thus making it more
difficult to ascertainwhether all or even a majority of
your learnersarercadyfor the mcthodsand mediaof insuuction you are considcring.In such cases,academic
and other recordsmaybe helpful, aswcll asdirect questioning of and talking with learnersand instructors or
other group leaders.Seasonedpublic speakers-those
who regularly addressunfamiliar audiences-make it a
practiceto arrive early and suike up a conversationwith
audiencemembers.In this waythey canpick up valuable
clucs about the types of people in the audience,their
backgrounds,their expectations,and their moods.

SpecificEntry Competencies
When you begtnto plan anylesson,yotr first assumption
is that the learnerslack the knowledge or skills you are
about to teach and that they possessthe knowledge or
skills needed to understandand lcarn from the leson.
Theseassumptionsareoftcn mistaken.For example,a life
insurancccompanyuscdto routinely bring all its new sdes
backto the home office at the end of their first
associates
yearfor a courseon setting salespriorities. Puzzledby the
cool reaction of the agents,the trainer decidedto give a
pretcst, which rcveded that a majority of the trainecsalready,knewperfccdywell how to set salespriorities. The
companysffied to a lesscxpensiveand more productive
strategyof giving inccntivesto field representativeswho
sentin acceptablcsalcsplansshowingtheir priorities.
The assumption that learners have the prerequisite
knowledgeor skill to begin the lessoncanseldombe accepted casuallyin school settings.Teachersof mixedability classesroutinely anticipatethat some students
will nced rcmedial help before they are ready to begin a
particularunit of instruction. Furthcrmore, researchers
studying thc impact of diffcrent psychologicaltraits on

learning have reachedthe unexpectedconclusionthat


students'prior knowledgeof a particular subjectinfluenceshow and what they can learn more *ran does any
psychologicaltrait (Dick, Carey,& Carcy,200I). For
cxample,studentsapproachinga subjectncw to them
learn best from structured presentations even if they
havca lcarning style that would otherwiseindicate more
opcn-cnded,unstructuredmethods.
Theserealizationssuggestthat instructors must verify
assumptionsabout entry competenciestfuough informal means(such as in-classquestioningor out-of-class
interviews) or more formal means(such as testing with
standardizedor tcacher-madetests). Bntry tcsts are assessments,both formal and infcrmal, that determine
whether studenB possessttre neccssaryprerequisites.
Prerequisites are competenciesthat lcarnersmust possessto benefit from the instruction but that you or the
mcdia are not going to teach.For example,in teaching
an apprenticc lathe operator to read blueprints, you
might assumethat she has the ability to make metric
conversions-hcncc you would not teachthis skill.
Prerequisites(specificentry competencies)
should bc
statedin the samcformat asareobjectives(describedin
thc ncxt section).In thc situationinvolving the apprentice lathe operator, thc prerequisitescould be stated as
follows: "Apprentice lathe operatorsare able to convert
any given measurementup to one meter from the metric systemto thc English systemequivalentor vice versa
with 100 percent accuracy."Such previouslyacquired
skillsshould be asscssed
beforeinstruction.
Preassessment
measurcs,such as discussionsand
pretes$, are alsogiven beforeinstruction but areusedto
measurcthe content to be taught-the target skills. If
learnershave alrcady masteredwhat you plan to teach,
you are wasting yow time and theirs by teachingit.
By analyzingwhat your audicncealreadyknows,you
canselectappropriatemethodsandmedia.For example,
if you havc a group diverging widely in entry competencies,considersclFinstructionalmaterialsto allow for
self-pacingan{ other aspectsof individualization.

Learning Styles
I*arning style refers to a cluster of psychologicdtraits
that determinehowan individud perceives,interacBwith,
and rcspondsemotionally to learningenvironments.
It is cleardrat cerain traitsdramaticdlyaffectour ability
to leam eftctively from different methods and media.
Howcver,it is not so dear which trais aremostimportant.
Gardnerwasdissatisfied
with the conceptof IQ andits uniview
intelligence,
ery
of
noting that "not all peoplchave
same
the
abiligies;not all of us learn in the sameway"
(Gardner,1993, p. 2I). He identifiedsevenaspectsof intelligencel subsequentlyrevised to nine: (I) verba/
linguistic(language),(2) logcal/ mathematical(scientific/
quantiative), (3) visualr/spatial,(4) musica/rhythmic,

(5) bodily/kinesthetic (dancing/athletia), (6) interpersonal(undentandingother people),(7) intrapenonal(understandingoneself),(8) naturalist,and (9) existentialist.
Gardner's theory implies that teachers,curriculum
planners,and mediaspecialists
shouldwork togetherto
designcurricula in which studentshave the chanceto
develop these differcnt aspectsof intelligence.It also
implies that students vary widcly in rcrms of their
strengths and weaknesses
in each of these areas.A
school adopting this approachwould havestudents engagedin a much greatervarietyof methodsand media
than is typical now. Teachertalk and seatworkobviously
arenot sufficient.Becausestudentshavediffcrent mixes
of strengths and wcaknesses,their progresswould havc
to be measurednot by conventionalgradesin conventional subjects but by growth in each type of intelligence. The type of individualized instructional plans
and recordsof progrcssimplied in this approachlend
themselves
well to the activelearningmethods,interactive technologies,and information managementsystems describedin later chapters.In fact, experimental
schoolsbascdon this thcory are now in operation.
Irarning stylevariablesdiscussed
in the literaturecan
be categorizedasperceptualprcferencesand strengths,
information processinghabits, motivational factors, and
physiologicalfactors.

Perceptuol

Ptefercnces and

Sttengths.

karners vary asto which sensorygatcwaysthcy preferusing andwhich they areespeciallyadeptat using.Thc main
gatewaysinclude auditory visud, tactilc, and kinesthetic.
Proponentsof the imporunce of this variablcclaim that
most studentsdo not havea prcferenceor strengthfor auditory reception,castingdoubt on the widespreaduseof
the lccture method. They find that slowcrlearnerstend to
prefer tactile or kincstheticexperienceslsining and listening are difficult for them. Dependenceon the tactile and
kinestheticmoddities decrcases
with maturity.

lnformotion

Processing Habits.

This cate-

gory includesa range of variablesrelatedto how individuals tend to approachthe cognitivc processingof
information.
Gregorc'smodel of "mind styles,"claboratedby Butler (1986), gtoups learnersaccordingto concreteversus
abstractand randomversussequentialstyles.It yieldsfour
categories:concretesequential,concreterandom,abstract
sequential, and abstract random. Concrete sequential
learnerspreftr direct, hands-onexpericncespresentcdin a
logical order. They lcarn best with workbooks, programmedinstruction, demonstrations,andstructuredlaboratory exerciscs.Concretcrandom learnerslcantoward a
trial-and-error approach, quickly reaching conclusions
from exploratoryexperiences.
They prefer methodssuch
as gamcs,simulations,independentstudy projecs, and
discovery learning. Abstract sequentiallearnersdecode

verbal and symbolic messagesadepdS especiallywhen


prcsentedin logical sequence.Reading and listening to
presentationsare prefcrred methods. Abstract random
learnersaredistinguishedby their capacityto draw meaning from human-mediatedpresentations;they respondto
.
the tone and style of the speakeraswell asthe message
with
lectures
group
discussion,
They do well with
periods,videoapes,and television.
question-and-answer
Various emotional facFoctots.
Motivationol
whatwe payattcntion
to
influcncc
found
have
becn
tors
to, how long we pay attcntion, how much effort we invest in learning, and how feelings may interfcre with
lcarning. Anxiety, locus of control (internal/external),
degrecofstructure, achievementmotivation,socialmotivation, cautiousness,and competitivenessare variables
frcquendy cited ascriticd to thc learningProccss.
Motivation is an internal statc that leads pcople to
chooscto work toward or againstcertain goalsand expericnces.It defineswhat people will do rathcr than what
theycnndo (Keller, L987). Motivation influcnceslearning
by determining which instructional goalsstudens attend
to andwhich they chooscto ignore. It alsodeterminesthc
efbrt thcywill cxpcnd to rcachccrain goals.
Motivators can bc catcgorizcdascithcr intrinsic or cxuinsic. Intrinsic motivators arc gcncratcd by aspcctsof
thc experienceor task itself, such aschdlenge or curios"short attention span" may
ity. A student who has a
spend hours playrng comPuter games'but have trouble
spending l0 minutes rcading a textbook. Bxtrinsic motivators are generatedby facton not direcdy related to
thc experienceor task,suchasgradesor recognition. Stu"please" a favorite
dents may work long and hard to
teachcr.Rcsearchershavefound that inuinsic motivators
arc gencrally morc effective. Studentswho are intrinsicdly motivated will work harder and learn more because
of their personalinterest in the material.Whcneverpossible,it is bestto dcvclop a student'sintrinsic motivation.
A helpful approachto describingstudent motivation
is Keller's(1987) ARCS modcl. Kcller describesfour cssential aspectsof motivation:
o Attcntion rcfcrs to whether students perceivethe
insuuction asinterestingand worthy of their
consideration.
o Rehpnncerefers to whether studentsperceivethe
insuuction asmecting somePcrsonalneedor god.
c C,onft,d.cnce
refcrsto whethcr studentsexPectto
succeedbasedon their own efforts.
o Sstisfnction refersto the inuinsic and extrinsic
rewardsstudents rcccive from the insuuction.
Factorsrelated to gender
Factots.
Physiological
differences, hcalth, and environmental conditions are
among the most obvious influenceson the effectiveness
of learning. Boysand girls tcnd to responddifferendy to
variousschool experiences.For example,bop tend to be

more competitive and aggressivethan girls and consequendy respondbetter to competitivegames.Hunger


and illnessclearlyimpedelearning.TemPerature,noise,
lighting, and time ofday areeverydayphenomenathat affect our ability to concentrateand maintain attention. Individuals have different prefcrences and tolerances
regardingthesefactors.
Dunn and Dunn (1992) have developedstandardized instrumentsto measurethe learningstylesand environmentd prcferenccsof lcarnersthat covcr theseand
other physiologicalfactors. They arc among the best
known and most widely usedinstrumentsin school applications. Teacherswho have prescribed individual
learningprogramsbasedon analysisof thesefactorsfeel
that they have practicalvalue in improving academic
achievement,attitude, and discipline.
The intent in using information about a student's
learning styleis to adaptinstruction to takc advantageof
a particular style. Many studentsin a classmay have the
sameor similar leaming styles.Using leaming stylesin
teachingcan be comparedto designinga housefor a specific person.The componentsof housesare basicallyuniform-kitchcn, living room, dining room' bedrooms,
baths. Howcvcr, thcy can bc arranged in an unlimitcd
numbcr of configurations.Thcy may nced to bc structured to accommodatchobbics,individualswith disabilities, or personsworking at home. Furthermore, there are
manydi[ferent stylesof architecture,colols, textures' materials, and so on. An architect skillfully selects and
arrangesall theseelementsto meet the needsand preferencesofthe inhabitants-an individual, a couple,a family.
In a similar manner,a teacherchoosesdifferent methods'
media, and materialsto meet the needsof studentswith
different learningstylesandphpiological factors.(SeeASSURE Blueprintfor Analyzelratners, page59.)

ST'\TEOBJECTIVES
The secondstepin the ASSURBmodel is to statethe objectives of instruction. What learning outcome is each
what new calearnerexpectedto achievelMore precisely,
at the completionof inpability should learnerspossess
structionf An objective is a statement not of what the
instructor plansto put into the lessonbut of what learnersought to get out of the lesson.An objectiveis a statement'afwhorwill be achieved,nothowitwrllbe achieved'
Your statementof objectivesshould be as specificas
possible.For example,"My studentswill improve their
mathcmaticalskills" is far too generalto qualify asa sPecific lessonobjectivc. It does,however,qualiff asagoal-a broadstatementofpurpose. Sucha goal might serveas
the umbrellaficr a number of specificobjectives,suchas,
"The second-gradestudentswill be able to solve accuratelysevenout ofeight single-digitaddition problems."
Why should you stateinstructionalobjectiveslFirst,
you must know your objectivesin order to makeapPro8

ffi'rsgiir
Mlddle School lllatliematics
Anotyte

Learnerc

General Characteristlcs
The studentsfor whom this lessonis intendedare seventh
gradenenrolledin a generalmathematics
classgearedtoward
the averageleamer.Thestudents
rangein agefrom 12to 14
years.Severalstudentshave identifiedleamingdisabitities,
whereasothersare on the edgeof consideration
for the advancedmathematics
track.Theycomefrom varioussocioeconomicenvironments;
however,
themaiorityof thestudents
are
white middle-class
Americans
wholivein a ruralsetting.Genthe studentsarewel!behaved;problemstendto arisg
eraHy,
however,when activities
are textbookand paper-and-pencil
oriented.

Entry Competendes
The sorenth-grade
mathematics
studentsare ableto do the
following:
. Sele@
locab,andutilizeappropriate
rfoene maedals
wtren
prparing
proiecb,usinghe sdool libnrymediacener
researdr
. Locate
andidentiffbar,line,andcirdegraphswhenexamining book andofier formsof media

priate selectionof methodsand media.Your objectives


will, in a sense,guide your sequenceof learningactivitics and your choiceof media.Knowing your objectives
will also commit you to createa learning environment
in which the objectivescan be reached.For example,if
the objectiveof a unit of a driver'straining courseis *To
be able to change a flat tire within 15 minutes," tlre
learningenvironmentmust includea carwith a flat tire.
Another basic reason for stating your insructional
objectivesis to help ensurepropcr evaluation.Youwon't
know whether your learnershave achievedan objective
unlessyou areabsolutelysurewhat that objectiveis.
Without explicit objectives,your studentswon't know
what is expectedof them. If objectivesare clearly and
specificallystated, learning and teaching becomeobjective oriented. Indeed, a statementof objectivesmay be
vicwed asa qpe ofcontract betweenteacherand learner:
'Here is the objcctive. My responsibilityasthe instructor
is to provide learning activitiessuitablefor your ataining
the objective.Your responsibilityasthe learneris to participate conscientiouslyin those learning activities."

The ABCDsof Well-StatedObiectives


A well-statedobjectivestartsby naming the -dudience
for whom the objectiveis intended.It then specifiesthe
.&havior or capability to be demonstratedand the Con-

. Readandinterpretall thestatistical
or numericalinformation
givento themon a bal line,or circfegnph
. Constsuct
a graph(bar,line,or cirde)whengivena setof data,
olored pencilJpens,
a @rnpass,
a ruler,andgraphpaper
. Defineandinterpreta givenexample
of percentagg
mean,
median,
andmodewithoutaidsor references
. Demonstrate
standard
keyboarding
skillgutilizing
AppleW&kon theiMoccomputer,
withan averagetyping
speedof 35 wordsperminute

Learnlng Styles
Thestudents
dislikethemonotony
of mathematics
textbookassignments.
Theseassignments
areusuallycentered
on paperproblems.
and-pencil
calculation
Persistent
useof the textbook
oftenresults
in thestudenBbecoming
boredandrestless.
They
appearto leambestfrom activitiesthat incorporate
the useof
manipulatives.
Usingthecomputerand
thelntemetprovides
intrinsicmotivation.
ln addition,
theylikegroup-oriented
leaming
activities.
Regardingtesting,manyof the studentstend to experience
difficulty
andanxietyduringwrittenexams.
Asa result,
theclassprefersto be evaluated
usingmethodsotherthanpaper-and-pencil
tests(e.9.,repoG,application
proiects,etcJ.
fhisBtuepintruw
evehpedbyMotyAnnftt*b,PurdreUnnleEW.
Nl of theASSURE
BhrcUinB
in thistoc.ondone@onk templote
foroeotingyourwmBhreprint
conbefoud w drcenffi'Clwoon
Liril<
tut'tfollo'CDROM.

ditions under which the behavioror capabilitywill be


observed.FinallS it specifiesthe Degreeto which the
new skill must be mastered-the standardby which the
capabilitycan be judged.
Audience.
A major premiseof rystematicinstruction is to focus on what learnersarc doing, not on what
the teacheris doing. Irarning is most likely to takeplace
when learnersare active,either mentallyprocessingan
ideaor physicallypracticinga skill. Becauseaccomplishment of the objectivedependson what learnersdo, the
objective begins by stating whose capability is going to
be changed-for example,*ninth-grade algebra students' or *newly hired salesrepresentatives."
Of course,
if you are repeatingthe objcctive in materialwritten for
studentuse,the informal *you' is preferable
.
Behavion
The heart of the objectiveis the verb describing the new capabilitythat the audiencewill haveaF
ter instruction. This verb is most likely to communicate
your intent clearlyifit is staredasan observablebehavior.
What will learnersbe ableto do after completing instructionl Vagueterms such ashnow,und.erstnnd.,
and npprecintedo not communicateyour aim clearly.Better words
include define,categoriz*,nd d.enonstrata,
which denote
observableperformance.The Helpful Hundred list in
Table3.1 offersverbsthat highlight performance.
I

TABLE3.7
performance
Hundred:
terms
TheHelpful
Suggested
Add
Alphabetize

Compute
Conduct

Analyze

Construct
Contrast

Drill
Estimate
Evaluate

Label

Predict

Locate
Make

Prepare
Present

Manipulate
Match
Measure

Produce
Pronounce

State
Subtract

Assemble

Convert
Correct

Extrapolate
Fit

Read

Suggest
Swing
Tabulate
Throw

Attend
Bisect

Cut
Deduce

Modify

Reconstruct

Time

Build

Defend

Generate
Graph
Grasphold)

Multiply
Name

Reduce
Remove

Translate
Type

Carve

Define

Grind

Operate

Revise

Undedine

Categorize

Demonstrate
Derive

Hit

Order
Organize

Select

Verbalize
Verify

ski

Square

Applv
Arrange

Explain

Describe
Design

Hold
ldenti!
lllustrate

Complete

Designate
Diagram

Indicate
lnstall

Outline
Pack
Paint
Plot

Compose

Distinguish

Kick

Position

Choose
Classify
Color
Compare

Thc bchavioror performanccstatedin thc objective


shouldreflectthe real-worldcapabilitylearnersneed,not
performance
someartificial ability neededfor successful
on a test.fu a surgicalpatient,would you want a surgeon
who is "ablc to selectthe correctanswerson a multiplechoicetest on appendectomies"lOr would you want the
surgeonto be *able to perform an appendectomy'f
Conditions.
A statementofobjectivesshouldinclude
the conditions under which the performanceis to be observed.For example,are studentsdlowed to usenotesin
ofexcessive
useofalcohol! If
describingthe consequences
the objectiveofa particularleson is for studens to be able
to identify birds, will identification be made from color
representationsor black-and-white photognphsl What
tools or equipmentwill studenb be allowedor not allowed
to usein demonstratingmasteryofthe objectivelThus, an
objective might state, *Given a political map of Europe,
the studentwill be ableto mark the major coal-producing
areas.'Or it might say,"Without notes,textbook, or any
library materids, the student will be able to write a 300word essayon the relationshipof nutrition to learning.'
Degrce.
The finalrequirementofa well-statedobjective is that it indicatesthe standard,or criterion, by which
acceptableperformancewill bejudged.What degreeof accumcy or proficiency must learnersdisplayl Whether the
criteria arestatedin qualitativeor quantitativeterms,they
should be basedon somereal-worldrequirement.For example,how well must the machinistbe able to operatea
lathein order to be a productiveemployeel

Sketch
Solve
Sort

Weave
Weigh
Write

Specify

Time and accuracyare meaningful dimensions in


many objectives.How quickly must the observablebehaviorbe performedfFor example,shouldstudentsbe
ableto solvefive quadraticequationsin five minutes,or
ten minutesfHow accuratemust a measurementbe-to
the nearestwholcnumber,or within onc-sixteenth
of an
inch, or plusor minusone millimeterf
Quantitativecriteriafbr judging acceptableperformance sometimesare difficult to define. For example,
how can an Englishinstructor statequantitativecriteria
for writing an essayor short storyf He might stipulate
that student work will be scored for developmentof
theme,characterization,
originality,or the like. A model
story might be usedasan example.
The importantconsiderationin appraisingyour objectivesis whetheryou communicatethe intent of the objectives,regardless
oftheir format.Ifyour objectivesmeetall
the criteriain the "AppraisalChecklist"on page6l but still
do not communicateaccuratelyyour intentions to your
colleaguesand students,they are inadequate.The final
judgrnent on any objectivesmust be determinedby their
usefirlness
to you andyour learners.Guidelinesfor writing
objectivesare discussedin Gronlund's How to Write and
UseInstructional Objectivesand Mager's Preparing In(seethis chapter'sReferences).
slructionnl Objectives
The wording of objectivesappearingin instructional
materialsis often modified. The conditions and degree
are often omitted to focus learncrs' attention on the
specificbehaviorthey areto learn.Instructorsmay specifr their own conditionsand criteria (degree),ensuring
for the studentsand the subjectarca.
appropriateness

t0

OBJECTIVES

E
.-

-l E

g
$EF
q

Audlence

'

t r t r t r

{or whomfhe obiectiveis infended


lhe leorner(s)
Specifies
Behavlor (octionverb)
the copobilityexpectedof the leornerfollowinginsirucfion
Describes

tr

tr

tr

tr

tr

tr

tr

tr

o stotedos o leornerperformonce

o stotedos observoblebehovior
meretestperformonce)
o describes
o reol-woddskill(versus

Gondltlons (moteriolsond/orenvironment)
is to be demonslroled
the conditionsunderwhichthe performonce
Describes
o equipment,iools,oids,or references
the leornermoyor moynot use

condifionsin whichthe leornerhoslo perform


speciolenvironmenlol

Degree (criterion)
Stoles,whereopplicoble,the slondordfor occeplobleperformonce
o fimelimit

o rongeo{ occurocy

o proportionof correctresponsesrequired

o quolitotivestondords
PrenliceHoll gronlslhe reoderpermissionto reproducethis checklistfor personoluseonly.Heinich,Molendo,Russell,ond Smoldino,lnslruclionol
Medioond lechnologiesfor lcoming (2OO2l.

1l

Middle Sdrool Mathematics


Sto* @irrg.Yes
for hb le$sonareasfollows:
the obiectives
1. Grrena bar,line.or cirdegr:aph,fre se,rrcnthgrade
presentatlthe
mesrematiasurdentwill beabteto rrerbally
wl*r
*atlstical6l:nuffErkd infonnstionshownon tre Erraph
l0@bacaifacy.
mathematlcs
stldent
2. Givena setof data,Uresevendr-grade
wtFbe abk tb amrately constructandproduce0 pflntout
of a grapfi66ar,[ine.orcircle]asingApptel/tlorksoftr,vare
to e6blBtred cierir.
accoidmg'3. tAlorking
lfi s'tilallgrcr$6of threeor four,tre ssendlgrade
fitaherrnscistrdenEwiltbeatrleto proposedisq$$and
ryrce on a qft br a grouppresrrtsrion.lhepresentation
ppic mr.rst
irrcporatedatacofieoionedn$quesGurvey,

Choosinga Method
First, it would be overly simplisticto believethat there
is one method that is superiorto all othcrsor that serves
all learning necdsequallywell. fu mentionedin Chaptcr l, any given lessonwill probablyincorporatetwo or
more methods to serve different purposcs at different
points in the progressionof the lesson.For example,
one might conduct a simulation activity to gain attention and arouseinterestat the beginning of the lesson,
then usc a demonstration to present new information,
and then arrangccomputer-baseddrill-and-practiceactivities to provide practice in the new skill. As indicated
earlier in this chapter, teachersoften structure assignments to allow students with different preferred learning styles to pursue thcir individual practice through
different methods (e.g., having "abstract random'
thinkcrs use a role-playsimulation while "concretc sequential" thinkcrsusea lab manualfor structuredproblem solving).It is beyondthe scopeof this book to give
detailedguidelineson choosingmethoCs.

Choosinga Media Format


A media format is the physicalform in which a mcssage
is incorporated and displayed. Media formats include,
for example,flip charts (still images and text), slides
(projectedstill images),audio (voiceand music),video
(moving imagcson a TV screen),and computer multimedia (graphics,text, and moving imageson a monitor). Each has differcnt strengths and limitations in
that can be recordedand
termsofthe typesof messages

qd/orintewiqw)a1dfiregsBof grapfrs(banfina
observaion,
and/ordrdd b prerentstatistcdor iiunericali
4. UsfngAppkWfdk softwarendr,wRirg in srnallgroupg
thesevenfigradena$ematicstt&n6 will be ableto
v'niteandproducea prinsut of a wrinenreponreSaftfir
tE datacdleAiontedrniquesasociatedtdft thetopicof
fieir presentatioh.
ReporEwillbe aakratedbCsedon dre
qualityof the$urvey,@seruation
stret, 6r interviarv
forrr;
fie step6takento mllectthe dab; andthe rationabbr
'
droosingthespecificdatecolleaionte$niSue
5. Theswenth$ademaf|rnati:ssuldenBwitfbeableto present thirchosentopficin front of fre *s. FerfortnanGwifl
be evafuated
basedon generalaontentaccuracy,
specificrse
of graptrs,andcotresiveness
of the presenrat'ron
lhbBlueAint
ws tueW byMaryAnnffiB rudrteUntwrslU
N otdrcASSURE
ElWint in hisw anddn&ewk wnflae forae-

W,ff*\Y,

qr & fotfuat a'eerYaat@;oomnx

displayed.Choosing a media format can be a complex


task----consideringthe vast array of media and technology available,the variety of learners,and the many objectivesto be pursued. Over the yearsmany different
formulas have been proposed for simplifying the task.
They are referred to as med,iosebcrtonmodels,and they
usually take the form of flowcharts or checklists.
Within most media selectionmodelsthe instructional
situationor setting (e.g.,large group, smallgroup, or selG
instruction),learnervariables(e.g.,reader,nonreader,or
auditory prefcrence), and the natureof the objective(e.g.,
cognitive,affective,motor skill, or interpenonal) must be
consideredagainstthe presenational capabilitiesof each
of the media formats (e.g., still visuals,motion visuals,
printed words, or spokenwords), Somemodelsalsotake
into considerationthe capability of cach format to give
feedbackto the learner.
The limitation ofsuch media selcctionmodelsis their
emphasison simplicity. Reducing the processto a short
checklistmay lead one to ignore somepossiblyimportant considerations.
Our approachin this book is to give you the tools to
construct your o-wn schema for selecting appropriate
media formats. We acceptthe desirability of comparing
the demandsof the setting, learner characteristics,and
objectivesagainstthe attributcs of the various firrmats.
But only you can decidehow to weight theseconsiderations: what options you havein terms of setting, which
learner characteristicsare most critical, and what clementsofyour objectivesarc most important in your orvn
situation. You will need to balancesimplicity and comprehensiveness
in any schemayou decideto employ.

t3

TESTINGOF
CONSUMER.
EDUCANONAI- PRCIDI..'CT5
obiective
evaluative
informaUnionprovides
As theConsumers
productsto generalconsumers,
the Edutionabouthousehold
provides
Exchange
GPIDInstitute
Information
cationalProducts
to the education
and raining
software
evaluations
educational
communities.
TheEPIEInstituteisa nonprofitagencyhat hasbeenin operpuposeisto'gatheranddisserninate
desoip
ationsince1967.lB
wih empiricalinformation
information-along
tiveand analytical
reffiWK#,u'
Iirll.]rr,

,\,iN

Obtaining SpecificMaterials
Obtaining appropriatematcrialswill gencrallyinvolve onc
of thrcc dtcrnatives: (l) selecting availablc materials,
(2) modiSing existing materials,or (3) designing new
matcrials.Obviously,if materialsare alreadyavailablethat
will allow your students to meet your objcctives by all
means use them, thus saving work, time, and money.
When thc matcrids availablcdo not completcly match
your objectivesor are not cntirely suiable for your audience,an alternativcapproachis to modi& them. If this is
not feasible, the final alternativeis to designyour own materials.Eventhough this is morc expensiveand time consuming, it allows you to prcpare materialsto serveyour
studentsand meet your objectives.

SelectingAvailableMaterials
Thc majority of instructional materialsused by teachcrs
and trainersare *offthe shelf'-that is, ready-madeand
availablefrom school, district, or companycollections or
other easilyacccssible
sources.So, how do you go about
making an appropriatechoice from availablematerialsf

Invotuing the Med ialfech n ology Specialist.


Thc media/tcchnology specialist can be an important
resource for you. You may need new matcrids to up-

instructional
mate
on performance
andeffectson leamers-about
rialsandq6tems."P.KennethKomoskihasbeeno<ecutive
directorof EPIE
sinceib founding.
EPIE
accepts
noadvertising
or commercial
sponsorship
of any
kind.All incomeis derivedfromsubscriptions,
contract
services
fromstateandlocaleducation
agencies,
andgrants.EPIEoffers
he following
evaluation
services
to teachers
andschoolsystems.
(IE59 is a comprehensive
TheEducotion
SoftwareSelector
of educational
software
at e\rerylevelfrompresdrool
database
OvertheyearsTESShasbeenavailable
in a varieg
to college.
on CD-ROM.
of formas,mostrecently
Eightmajorintegratedinstruction
systems(or integrated
feamingsystems)are evaluatedin Zle EPIE Reponon
whichdrawson extensive
lntegrotedSystemS
ComputenBosed
research
by expertsin software
evaluation
andcuriculum.
(CASD
for Education
EPIEsCuniculumAnalysisServices
providesschoolswith a meansof analyzing,
designing,
and
aligningtheirstatedcuniculumoutcomes,
textbooks,
andother
resources.
A school's
testingprogramcanbe cominstructional
paredwithstateandnational
programs
priorities.
andcurriculum
printedreportsthat are
The serviceprovidesgrade-by-grade
usefulfor understanding
and improvinga school's
curriculum
program.
andinstructional
Toleammoreabouttheinstitute
anditsseMces,
EPIE
contact
Bap,NY I1946.
Institute,
103-3W.MontaukHighway,
Hampton

date the content of a unit. The media/technology specialist can tell you about materialshousedin a local resource ccntcr or school library media center. Identifr
and discussyour options. As the specialistgains a better idea of your needs,arrangementscan bc made to
contact area media collections(public, acadcmic,or
regional) to borrow potentially useful materials.Most
school library media centersparticipatein regional cooperatives,which share materials.If you and thc medra/technology specialist collaborate with other
teachersin your school or district who desirc similar
materials,you may havean easiertime in acquiring materialsfrom national museumsor organizations.An appointed group of tcachers may review selection and
evaluationguidesand idcntifr new materialsto be purchasedfor future usc. Involving other teachersin the
previcw processalso allows you to compare ideasand
available materials. Teachers tend to bccome more
critical and selectiveas they increasetheir collective
knowledge of media and material alternatives.
the Sawrees. You might survey
Swweying
someofthe publishedmediareferenceguidesor the Internet to gct a generalidca of what is available. Unfortunately, no single comprehensivc guide exists for all
audiovisualmaterialsavailablein all mcdia formats in all
subjects;you may haveto consult severalsources.
14

There are three types of guides that can help you select media-comprehensive guides, selectiveguides,
and cvaluativeguides. Comprehensiveguides,such as
"A-V Online" and Bowher'sCompleteVid.eoGaid.e,help
you identi$ thc scopeof possibilities.However, since
they may include items of poor quality and difficult-tolocate tidcs, you should usetheseguidesonly to locate
materials for previcw. (Alwoys preview materialsbefore
using them with your students.)
Selectiveguides, such as Only theBestConputcr Prog/a.ms, Best Vidoosfor Child.ren nnd. ToungAd.ults, and
TheElementnry SchoolLibrnry Collection,area compilation of the 'best'instru:tional materials.An advantage
of these selectiveguides is that time has allowed thc
'best" to surfaccfrom a comparisonof similarproducts
on the market. A disadvantageis that during the time
required for this processto take place,someitems may
havebecomeoutdatedand neweritems of good quality
may not havebeenincluded.
Evaluative guides, such as Boohlio, SchoolLibrnry
Journal, Choice,and Vidto Roting Gnid.e,are current
and will keep you up to date about new materials.Although they arc evaluative,they usuallyinclude just one
person'sopinion; that person'sncedsand audiencemay
be different from yours.
One of thc more comprehensivesourcesis a set of
nvo indexes published by NICEM (National Information Center for Educational Media): Film (r Vid.eo
Finder and Aud.iocosene(r CompoctDisc Find.erThese
do not includeevaluations.'A-V Online" is a CD-ROM
that lists thousands of cducational, informational, and
documentarymaterialsalong with their sources.The
disc includes a variety of media formats, such asvideo,
audio, film, filmstrips, slides,slide-tape programs,overand multimediakits (Figure 3.2).
headtransparencies,
In addition to materialsthemselvesthat areavailablc
on the Internet, listings appearthere of materialsavailable elsewhere.Many companics,government agencies, and commercial publisherslist materialson the
Internet. The majority of vendorsnow havetheir catalogs on their websitcs.Most of thesematerialsare for
purchase.Somc are free and inexpensive.SeeChapter
4 for guidelinesabout securingand using free and inexpensivematcrids.
If you are working in elementaryor secondaryeducation,you might consultseveraladditionalsourcesthat
covera rangeofmedia formats, such asCoreMed,inCoh
lcctionfor Elementf,r! SchoolsandCoreMedio Collection
Schook.These books recommend specific
for Second.nry
audiovisual tides as core materials for elementary and
secondaryschoolmedia collections.
For generaland adult audiences,a major guide is the
ReferenceList ofAud.iortisualMaterink produced by the
U.S. govcmment. It describesall the training and educational materials produced by the armcd forces and
other government agenciesthat are availablefor general
purchase.For additional information on this topic, go

FIGURE3.2
A-V Online"compoctdisc ThecompleteNICEM indexesarc
on o ingle compoctdbc

to the Web Links modulc in Chapter3 of the Companion Website(hrtp:/ /www.prenhall.com/heinich).


Beyond the sourcesjust described,there are more
specializedguidesand indexesthat are limited ro specific media formats or specificsubjects.These are too
many and too diverseto list here, but some are mentioned in the individual chaptersdeding with differenr
mediaficrmats,and othersaregatheredunder the heading "Specidized Information Sources' on our Companion Website.
Selection CriArta.
The decisionabout whether
to usea particular pieceof instructional matcrial depends
on severalfactors. Recentresearchconfirms that certain
criteria arecritical in the appraisalofmaterials (McAlpine
& Weston, 1994). Among the questions to be asked
about cachspecificpieceof mediaare the following:
o
o
o
.
o
c
o

Does it match the curriculumf


Is it accurateand currentl
Doesit contain clearand conciselanguagel
Will it motivate and maintaininterestl
Does it provide for learncrparticipationf
Is it of good technicalqualityl
Is there cvidenceof its effectivcness(e.g., field-test
results)f
o Is it free from objectionablc bias and advertisingl
o Is a userguide or other documentationincludedf
Over the years,scholarshavedebatedabout what criteria should bc applied in selecting materids. Studies
havebeenconducted to quantify and validatevariouscriteria. The nct result is an understanding that different
15

criteria arc suitable for different situations.For example,


a rcmcdial reading tcachermight decideto usea particular computer program primarily becauseits vocabulary
level is just right, rcgardlessof anyother qualities.On the
other hand, an elementaryschool teachcrwith an ethnically diverse classmight sort through matcrials to find
those with a specialsensitivityto racial and ethnic issues.
Other selectioncriteria vary with different media formats. Video materials,for cxample,raisc the isuc of the
pace of prescntation,whereasthis would not be relevant
for overhcad transparencies.In cxamining computcrassistedinstruction coutrewarc,onc would look ficr relevant practiceand remedialfeedback,but thcscwould not
bc cxpccrcd in a videoape. To account for thesediffcrences,this book providesa scparatcAppraisd Checklistfor
eachmcdiaformat. You will notice that certaincriteriaappear consistendyin cachchecklist(they arethe oncslisted
here).Thesearethe criteriathat we think havettre securest
basisin researchand real-life experiencc.Thc Appraisal
Chcckliss provide a systematicprocedurcfor judging the
qualitiesof specificmaterials.But it is up to you to decide
which criteria are most important to you in your own instructionalsctting. The Appraisd Checkliss areprinted in
the appropriatc chaptersand are availableon our Companion Website(htq: / /www.prenhdl.com/heinich) and
on the 'Classroom Link Pordofio' CD-ROM.

The lnstructor's

Personol File.

Everyin-

structor should devclop a file of media refcrencesand


appraisalsfor personal use.An excellent way for you to
bcgin is to dcvelop your olvn personalfile of Appraisal
Checkliss by using the "Classroom Link Pordrlio'
CD-ROM. Eachtype of AppraisalChecklistin this text
hasa computer tcmplate on the softwareinto which you
can enter your own information for future reference.

Modifying ExistingMaterials
If you cannot locate entircly suitablc materialsand media off the shelf, you might be able to modify what is
available.This can be both challenging and creative.In
terms of timc and cost, it is a morc efficient procedure
than dcsigning your own matcrials, although the typc
and cxtent ofneccssarymorlification will, ofcourse, vary.
For example,perhapsthc only availablevisualshowing
a pieccofequipment beingusedin a middlc schoolwoodworking dass is from a repair manual and conains too
much dcail and complexterminology.A possiblesolution
to theproblemwould be to usethc picnrc but modifyttre
caption and simplify or omit someof the labels.
Or let's saythcre is just one video availablethat shows
a neededvisual sequence,but the audio portion of the
vidco is inappropriatebecauseit is at too high or too low
inappropriatcpoints.A sima conceptuallevelor discusses
ple solution in sucha cascwould bc to showthc video with
the sound turned offand providc the narration yourself.

Anothcr modification technique,which many instructors


ovcrlook, is to show just a portion of a vidco, stop thc
VC& discusswhathasbecnpresented,then continuewith
anothershort segmentfollowed by additional discussion.
Modification also can be made in the audio portion of
forcign-languagematerialsor English-languagematerids
uscdin a bilingual classroom.Narrationscan be changed
from one languageto another or from a more advanced
rendition ofa foreign languageto a simplerone.
Videocassetterecorders providc teacherswith the
opportunity to modify tclcvision programs that previously were availableonly as shown on the air. You may
alsorecord programsoffthc air for rcplay later. You may
thcn show them at whatcver time best suits the instructiond situation and to whatcver student group(s) can
profit most from viewing them.
One frequendy modified media format is a set of
slideswith an audiotape. If the visuals are appropriate
but the languagcis not, it is possibleto changethe language.It is alsopossiblcto changethc cmphasisof thc
narration. For example, an original audiotapc might
emphasizeoccansaspart of an ccosystem,whereasyou
may want to use the slidesto show various types of fish
found in oceans.By rcwriting the narration, you could
adaptthe matcrialto your purposewhile using the same
slidcs.Rcdoing the tapecan alsochangcthe level of the
presentation.A slide-tapepresentationproducedto introducc a new product could have thrce different audiotapes. One tape could be directed toward the
customer,anothercould be preparedfor the salesstaff,
and the third could be usedfor servicepersonnel.
Some instructional gamescan be readily modified to
mcet particular instructional needs.It is possibleto usea
given game format and change the rules of play to increaseor decrcasethe level of sophistication.Many instructional gamesrequire the playersto answerquestions.
It is rclatively easyto prcpare a new sct ofquestions at a
different level of difficulty or cven on a new topic.
If you try out modificd materialswhile they are still
in morc or lessrough form, you can then make further
modifications in responseto srudent reaction until your
materidsmeet your exactneeds.
A word of caution about modifying commercially
producedmaterials(and, indeed,about using commercial productsin gcneral):be sureyour handling and use
of such materialsdoesnot violatc copyright laws and restrictions.If in doubt, checkwith your school administration or legal adviser. Copyright concerns and
guidelinesare discussedin later chapters.The general
guidclinesare on page87.

DesigningNew Materia[s
It is easierand lesscosdy to usc availablematerials,with
or without modification, than to start from scratch.
There is seldomjustification for reinventingthe wheel.

t6

Middb Sc|rool Ma$ematics


S*"rt

tM,

Medb, qd }Y.trltelils

Theeadrer firstselecsa readri1gmettnd.foltoweqby materi


alsandeqri:prtrqtSnt arervdlabh x thes*rool,Shsal6oinod.
lfiesand dewtopsotherrnaedals.Theme$rodshedrooscsi6
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. M
fie das sone
The@ler ne6 to shoyu
@,
heorcrheadFrc{edortointodrce fre
Saphs.SheEdeB
kssontopk Shewilluserarrsparencks
wifr ditrercnttypes
of
graphs(bar.finq,ad dre, b reviqivfre orrept of gnrphs
wih snrdentslhe oartreadproiedorieadlabh itt he chss"
roorDbansparencic
areeasyto pjepsre,andtrey maybe
rursed*rrorrghantdreourse of thelesson.
. iMac C-onputers.
Th3dr00lhasboh PCand,t4occomputen. TheFadrerneededb dloosebewcenhe two.Because
shewasnorfamiliarwittrtre rMaccompuEr,streevahnedit
usingthe "Appralsel
Cheddst CompubrHardware.'in
AppendixB.Sfie4o csrslderedthesofttrvare
thetis availablefor eadrcompiubrsy$tem.
Shesehaedthe/l,locbe
it wasanaflable
timeandher
ca.use
to utq duringherc-lass
selected
softvvare,ARphl4,brrs
wo{id runon i[
. Af,elMy, TheHdler i3famiHarwi*r
packsarcrdsofrvtrae
eges@ntrfnhg$aphingcpabilitits.
Sheblld wifi bher
teadtesto getthelrinputregarding
a programtuitablefur
heraoivity.z{pAl4&r*swasrecomrrended
W tilo of herol.
leaguesC-onsequendy,
*u o615;nsd,{RpbHtr*r
irstalhdon
uriWc fromtre lnsfudionalMaterhlsCenenSheevah.rated
it ushg6s'AppraisalChecklisrComputerSoftlirare'
in
package
meeBaltilre oaivChapEr9. Thispartiaiarsoftware
ity needs,s,ltreat o$reado notharespeqft rrcccsaryfe+.
tuies(e9.,pregaphrnscapability).
. Vtfu Comemond Tqe Relr;or.der.
Theteactrerhm obsenrcd
hat the strdentsenlorywatcfiing#rsEning
o videoUpes
and

However, there may be timeswhen your only recourse


is to dcsignyour own materials.fu is the casewith selecting from availablematerials,you must considercertain basicelementswhen designingnew materials:
e Ohjecrtves.
What do you want your students to
learn?
o Aud.icnce.What are the characteristics
ofyour
learnersfDo they havethe prerequisiteknowledge
and skills to use or learn from the materials)
o Cost.Issufficientmoneyavailablein your budget to
meet the cost of supplies(videotapes,audiotapcs,
etc.) you will needto preparethe materialsf
o TechnicalExpertise.Do you have the necessary
expertiseto design and produce the kind of
materialsvou wish to usel If not. will the necessarv

eudiotapesof *reir vrrorkTheyprwide a rnotivational


aspeC
b theessignment
Shebeliwesttratttrisasignrnentlendsitselfnicelyto hls appllcation.
the videocameraandtape
recorderwereseleaedto satisfythe obleaivesandassigru
mentlequirements.
Additionatry,
the tacfierlikesto usethe
tapesto assisrher ih evaluating
thesudenrsandfor the stu"
denr r waluatetlremsetves.
. Dan hoimorThe teacherneedsa wayto showstudents
how to makegraphson the computer.
In addition,the studenBneedto presenttheircomputergenerated
graphs.The
teadrerbouHmakehandouts,
usean opaqueproiectorto
slnvchandous,or usea documentcameftLthe teachersebctedth tSeof tlre dataproiectorbecause
the costof produting abouta hundredhandouSwouldbe oqensive,and
wlng an opaqueproiectorwouldrequirea darkenedroom
whentre studenbneedto opratecomputR,
whereasall
theinformatkrn
couldbe effeaira! presented
usinga data
proiector.
. FfipClgt, Theeadrer planso designgraphsto presentto
Thegraphswlll containddesandlabeleddxes.ln
thecfass.
addition,hey muetbe easyto read.ShecanusetheiVoc
dndAppIa.I+AB
to creategraphs
br the f,ip chart She
dtoosesa flip chartwth lamlnatedpages6<lthatthestudents
canv{riteon he pages;ttrelrmarkscanbe erasedandtre
fllp drertpagesreused.Thef,ip&an willalsoprovidea
changeof pacefromfie orerheadproiector.
. Hanfutt. UsingErer* ^,6 ApleWottc,tE eadrerwill
seae a scfof handougftat coincide
wijhthe fflpdrart
gradx.Ihe insrudor$ooies to @atea setof har@ur so
frat eadrshrdeltwiilhan a setofgraphion t^/hidrb G6ord
notshr ftrturerehrenc. tn addidon,
the handourwfltkeep
aflthesndentsirvolrcd duringfie hamingactivity.
ThE
Nrcpht wos&velqettbyMuy Ann
ffi, PlF.aw
UntuenlU
Afrol drcASSURE
BftrynnE
in dtbte)doMonder,tonic
Enftte fu aeatitg lutrown

Bhtqdnt canba bmd on be edolt'4'Clwtrrln

hrtulto'CD-4OM

Li*

technicalassistance
be availableto youl Try to keep
your design within the range of your own capabilities. Don't wastetime and money tryrng to produce
slick professionalmaterialswhen simple inexpensive
productswill get the job done.
o Eqaipmenf.Do you havethe necessaryequipment to
produce or usethe materialsyou intend to designf
o Fncilities.If your designcallsfor useof specialfacilities for preparation or useof your materials,are
such facilities available?
o Time. Can you afford to spendwhatever time
necessaryto design and produce the kind of
materialsyou have in mindf
(See ASSURE Blueprint for Select Methods, Media,
and Materials,above.)

17

FIGURE3.3
Previewthe moteiols.

UTILIZE MEDIA AND MATERIALS


The next stepin the ASSUREmodelis the useofmedia and
materialsby the sttrdentsand teacher.The recommended
utilization proceduresarebasedon extensivcresearch.The
generalprincipleshaveremainedremarkablyconstant.The
main differencehasto do with who is using the materials.
The increasedavailabilityof media and the philosophical
sffi from teacher-centered
to student-centered
leaminginthe likelihood that studentswill b usingthe matericreases
als themselves--asindividualsor in smdl groups-rather
than watchingasthe tcacherpresentsthem to arvholeclass.
The following "5 Ps" applyto either teacher-based
or
student-centered
instruction.

Preview the Materials


You should never use instructional materialswithout
previewing them first. During the selection proccss
you should determine that the materialsare appropriate for your audience and objectives. Published reviews,distributor's blurbs, and colleagues'appraisals
contribute information about the materiall however,
you should insiston previewing the materialsyourself.
Only a thorough understanding of the contcnts will
enableyou to use the media and matcrialsto their full
potential(Figure 3.3).
A rccentincidentin a Floridahigh schoolunderscores
thc importanceof prcviewingmatcrials.A teacherwith
32 yearsof experienceshowedthe videotapeI Spit On
Tour Graveto his advanced-placement
socialstudiesstudents.Students,parents,and schooladministratorswere
outraged by the sexuallyexplicit content of thc video.
When questionedabout the showing,the teachersaidhe
wasunawarethat the video containedscenesofawoman
being gang-rapedand beaten. Obviously, he had not
previewedthe video!
In other cases,sensitivecontent may needto be eliminatedor at leastdiscussed
prior to showingthe matcri-

als to prevent student embarrassment or upset. In one


case, an elementary teacher and her young students were
horrified to find that an unpreviewed and ostensibly
unobjectionable film on Canada's fur seals contained a
sequence showing baby seals being cold-bloodedly
clubbed to death by hunters.
If you do feel that some sensitive material fits with
your objectives, then a letter home is in order. By letting
parents know about the material in advance you may
avoid potential problems. Also, encourage parents to
visit with you and discuss the material, or even arrange
a special viewing.

Freparethe Materiats
Next, you need to preparethe media and materialsto
support the instructionalactivitiesyou plan to use. This
is true whetheryou are presentingthe materialsor your
studentsareusingthem. The first stepis to gatherall the
materialsand equipment that you and the studentswill
need.Determinein what sequenceyou will usethe materials and media. What will you do with them as the
presenterlWhat will the studentsdo aslearners|Some
teacherskeep a list of the materials and equipment
neededfor eachlessonand an oudine ofthe prcsentation sequenceof the activities.
For a teacher-based
lesson,you may want to practicc using the materialsand equipment. For a studcntcentered lesson,it is important that students have
accessto all the materials,media,and equipmentthat
they will need. The teacher'srole becomesone of facilitator. You should anticipatewhat materialsstudents
will need and be preparedto secureany necessaryadditional materials.

Frepare the Environnrent


Wherever the learning is to take placc-in the classroom) in a laboratory, at the mcdia ccnter, on the ath-

t8

facilities will have to be arranged for


letic field-thc
proper student use of the materials and media. Certain
factors are often taken for granted for any instructional
situation--comfortable seating, adequate ventilation,
climate control, suitable lighting, and the like. Some
media require a darkened room, a convenient power
source, and accessto light switches. You should check
that thc equipment is in working order whether it is to
be used by you or by your students. furange the facilities so that all the students can see and hear properly
(Figure 3.4). furange the seating so students can see
each other if you want them to discuss a topic. (More
specific information on audiovisual and computer setups appearsin Chapter 9 and in Appendix B.)

FIGUR,ET.4
Prepre theenvircnment.

Preparethe Learners
Researchon learning tells us very clearly that what is
learnedfrom an activity dependshigtrly on how learners
areprcparedfor the lesson.We know that in showbusiness
entertainersare obsessedwith having the audienceproperly warmed up. Preparingleamersis just as important
(Figure3.5).
whenyou areprovidinga leamingexperience
A pioper warmup, from an instructional point of
view,may be similar to one of the following:

FIGURE 3.5
Peporetheleamers.

e An introduction giving a broad overviewof the


contentofthc lcsson
o A rationaletelling how it rclatesto the topic being
studied
o A motivating statementthat createsa needto know
by telling learnershow they will profit from paying
attention
o Cuesdirecting attention to specificaspectsof the
lesson
Severalof thesefunctions-directing attention,increasing motivation, providing a rationale-apply whether
the lessonis teacherbasedor studentcentered.
In somecasesyou maywant to inform studentsofthe
objectives.In certain cases,other stepswill be needed.
For example,you may need to introduce unfamiliarvocabularyor explainspecialvisual effects,such as timelapsephotography.Other preparationstepsrelevantto
in later chapters.
particularmcdiawill be discussed

FIGURE 3.6
Prcvidetheleomingexperience.

Providethe LearningExperience
Now you are ready to provide the instructional experience. If the materials are teacher based,you should present like a profcssional. One term for this is showmanship
(see "AV Showmanship: Classroom Presentation Skills").
fust as an actor or actressmust control the attention of an
audience, so must an instructor be able to direct attention in the classroom. Iater chapters describe showmanship techniques relevant to each specific media format
(Figure 3.6).

t9

GETNNG READY
Planning
An effectivepregentation
beginswithcarefulandhomugh planning.Thegeguidelinesapplyto dasrroominsgpcior aswellag
'
to morefofplprroenladons,
l. Anotyzeyat hamot Whaterfreir necdqwlue+
andmisconceptions?
knowledgele',rds,
backgrounds,
2. Spxity yourobiediva.Whatshotrldstudentsdo?Flow
Limityo.rrobleCrive!
rnuchtirnedo you havete:pl,esent?
'
andcontentto the timeavailabl.
,
3, Spxift &nefu and mdonakforfie teofDerfil't/hyir $e
importantfor them?lf youcannotan$werthia'
rnessage
question,pefiapslroushouldnot glvethe pr?s-entation.
the moinideas.
4. ldentifytfu keyNine b coverBralnstorm
Putthemon notecardsor stidconnoles.Mo$t
prscntadoni
willhavcfromffvcto nincmainpolnB.
5. ldentifytheatbplnt andsup;tftfi detalb.Agalnusenote
cardsor stickon note6.Tryto lirnityoursplfto firrcto nine
for eachmainpolnt
subpolnts
in a loglel N Sryustdolor..,.
6. OryonizetheentirENesemo/iah
denOneorganizing
$ctegy is this:
thern.
Prwiary/OveManr:Tellthenrwtratyouarcgoingtotefl
Tellthem.
Present
Tellthern wtrat you told Erem.
Revlew:

Rehearslng

'

tr. Usekeyirordnotes,not a etript ftfnt kqnrcrdi 0n an Indot


card.Neverreadfroma saipqwrittenlanguageis difrrent
from spokenlanguage.
2. Mentallyrun Srroughthc prffentationb rvia,voadririea
in sequence.
Trytd prea{c
3. Do a standuprchearsal
of )our pr$cnta{ion.
or onesimilarto it
In fie roornwlierc}ou vdlfbe presenilng
ideafsr ideahot word for
4. Givea simulatedpresentadon,
word),usingall media.Note Thisisnot usudlydonefor
classes
but for formalpresen[ations.]

FigureA

5. Practice
answerto que$ionsyou anticipatefrom leamers.
sit in
6. Vldeotape(or SudiotdpdyouBelfor havea colleague
on yourrehearsal
andgiveyoufeedback

Setting Up
i. Chedcyourequipmentin advanceof yourpresentation.
Changctht aryrngcrnents,
lf nece$ary,!o mcetyour
ftaeds,Whenthe equlpmentlsln place.makesure
propedy.
,werylhingoperates
!. Forslldesandvk eq projeclion,placethe screenfrontand
centerGigureA).
proiectorscieenor flip cfiartat a 453. PlaceSteoverhead
degrceanglt and nearthe comerof the room.Placethe
owfiead screen
to yourrightif youarerighthanded.Place
flipdrartto yourleftif youarcrighthanded.Eachshoutd
be rwersedif you areleft handed{FigureB).
af, Podtionobicctsbelng studicdin the front and cenrer.Removethemwien theyarc no longerbeingstudied.

PRESENTING
Anxiety
l, }lervo$netsandeltcitementarenormalbeforeandduring
a presentetion.
Someanxietyandconcemareimponantfor
anddynamicpr$entation,
an enth$iastic
shouldreduceyouranxiery.
2. Pmperplanningendpreparation
3, Hamessyourneryousenergyanduseit posltively
with
andvolceproiction.
bodymo/emc$ supportinggestures,
qystemwill
4. Breatheslowlyand deep$ Yourcardiovascular
slowdowdaruleasethe rymptomsof anxiety.
Dellvety
1. Standup whenpresenting.
Whenyoustand,youandyour
m$agecomrnandfiiore attention.
Placeyourfeetl0 to 12inchesapartand
2. Facttheleamers.
dbtributeyourweightequallyon bothfeet.Yourkrees
shouldbe unlocked,with handsout of your pocketsand

figureB

20

annsat yourside FacingtheleamersgivesyouyecontEg


Witr 0remandalloyuhem to seyourfacialo<prcssions.
3, td/henusingdrall$oaidsor walldrare,don'ttalkwisryour
youlosegre @ntact
bact to fielearfiers.fn SrbpOgition
andnry not be hearddsweil,Writeon thdtalkboard,
ften talkGigurO.
of he ledemff you niustuseord.
4. StafldF onesfrde
Steppingb fte side0r in ftont of it placespu on more
personalFrms Withthe leilmen lt allovtE
)ou to be seen
andto Uemorenafuml.
whostardin onespotand
5. Movewhilepu speaklnstructors
temion. More and gesture,bUt
ne\rerg$njre er(pedcnce
don'tortrdo it

2. An exceflentwayto keepyorr fGarders'


ittndonfsto bot
eryeb qfe at eachpersonfor at leastttrrcesemnds.Don't ,
quicklyscan*re leamerror loo( at fre beckwall,scrcen,6r
notesbr longpedodsof time.
3. Maintaineyecontadwith your leamers.lf pu mustwrite
on e flip dla6 overfua4or.iJulkboad;stoptelk
somettrlng
ing whileyouwrite.

Gesturcs
Usenanrraigestures.
Leamto gestureii hont of a dassas
youwouldif pu wert h{vlngan dnirnated
torwersadon
wifr a fiiend.
Dont putyourhandsin yourpockets.
Don'tdaspyorr hands
bdrindydr bad( Dont wringyour han& mrvougty.Don't
playwifi a penor otha ogect

Voice
style,Relateto yourlearners
in
1,1t-hea natural,conversational
a directard personalmanner.
Don'treadftrompurorcrheads
2. Dont rsd yotr prasentedon,
orfnrrdour.lf partofpur preentat'nnislustinhnnedon
mnsftr,girrctheshrdenua opyand letttm readif
causedby anxieg
3. Usevocalvarle$.A monotoneis usuafty
(rChearsd
shouldhelpthi$. Relaxwrft upperandlower
bodymaremenB.
4. tJsee comfortabhpac.men youffe anxious,yourraE
of speakingurmlly inoeaso.Relo<andspeakin a
bne
corn'ersational
5. Speakup solou qpnbe heardin he batkof Srermm. lf pu
tuo problernsl
ryeakrp,pur BE wiHsklllvdown-+olving
A6kpeophin he bad<rorar
if yourwlumeh apptopn4q
wayto em5. A pause(sllenc)aftrs kcy pointis ano<cellent
phasizelt Themoreimportantthe idea.the moreimportant
it is for you to pauseandlet thewordssinkin beforegOing
on to frrenextidea.

EyreComoa
eyecontactwisr
1, Don'tspeakurttilyou haveestablished
yor audience.
Eyecontactwill makeyourpresenation
similarb a oneon-oneonrrersation.

frgureC

Wsuals
l. Visuals.help
to.attrac{
andhold-leamert'
InterstPeopblike
to seekrynords,diagrams,
anddrawings.
2, Reinforce
anddarifuverbalconaepbwi-thvi*nls. A picturc
isworths thousandwords.
3. Makekeyporrtr meniorabhandhelpthe ilstener
rememberyourmessage.
Mo:t peqpierrdernber
vftuab
longerthantrey rememberwords
andnumbers.
4. Vizualslosetheireffecttveness
if orrerused.
A guHeliineis to
,, ' . :l
useabofJlonevisualper mhute.
visuals:
5. ln designing
. Useheadlines
only.
:
' Elimfnate
,
unnecesaqT
words,
. Wtitelargesowordscanbe readfnomthe backof tre
toom.
' Usedrarvlngs
anddiagramswheneverporsibb.
. Limitto 36 wordspervlsual(6 lincsof 6 ubrdt eacfr).
6. Afterusingvisuals,redirectlearnerdauent'onbad<to you:
. Shutoff theovefieadproieaorwtrenthereis a lengthy
oplanadonandtrere is no needfor theaudienceto tee
he transparency.
Don'thm the madrineoff andon so
hequndydratit beomesdlstracting
G0.seondsis a
guidelind.
. Tuma flip chartpageb a blankonewhen)ltlu are
finishedrnhning to it lf the llip chartpagesharrebeen
preparedin advance,
leaveblankpage berweeneadr
prepdredsheetsothe nextprepardpagewitl not shorl
,
hrough.
. hse ary writingon thedralkboardor whiteboardwhen
lnlu no longerneedit
. Breakup slldepresentations
S insertinga blackor
trahshkentslideat pointswherean oplanadonis rneded
or wherequestions
wiiflbe askedor an$,vered.
. Shorrv
or demonstrate
m obled bVrcveallngit when
neededandcoverilgit wtrenit is rlo longerIn use
O$erwlse,pur audierrcewlll lookat fre obiea andbe,
di!fiadedfromyourpresentadon.
Avoidpassingdn objed
arcundthe audiene.Instead,
walkaroundtheaudience
andshor tre qbiectto oreryonebrief,yandrnakeit
availabhat *re endof ttrepresentation

21

Mlddle $drool ,
Uaor.

remafies

Medla and MaCedals

hevlew the Matedals


The teacherprcviews MictrrsoftWb& dickegmph, Apde'
videotape.s,
WblO andsornestudentprodUqgd

Preparethe Materlals
Theteacherrnakcsa setof qotecardsoutfinihgherfcson. In ad.
dition,sheprcparesthe haMoutcandgnphson flip drartpagres
usingAppteVhtk and ttrelMac ShealsopreparestransParen'
ciesfor usewlth the overheadproiecton

Preparethe Envirorunent
theprimaryportionof thelessonissm*tlgroupwort<,
Becaure
the teacherarHngesth studcntdesk in the ctassroomto
form tableareas.Thiswill prepqrethe studentsfor the grsup
work when they comeinto the room 50 the lessonwill not
needto be intenupted.Someof the lessontakesplacein the
computerlab.Becausethis activitytskessweiafdaysto com'
plete,eachday mayrequirespecificequipmentsetups.Gen'
erally,the overheadproiectorand flip chartare used for
purpodes
the use
only.Theno(t phaie rCguires
introduc'tory
of a cornputerfab to teactrthe studentshow lo ux Apple
Worls.Additionally,anwerheadproieoor,dataproiector,and
computetwill alsoneedto be tet up.Thereg'
demonstration
to @nducttheir
willbe utitizedfor thestudents
ularclassroom
smallgroupplanningand for studentpr$entations,There
mustbe an overfieadproiector,Ndatapioiector,and a computerto viewstudentwork fn addltion,thc studenBwill usea
VCRwitha monltorto playbackhelr tepesfor thedass.After
the teacherwill alsocheckthatit ls
settingup theequipment,
all in worklngorder.

If the experienceis student centered, you must play


the rolc ofguide orfaciliator, helping studens to explore
the topic on the Internet, discussthe content, prePare
materialsfor a portfolio, or prcsent inficrmation to their
classmates.Guidelinesin someof the following chaptcrs
will assiststudentsin the production of mediatedmaterials.(SeeASSUREBlueprintfor Utilize Media andMaterials,above.)

LEAR,NER
R,EQUIR,E
PARTICIPATION
Educators have long realized that active participation in
the learning process enhances learning. In the early
1900s John Dewey urged reorganiz*ion of the cur-

Prcpare the L.eamers


To preparcthe students,the teacherpresenBthe overallplan
a handout
Eachstudentreceives
for the lesson.
andobieoives
the smallgroupactivity.ln addition,the evaluation
describing
procedur$
aregivenb eadrstudent.TheteacherpretenBimportantaspecB
andwaluationstandards
usof therequirements
ing he overheadproiecor.

Prcvidethe LeamingExperlence
Duringthe introducoryphasesof thislesson,the teacherpro
sefltsmaterialsusingthe overheadproiector,a datapfoiector,
c.ohputer;llip chart and VCR Gc'neralsholmanshiptech"
niquesandfrosespecificto eachof thesemediaarefollowed:
, GenemlTedtniques.
with a
Theonlyplacein theclassroom
screenis frontandcnter.lt is usedfor the overhead
proiedor.\Mrenpresenting
infonnation
on theflipchartthe
tea*rerplacesthechartin the hont andto the left of center,
sincesheis righthanded.TheVCRandmonitorarelocaEd
to the rightof thescreen.
, W
hriegior,Useanoudineto inroduceandsummarize
Tumoff fre proiecorwhennot refuringto whatis
themateriaL
on ib frameor cover
on it PlacenoEsfor eadthansparency
informadon.
sheetUsea pgncilasa pointer.Maskunwanted
. nip Ch@tUselefraingandfigureslargeenoughfor allb see.
Standoutof he studenelineof
Facehe dasswhenspeakng.
summary
vision.SeoreallpagesfirmVto he ffipdurt Provide
of flippingbackfrroughthepages.
sheets
at ilreendinstead
. Vfu. Ched<
lighdng,
seating,
andvolume.Uston chalkboard
Bea
Prwiewnewvocabulary.
tre mainpointsto be covered.
goodrclernodd*watdttheprognmyourself.Provide
anddisarsion,
appropriate
followupacdvities
Thbthnpintwosdereloptl
bylrloryAnnfe*is RtdueUnivenlty.
fora?
int h tex:t
dndonelearonlc'
tern@te
Elueplnr
Allofhe /JSURE
Unk
atirypw own9fuefintmnbefanndonhe endosed'Clwrcon
tutfolio"CD-RQM,

riculum and instruction to make student participation


central.Later, in the 1950sand 1960s,experimentsemploying behavioristapproachesdemonstratedthat instruction providing for constant reinforcement of
dcsired behaviors is more effective than instruction in
which responsesare not reinforced.
More recendg cognitive theoriesof learning, which
havealsosupported
focus on internal mentalprocesses,
the principle that effectivelearning demandsactivemanipulation of information by learners.Gagn6has concluded that there are severalnecessaryconditions for
effectivelearningofeach type ofobjective; the one condition that pertainsto all objectivesis practiceof the desiredskill (Gagn6,f 985) (Figure3.7).
The behavioristperspectivcproposesthat individuals
learn what they d.r-lthat is, learning is a processof try-

22

FIGURE3.'
Pructicingo desiredskillpomotes the
efrectivenesof theleaming epeierrce.

ing various behaviorsand keeping those that lead to favorable results.If this is so, the instructional designer
must find ways to constandy keep the learner doing
somcthing. Cognitivists propose that learnersbuild up
and cnrich thcir mental schematawhen thch minds are
activelycngagcd in struggling to remember or apply
somenew conceptor principle. Thc constructivist,like
the behaviorist)vicwslearning asan activcprocess.But
thc emphasisis on activementalprocessing,not physical activity. Knowledge is built on the basisof expericnce. Student autonomy and initiative are stressed
within the context of relevant authentic experiences.
The sociopsychologicalpcrspective stressesthe importanceofinterpersonalcommunicationasthe socialbasis
ficr knowledgeacquisition.
All perspectivcs also cmphasize the importance of
feedback (productive critical evaluativeresponse):
o Behaviorists,becauseknowledgeofcorrect response
servesasa reinforcerofappropriate behaviors
o Cognitivists,becauseinformation about resulm
helpsto enrich learners'mentalschemata
o Constructivists,becausemeaning(and knowledge)
is enhancedwith eachpersonalexperience
o Socialpsychologists,becauseinterpersonalfeedback
provides both corrective information and emotional
suPport
Feedbackcan come from oneself(e.g., cxperiencing
thc 'feel" of swinging e golf dub), from print sources
(e.g., tuming to the backof the book to find the correct
answerto a practice exercise),from a dwice (e.g., thc
computergivcsa correctivestatementafteryou choosean
answerto a multiple-choicequestion),or from other people (e.g., anothermemberofyour group agrccswith your
solution to a problem). Researchindicatesthat the most
powcrfirl is interpersonalfeedbackbecauseface-to-face
reactionsaremore vivid than printed or graphicinforma-

tion, suchreactionsaremore personalized(giving specific


performancccorrection), and group discussioncan continue aslong asnecessary(fohnson & ]ohnson, f993).
The implication for designersand instructors is clear.
The most cffcctive learning situations are those that requirc learners to practice skills that build toward thc
objectivc. The form of the participation may include
practicing new spclling or vocabulary words, solving
math problemson a workshcet,reheaning a basketball
play,or creatingan original product, such asa term paper. Responses
may be either observableor unobservable. An examplc of an observablc performance is
manipulationof task cardsillustrating the stagesof mitosis.An unobservablcperformanceis silent rcpetition
ofphraseshcard on a Frenchlanguagetape.
In all cases,learncn shouldreceivefcedbackon the correctnessof their response.The fcedbackmay come from
the teacher,orstudens mayworkin smallgroupsand givc
one another ftedback. Fecdbackmay also be achieved
through a selFcheckactivityor maycomefrom a computer
or mentor. Regardlessof the source,the important thing
is that snrdentsreceivehelpfirl fcedback(Figure 3.8).
Some media formats lcnd themselvesto participation
more than others,at leaston the zurface.For example,student responseto projectedstill picnrresis easierto managc
than responseto a video. Irarners can participatein and
respondto the showingofa video.Overt written responses
during the showing of a video havebecn shown to facilitate learning,unlessthe responses
areso involved that studentsareprevcntedfrom watchingthe video.
Immediate confirmation of a correct responseis particularly important when working with studens oflowerthan-averageabilities. For zuch students, evidence of
immediate succcsscan be a strong motivating forcc for
furtherleaming.
Discussions,short quizzes, and application exercises
canprovideoppomrnitiesforpracticc andfeedbackduring

23

FIGURE3.8
kedback ftom theleomersinformshe
how theyresponda the
instructor
me$oge.

instruction. Followup activitiescanprovide further opportunities. Tcacher Soido and manualswritten to accompany instructional materids often suggesttechniqucsand
activitiesfor eliciting and reinforcing studentresPonscs.
Rcscarchon thc intcrnationdly rcnowned television
seriesSesomcSneet and Electric Con4nny demonstrates
impressively the importance of following up a media
presentationwith practiceactivities.Researchon Sesnme
Streetshowedthat frequent viewersnot only learned the
specificskills presentedbut alsohad higher scoreson a
test of verbal IQ and more positive attitudcs about
school. |ohnston (1987) pointed out, though, that
"parental encouragementand supplementarymaterials
werc cssential to achieving the efflects observed"
@.a44|.In thc caseof Elec*ic Compnny,children with
low reading ability who watched the programsin school
under teacher supervisionshowed significant reading
"learning defiimprovement.fohnston concludedthat
nitety did occur when viewing was insurcd, and whcn
teachers supplied additional learning materials and
helped the childrcn to rehearscthc matcrials Presented
on tclevision" (fohnston, L987, P. 44). (SeeASSURE
Blueprint for Requirc Irarner Participation,pege75.)

poseshere: assessing
learner achievementand evaluating mcthods and media.
Although ultimate evaluationmust awaitcompletion
of the instructionalunit, evaluationis ongoing. Evaluations arc madcbcfore, during, and after instruction; for
example,beforcinstruction,you would measurelearner
to ensurethat therc is a fit betweenexistcharacteristics
ing studcnt skillsand the methodsand materialsyou intend to use. In addition, materialsshould be appraised
prior to use. During instruction, evaluationmay take
the form of student practicewith feedback,or it may
consist of a short quiz or self-evaluation.Evaluation
during instruction usuallyhasa diagnosticpurpose;that
is, it is designedto detectand corrcct learningfeaching
problemsand difficulties with the instruction that may
interferewith student achievement.
Evaluation is not the end of instruction. It is the
starting point of the next and continuing cyclein our
systcmaticASSURE model for effectiveuse of instructional media. (For a comprehensivegeneraldiscussion
seethe Stigginsreferencc
of evaluationand assessment,
in this chapter'sSuggestedRcadings.)

Assessmentof LearnerAchievement
EVATUATEAND REVISE
The final component of the ASSURE model for effective learning is evaluation and revision. Often the most
frequendy misuscd aspectof lesson design, evaluation
and revision is an cssentialcomponent to the development of quality insuuction. There are many purposes
for evaluation. Often the only form seenin education is
the paper-and-penciltest,claimedto be uscdfor assessment of student achievement.We will discusstwo Pur-

The ultimate question regarding instruction is whether


studentshavelearnedwhat they were supposedto learn.
Can thcy displaythe capabilitiesspccifiedin the original
statementof objectiveslThc first step in answeringthis
question was taken ncar thc beginning of the ASSURE
model, when you formulatcdyour objectives,including
a criterion of acceptableperformance. When developing
tasks,start with your objectivcand designan
assessment
activity,which callsfor the behavior,stated in the objective. The objective'sstatementof acceptableperform-

24

Middfe Sdrool Matfrematics


Regrire

hamer tatticfiatton

large-Grcup Ac{ivlties
As a review,introduction,
eachstudent
and practiceexercise,
in the tlass readsand interpretsa graph6ar, ling or circle)
presentedto him/her on the flip chart,Eachstudentwrites
his/herfindingsdirectlyon the laminatedflip chartpage.Using thismethodthe teacherprovidespracticewith feedbackto
in the class.Duringthe'minigresentations"
eachindividual
thecldsshashandouts
lhat includethesamegraphsar theflip
for
drert Thisenablesthernto havea recordof *re exercises
ln addition,it involvestheentireclassin the
futurerefererrce,
learning.Thestudentslearnhow to utilizethe computerlab
to pracliceconstruction
andproduceprintoutsof graphs(bar,
line,drcfe,and othersif appropriatdwlfi'rAppleWork.

Smallroup Acthftlee

Suruey
Thesmallgroupschoosing
to conduct surveycoulduse,{p,
pbW6tt6to createandwrih theirsurvey.Thegroupmustsub.
mit an audiotape
of eadrmernberadministering
thesurveyto a
groupor indMdual.
Ohserudtion
Thesmallgroupselectingto useobservation
techniquesuseAppleWfu to ereateandwritean obseruatlon
sheetto usewhen
theymaketheirobservations.
Thegroupmustsubmita video
tapeof eadrmemberconducring
an observation.
Pe,sondl Interuiew
Thesmafigroupsdroosingto conductpersonal
inteMewsuse4p,
pleWfu*s
to deateandwritean intervierry
formto usewtrentrey
conductheirinteMe$,s.
Thegmupsmustalsozubmitavideotape
or anaudidapeof eachmemberconducting
an intewienr.
In eachcasetheschoqlmediaspedalistanangestime in the
libraryo in anotherdassroomto helpthe groupswlth the au"
diotapesand videotapes.
Duringthe group prsentations,
the
teacherprovidesthe equipmentnecessary
to play back eadr
groupsaudioandvideotapes.
Reponenhomeadrgrouppresnttheirdataon a chartor a
graph.Thestudents
mustaccurately
conswctaM producea
printoutof a graphOar,line or circle)usingApplellhrk. Dur
inghe grouppresentationt
theteacherpreparutheequipment
necssary
to vie,v'r
eadr group'sgraphsusinga dataproiectol:
Thegroupsarercquiredto accuretely
read,interpret,and verballypresent
allfre statistical
information
shovvn
on theirgraphs.

in a
Followingthe largqgroupactivtty,fte studentsparticipate
to collect,
smd{toup activity.
AsignmenBrequirethestudents
intqrprt,dnd prsentbaslcdata.Initially,the groupswo* to'
getherto propose,
discus,andagreeona topicfora grouppre$
presentalion
datacollection
entation.'lhe
topicmustincorporate
ard *re r"seof
technhueskurvey,obsewatio&
and/orinterview)
graphsto prsentnumedcalinformation"
the studentscollectdatain their schoolfor a smallgroup
prsen0ation.
Thegroupnchoosewhetherto collectfreir data
or personalintervievls.Each
ttuorgh survep, observations,
gnouBusesApB/elt&rls
to wtiteandpmducea writtenreportre
gardirEthedatacoflection
associated
wi*l *|e topic
technlque$
of $eir presentation

ThbEtueprintw6
developed
WMaUAnnk*is, hadte Untvesity.
Nl ofb\eASSURE
Bluepdnv
inhb lenondonelectonktenplote
torav
otinglnur ownBlue$intconbefoundon theenffi'Clorsroan Link
tutlalio'cD$aM

ancewill help you developthe criteria for evaluatingthe


individualstudentor group'sperformance.If the objective lends itself only to paper-and-pencilevaluationof
factsand information, perhapsyou need to rewrite it.
achievementdependson the
The method of assessing
nature of thc objective.Someobjectivescall for relatively
simplecognitive skills-for example,recallingOhm's law,
distinguishingadjectivesfrom adverbs,describinga company's absencep"liry, or summarizingthe principles of
the Declarationoflndependence.Objectivessuchasthese
lend themselvesto conventionalwritten testsor oral examinations.Other objeaivesmaycall for process-typebehaviors (e.g., conducting an orchestra, performing a
forward roll on a balancebeam,operating a metal lathe,
or solving quadraticequations),the creation of products
(e.g., a sculpture, a written composition, a window display,an accountledger,or a pordolio), or an exhibit of attitudes (e.g., tolerating divergent opinions, appreciating
expresionistpainting, observingsafetyprocedureson the
assemblyline, or contributing to community charities).

proceduresshould correspondto the


The assessment
objectivesstatedearlierin the ASSURE model. For example,assumethe objectiveis "Given a diagramof the
human trachea,the student nurse will explain a bronchoccle, describing the usual cause and the recommendedtreatment." A possibletest questionwould be
"What is a bronchocelelDescribethe causeand
treatment in your answer."
Assumestudentsarelearningto useBooleanlogic in
their Web searches.The objectivemight be "Using the
Tnboolignnssearchengine on the lnternet, the middle
school sfudentswill locate four referencesthat include
two key words provided by the teacher.' The assessment could be 'What are four referencesthat discuss
'spiders'and 'poisonousl"' The teacher
could provide
different key words to eachsrudent.
For military training, an objective could be, "With
the aid of a topographic map, the officer will call for
field artillery fue using the four essentialitems of information in prescribedmilitary sequence.' An oral test

25

FIGURE 3.T2
A sompleproductrotingchecklist.

STS
PRODUCTRATING CHEGKLf

Welding
Ddic

Noms

if youwish.
boxes.Addcomrnent$
theoppropriole
RaEJheweldedproductby checking
"''
metol{sl
Fitler
Bosemetol(sl
, , .,..

E
g
o
u
X
LIJ

Pra'ftlcc
(nax Vtz"|
Ccrnvexify
loe
on
Fuston
Overlop
of fill
Amount

L-t

tr
LJ

\J

" g d

tr
n
n
n

-o

-lf,

tr n
n n
r-'l
n
tr n

a
CL

fl
TI

n
n

Ovcnrll Evoluqtlott
Evolualor Gommcnfr:

For product skills, a product rating checklist can


guide your evaluation of critical subskills and make
qualitativcjudgmens more objective,as in the accompanying example regarding welding (Figure 3.I2).
Other typcsof productsthat lend themselvesto evaluation by a rating scalcinclude Pastryfrom a bakerScompositionsin an English course'and computerPrograms.

Evaluationof Methodsand Media


Evaluation also includes assessmentof instructional
methods and media. Were your instructional materials
effectivefCould they be improvedl Were they cost ei
fectivein terms of student achievementlDid your presentation take more time than it was redly worthl
Particularlyafterfirst use,instructionalmaterialsneedto
be evaluatedto determinewhether ftlture use,with or
without modification, is warranted.The resultsof your
evaluationshould be enteredon an AppraisalChecklist'
Did the media assistthe studentsin meeting the objectivesf Werc they effectivein arousingstudent interestl
Did they provide meaningfulstudentparticipationf
of
You may solicit learnerinput on the effectiveness
specificmedia,suchasa CD or videotape. You may de"karner
sign your own form or useone similar to the
ReactionForm' shownin Figure3'I3.

Wor*monrhip:
tJniform
oppeoronce
Arcstrikes
Beodwidth
Beodshrrf
Beodtiein
Beodferminotion
Penetrotion
Amounlof spcliter

'o
o
t)

-c'

, r g o
n n n

n
n
n

n t l n
N E t r

f l r n

n
n
n
n

n n
r n
n n

u
|:]

Classdiscussions,individual interviews, and observation ofstudent behaviorshould be used to evaluate


instructionalmediaand methods(Figure3.f 4). Failure
to attain objectivesis, of course,a possibleindication
that somethingis wrong with the instruction.But analyzing student reaction to your instructional methods
can be helpful in more subtle ways. Student-teacher
discussionmay indicate that your audiencewould have
preferred independcnt study to your choicc of group
presentation.Or perhapsviewersdidn't like your selection of ovcrhead transparenciesand feel they would
havelearnedmore if a videotapehad beenshown.Your
studentsmay let you know, subtly or not so subd5 that
your own performance left something to be desired
(Figurc3.15).
Conversationswith the school media specialistconcerning the value of specificmedia in an instructional
unit will help to alert you both to the need for additional instructional materialsto improve the lessonin
the future.

Revision
The final step of the instructional cycle is to sit back
and look at the resultsofyour evaluationdata gatherbetweenwhat you
ing. Where are there discrepancies

28

FIGURE'.I'

FIGURE3.T4

A sampleleamer rcoctionform.

Theobilityto createa podua $ould be evoluotedby he quality


of theptoduaitelf.

FIGURE3.I5
Anolpis of sudent rcactionsto lesonsb an
integrclNrt of ilrc instructbnolprocert

intended to happen and what did happenl Did student achievementfall short on one or more of the objectivesl How did studentsreact to your instructional
methods and media| Are you satisfiedwith the value
of the materialsvou selectedl You should reflect on

the lcsson and eachcomponent of it. Make notes immediately following completion of the lesson,and refer to them before you implcment the lessonagain. If
your evaluation data indicate shortcomings in any of
these areas,now is the timc to go back to the faulty

29

'&
Middle Sdrool lVlathematics
Evatuace and frtvlse
Assessmentof Leamer Achlevement
The followingretingform is usedto waluaF studens knowlunit Theformisdclgned for
edgeof the "lnfonnationStatistics'
studenBto complete.
Colleeing Don (20 poind
. Did eachmemberof yourgroupcollectdataat leastonce
andrecordthison tape?
. Did yourgroupcreatandwritea daracolleaionsheet
or intervievv)?
Gurvey,observation,
. Dld yourreportaccltrately
o<plainthastepstakeno olfect
yourdata?
. Did your rportstatea sor,tndrationalefor droosingthe
specifi
c cotlection
tedrnique?
Presentingthe Dato (20 pointil
. Are yourgraphsearyto read?
. Do yourgraphshaveappropriate
tides?
. Are thecomponenB
of yourgraphslabeledconectly?
. Did youprovidea printoutof youf graphs?
hesentotion SUle Qn poin9
. Didyourgroupintroduce
yourpresentation
topicandtll
whyyoudroseit?
. DirJyou o<plainyourdatacollectionmethodandgiveyour
rationalefor ie droice?
. Dld you playbackyourdabacollediontape?
. Dld you showyour resultsin tre formof gnphs?
. Did yourgroupleavetirnefor questions?
. Did yourgroupan$derprtinentquestiotls?
lnterprention Q0 polnN
. Did yowgroup co{rectlyrcadandinterpretSregraphs?
. Did yourgrouperglainall the sradsdcaltnformation
shown
on ttregnphs?

part of thc plan and rcvise it. The model works, but
only if you constantly usc it to upgrade thc quality of
your instruction. (SeeASSURE Blueprint for Evduatc and Revise,above.)

,/F\ CLASSROOMLINK
W/ pORTFOLto AcTtVtTIES eo
Pleaseusethe "ClassroomLink Portfirlio" CD-ROM and
the CompanionWebsiteasresourcesin completing these
activities.To completethe following activitiesonline go to

Eyaluatlonof Media and lvlethods


To succesfullyevaluatethe mediaand mefrodsutilized,the
rcadrerohducrsdebriefingactivities
afterteadtingthe students
howb makegraphsendafterthe studentpresentations.
ln additioe$e tallsinformally
wittrsfiJdenB
duringtheentireprocess,
Theteader conduts
a debriefingimrnediately
followingtfie
graph-ffia$ng$eision.5headdresses
any issuesthat rnayhave
arisendurlngtheInstruction.
Additionally,
sheprovidestime for
the studentstb venttheirfrussationsand to sharetheirexcite
rnent.Then,sheremindsthemof thepurposeof fie activity.
She
alsoinvitescomrnentsthat addressfre importanceof leaming
prograrns.
how to makegraphsusingspreadsheet
Specificexamplesillustratingposslblefutureusesfor the skitlarealsodisarssed.The primarypurposeof this debriefingsessionis to
deErmine
whetherhe $tudents
arecomfortable
makinggraphs
usingthecomputer.
Theteachercpnduc6
a seconddebdefingsesionafterall the
$tudentihave made their presentations,
She specificallyaddrcsseseachphaseof the instruction:firsl the review/introduc,
tion phaseutllizlngthe mini-presentation
with the flip charf
secondthegraph-making
session;
thir4 theplanningphaseof
fourh, the useof Srecomputerto dwelopr*
he presentation;
porb;fifth,*re studentpresentations.
Studentreactlonto eachof
fresephasesis oiticalfor posiblers/isions.In addition,evaluation tedlniquesfor leamerachiErement
arediscussed.
To com.
pltettredebdeflngexercise,
the teacheras|(sstudenBto write
the purposeof the projeC.In addition,theyareaskedto write
whethertheylikedtheadivities,andto statewhyor why not,

Evaluatlonof Overall lnstructlon


the studentsandteacheromplete a teadrerdoreloped
formfor
of leameractrlevemen!
an overallevaluation
media,andmethods.Thestudentaverageis comparedwith the teache/sperceptiuts For items that appeardiscrepant,the teadrer will
address
theneedfor rwisionin herchoiceof leamingacfjvtties,
mediasehctions,
methods,
andevaluation
materials.
ThEEluefintwu develqedfi lvloryAnnft*k Purdue
UnMty.
Nl d tlleASSURE
ElueNnB
in thbta(tondonelectmnk
templote
foro,:eotingWw ownElueryint
conhefoundon theenclased'CJorrloom
Link
tudoth'CD.-R0'M

thc Portfolio Activities module in Chapter 3 of the Companion Websitc (http :/ / www.prenhall.com/heinich ).
L Plonningfor Insttuction. Selecta content areastandard
or topic you might like to teach.Use the Irsson
Planningfunction on the "ClassroomLink Portfolio"
CD-ROM to createa lessonto addressthis topic
and/or standard,addresing issuesof diveisclearners.
(ISTE NETS-T II-A & C; [I-A & B; VI-C & E)
2. Wrinen Reflection.Briefly describelessonplanning
using the ASSURE modcl. What do you seeas the
benefits and drawbacksof using this modelf What
works best for youl Whyl (ISTE NETS-T II-B)

30

A Temp@ for Phnning


situation.
Thisk a desaiprionof the instnrctional

Uoon

Matertals

Preview Materids
priorto taching
It isessentlalto
knowthematerials
wift tfBrfl.

A"orrr"

bamerc

@rral Chafacterirdcs
this isa descipfonsf thedas asa wholeG.g"age gnde,etd.

rElmyCor@es
opeclbdof the
of thetypesof knowfedge
Ttrlsisa dgsqipdon
':
hamR.
Leanfirg St!/leg
'lhis a descripion
of indiof theleamingsrylbtcprclerences
b
of theclass.
vidualmembers

ftepare the lVlaterials


Experience
usingthematerials
is important.

Prptrttre Envirtnment
$etrng up the ihstructionalenvironmenthelps to mak the
leaminge<periqn@
Valuable.

Prcparethe Learners
whatisexpectedof themhelpsleamersbe involvedin
Knovu{ng
theleaming.

Botdde the Learnlng Experlencc


Theadualpresentation
needsto be considered.

Sr." mHwes
of the leamingout@mesand are
aG dcssipffons
Obiecti\res
writtenuslngttc ABCDlormat.

ReqrlF,e Leamer PaqctPafron


l[ desoiptionof fre activitieg
designedto providepracticewith
fedbackfor theleamers.

Sn*"rlnt* rl*/ls, til&tq and Ma.efiak

Evauate ond RevI*

Indudeall tre mffiods,ffiedia,8ndfiaterialsthei areessential


to fre lesson

Asseosmerrt
of lecrner Achievement

Radonale
It h importantb considerwhy certainmediaha\rebeen
selpded.

EvaWfon of CornmerclalMatedak
ApprelsrlChdctdlitiare vsluablewh6selectingcommercial
materisL.

ENTS
I NTEGRATIONASSESSM
To complete the specifiedactivitiesonline go to the Inmodulein Chapter3 ofthe ComtegrationAssessments
panionWebsite(http:/ /www.prenhall.com/heinich).
l. Plan a presentationusing the procedures
describedin this chapter.Your description
must follow the "AssureBlueprint: A
Tcmplate for Planning" in this chapter.
at leastfive objectivesfor a lessonyou
Write
2.
G)
\L:/
-ight teach.Choosea topic that allowsyou
to write objectivcsin more than one domain.
ac"*-\ 3. Selecta chapterfrom a textbook of interest
W
to vou and ierive a set ofat leastfive
objectivesthat you feel the aurhor intended.

Hor willtre oblecivesbe "tested?

Evaluatlonof lnrtruction 0ncltdlns media


and medrods)
Toensurequafityinstruction,
h b irnponantto evaluatethe experiencefor futureplanning.
lor ae"
EWinB int B trcr.otdonelerlaft tenploe
N af theASSIJRE
"ClwoamLlnk
otirEyourownBhtqftrtconbefwndonfre endosed
Mio" CD4Olvl

4. Plan,prepare,and presenta brieflesson


incorporatingtwo or more media.Ffaveyour
audience(one personor more) glve you
fcedbackon your presentationskills.
5. Selecta lessonyou might teach,such as
a chapterfrom a textbook, and developa set
of evaluationinstruments(not necessarilyall
paper-and-penciltest items).
6. Locate a lessonplan on the Internet and
a@
\:l
evaluateit using the ASSURE model asa
guideline.
7. Identify a group of learners(studentsor
trainees)with which you are familiar. Describe
the generalcharacteristicsand their specific
entry competenciesfor e topic of your choice.
Discusstheir learning stylesin terms of their

31

pcrceptual preferencey' strengths,


information proccssinghabits, motivational
factors, and physiological factors.
8. Locate a setof objectiveson the Intemet,
@
classi$them, and critique them usingthe
"AppraisalChecklisuObjectives"in this chapter.
9. Searchthe Internet and find somematerials
@})
\-7
you could usein a lesson.Design a lesson
around the materialsusing the "Classroom
Link Portfolio' CD-ROM.
10.
Locate a lesson,pcrhapsusing the Internet,
ffi}..)
\-7
that does not proide learnerpracticeand
feedback.Design activitiesficr that lessonthat
do provide practiceand fcedback.
ll.
Using the Internet,locatean articleon
@)
v
or a constructivistsview
authentic assessment
of student evaluation.Write a one- to two-page
summaryand one to two pagesdescribing
your reflection on or reactionto the article.

REFERENCES
Buder, Kathleen A. 1986. I*arning ond. teachingstyle:In
theoryand in practicc.2d ed. Columbia, CT: Learncr's
Dimcnsion.
Dick, Wdter, Lou Carey and Jim Carey.2001. Tlterystenratic
d.aign of insnuction. Sth ed. Ncw York Longman.
Dunn, Rita, and Kenneth Dunn. 1992. Toachingelementory
stadentsthro*gh their ind.ioid*nl lenrting sryles:Prnctical
34. Boston:Allyn & Bacon.
npplicationsforgrnd.cs
of learning.4th cd.
Gagn6,Robert M. f985. Thc cond.itions
NewYork: Holt, Rinchart & Winston.
Gardner, Howard. 1993. Mrhiph intelligences:Thc tbeoryin
prnctice.New York: BasicBooks.
1999. Intelligence reframed.:Maltiple intclligencesfor
the2lx century.New York: BasicBooks.
Gronlund, Norman E. 2000. How to wite and aseinstractionol objectioar.6th ed. Upper Saddle River, N]: MerrilTPrenticc Hall.
Johnson,David W., and Roger T. Johnson. 1993. Cooperative lcarning and fcedbackin technology-bascdinstruction. In Intcractipe instruction ond feedback,editcd by f.
Dcmpseyand G. Sales.EnglewoodCliffs, NJ: Educational
TechnologyPublications.
fohnston, |eromc. 1987. Electronic lenrning: From pad.iotf,pe to pid.eltupe. Hillsdale, Nf: Lawrcnce Erlbaum
Associates.
Kellcr,John. 1987.The systematicproccssofmotivationd design,Performanceand.Irstraction, 26(9): I-8.
Magcr, Robcrt F. 1997. Pftpnring inrntcrtonol objcctiea,3d
cd. Atlanta, GA: Ccntcr for Effcctivc Pcrformancc.
McAlpine, Lynn, and Cynthia Weston. 1994. The attributes
of instructional materials. Perforwnnce Improwwcnt
QyarterQ, 7(l): 19-30.
Tobias, Sigmund. 1987. I*arner characteristics.ln lw*uceditedby Robcrt M. Gagn.
tional technology:
Foundations,
Hillsdale, N|: LawrenceErlbaum Associates.

READINGS
SUGGESTED
General References
Kafai,Yasmin,and Mitchel Resnick.1996. Constructipismin
proctice: Designing, thinhing, and. lenrning in a digital
world. MahwafuNJ: LawrenceErlbaumAssociates.
Messerer,I. L997. Adaptive technology: Unleashing the
powcr of tcchnologyfor all students.I*orning and.I*ad.ing with Technology,
24\5): 50-53.
Prestidge;Glaser,L. K 2000. Authentic assessment:
Employing appropriatetools for evaluatingstudents'work in 2lstcennrry.Interventionin School
and.Clinic, 35(3):178-L82.
Stiggins, Richard I. 2001. Srudent-inpolped.
cla.syoomnssessment.3d ed,.Upper SaddleRiver,N| : Merrill/Prentice Hall.
Waddeck,1.1997. Physicalconsidcrationsin the developmcnt
of a computerlearningenvironment.BritishJorrnol of EducartonolTechnologry,
28(l): 69-7 L.

Media Selection ond Use


Arredondo, Lani. l99l . How to presentlihe a pro. New York:
McGraw-Hill.
Cartier, Francis.1992. Words about media selection.Performnnceand.Instruction,3I(l): 9-L2.
Kang, S. H. 1996-1997. The effectsofusing an advanceorganizeron students'learningin a computcr simulationenvironment. Journnl of Ed.ucotional Technol.ogySystems,
25(l):5745.
Mager, Robcrt F. 1984. Developingattitud.etoword leorning.
2d ed. Belmont, CA: David S. Lake.
1997. Hop to tarn homers on . . , withoat turning them
olf,3d ed.Adanta,GA: Centerfor EffectivePerformance
.
L997. Making instruction work. 2d cd. Atlanta, GA:
Center for EffectivePerformancc.
1997. Meastring ins*rctional resubl3d ed. Atlanta,
GA: Center for Effectivc Performance.

lnstructionol

Design

Boyle,T. 1997. Designfor muhiwedia leorni*9. Upper Saddlc River,NJ: Merrill/Prentice Hall.
Dick, Wafter,Iou Carcy,and )amesO. Carey.2001. The Estemnticd.eignof insnaction.Sth ed. New York: l,ongman.
)onasscn,D. H. l99T.Instructional designmodelsfor wellstructured and ill-structured problem-solving learning
outcomes. Ed.*cationnl Technology
Reseqrchnnd. Development,45(L):65-9+.
Morrison, Gary R, StevenM. Ross,and |errold E. Kemp.
2001. Designing ffictive instraction. 3d ed. Ncw York:
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Learning Styles
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