Vol 4 Issue 11

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Internationally Indexed,
Peer Reviewed, Multidisciplinary
Scientific Journal
ICV: 4.18
International Journal of Current Research and Review

(IJCRR)
Vol 04 / Issue 11 / June 2012

Frequency: Fortnightly
Language: English
Published by:
Radiance Academy of Research and
Innovation, Nagpur, M.S., India
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IC Value of Journal: 4.18
Let the science be your passion
Editorial Board
Dr. Prof. Dato
Proom Promwichit
Dr. Nahla Salah Eldin
Barakat
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Dinesh
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Dr. Okorie
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Phumkhachorn
Dr. Manoj Charde
Dr. Shah Murad
Mastoi
Deputy Vice Chancellor, Research & Innovation

Division, Masterskill University College of
Health Sciences, Cheras, Malaysia
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Egypt
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Malaysia
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Nigeria
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State
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Bhopal
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Medical and Dental College, Lahore, Pakistan
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Vol. 04 issue 11 June 2012
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I
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Index
S.
N.
1
2

9

10
Title
Authors
Design and Implementation of Multi

FPGA Network without using Buffer
Analysing Rates and Trends of
Antibiotics Prescription in Rural Parts of
Bhandara District of India
R.Vignesh,
C.Subashini
U.P. Chamat, S.W.
Lohe, R. H. Fulzele
An Emprical Analysis of Marketing of

Oilseeds in Haveri District of Karnataka
State of India
Effect of Atorvastatin, Simvastatin and
Lovastatin on Animal Models of
Epilepsy: A Comparative Study
Suresh Banakara,
Anilkumar B Kote
Comparative Study of Changes in

Maximum Expiratory Pressure (MEP) in
Saw Mill Workers from Bijapur City of
Karnataka State of India
Work
Related
Musculoskeletal
Disorders among Dentists in Chennai- A
Questionnaire Survey
Detection of Virus Strain that Caused

Foot and Mouth Disease of Basrah
Marshes Cattle
by using PCR
Technique
Comparison of Mean Arterial Blood
Pressure in four Different Body
Positions between Hypertensive and
Normotensive Individuals
Mylohyoid Groove Bridging in North
Coastal Andhra Population
Relationship
between
Levels
of
Thyroid Hormones
and
Thyroid
Antibodies in Breast Cancer
Veena Nayak,
Shalini Adiga,
Poornima BM, Ravi
Sharma, Arpita Garg
Kulkarni Chandrahas
M, Gannur D G,
Aithala Manjunatha,
Patil S M
Haritha Pottipalli
Sathyanarayana,
Sudhakar
Subramanian, Abhay
Pandey
Khitam Jassim Salih,
Majeed Hussein
Majeed
Prakash J. Patel ,
Dhaval Patel
Indira Devi.B ,Raju.

Sugavasi, Sujatha.M,
Sirisha.B, Sridevi.P
G.S.R.Kedari,
G.S.R.Hareesh
Page
No.
5
12
16
30
34
38
42
51
58
63

I
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4
Index
S.
N.
11
12
13
14
15
16
17

18
19
20
Title
Authors
Effective Utilization of Sugar Industry

Waste for Bio- Ethanol Production
Rain Fade Slope Estimation using Signal
Processing Techniques
Unsia Habib,
Muddasar Habib
Chandrika Panigrahi,
S.Vijaya Bhaskara
Rao, G. Rama
Chandra Reddy
Shrawan Kumar
Meena, Alka Meena,
Jitendra Ahuja, Vishnu
Dutt Bohra
C.Thilakam,
K.RethiDevi
A Study of Gamma-Glutamyltransferase
(GGT) in Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus and
its Risk Factors
Prevalence of Overweight and Obesity
among Women in Madurai City
Base Pressure Studies from Over
Expanded Nozzle for Area Ratio 2.56
Maughal Ahmed Ali

Baig, Sher Afghan
Khan, E.
Rathakrishnan
Content Validity of a Questionnaire to Mohamed Sherif
assess the Ergonomic Knowledge of Sirajudeen, Umama
Computer Professionals
Nisar Shah, Nagarajan
Mohan,
Padmakumar
Somasekharan Pillai
Occurrence of Gram Positive Bacteria Mohammad Issa
Among Saudi Children with Atopic Ahmad, Jalal Ali.
Dermatitis
Bilal, Ahmad Al
Robaee, Abdullateef
A. Alzolibani, Hani A.
Al Shobaili,
Muhammad Shahzad ,
Ibrahim Hassan.
Babiker
A Comparative Study of Cosmetic Abdullah B J, Nasreen
Regulations in Different Countries of the R, Ravichandran N
World with Focus on India
In-vitro studies of Vitex Negundo l. An
Important Medicinal Plant
Firdous Dar, Kirti

Jain, Madhuri Modak
Study of Defaulters of Revised National

Tuberculosis Control Programme in the
three Primary Health Centres of
Belgaum District
Shivappa Hatnoor,
Hemagiri K, Sangolli
H N, Mallapur M.D,
VinodKumar C.S
Page
No.
69
77
89
96
107
114
122
130
144
150

DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION OF

NETWORK WITHOUT USING BUFFER
MULTI
FPGA
R.Vignesh1, C.Subashini2
ijcrr
Vol 04 issue 11
Category: Research
Received on:17/04/12
Revised on:26/04/12
Accepted on:03/05/12
M.E,S.A.Engineering College,Anna University of Technology, Chennai

S.A.Engineering College, Anna University of Technology, Chennai
E-mail of Corresponding Author: vickyece2@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
As we know mobile and wireless technologies are contributing in development of states, countries and
world in many ways .This paper proposes the implementation of mobile in health services in the remote
areas of HP. This paper presents the penetration of mobile in the developing countries and their use in the
health sector. This paper gives a model of health using mobile cellular communications in the health
services. This paper proposes that how the portable biomedical equipments and telecommunication
systems can be combined to provide health services in remote areas with improved patient safety, reduced
cost and challenges in doing this.
____________________________________________________________________________________
INTRODUCTION
ROUTING
The system is based on a novel routing concept.
The main advantage of this concept is that any
possible signal connectivity can be routed on the
proposed structure. None of the previously
mentioned unused or additional pin penalty can
occur. Figure no 1.1 shows the switching
network of two FPGAs and one pin each. One
FPGA pin of each FPGA is picked and the
resulting group is connected via switches to
build a switching network.
The switching network generates two

intermediate nets on each of the adjacent FPGA
layers. On one single switch board multiple of
this switching networks can be realized. One
pins are occupied in a routing network of one
FPGA pin, the pair wise connectivity of
intermediate nets allows the connection of this
pin to the neighboring network. If this is not
possible, the previously routed graph could be
modified to use horizontal connections and the
connectivity is done on the same network.

Figure no 1 Switching Network of Two FPGAs (one pin each)

RECONFIGURABLE ARCHITECTURE
Reconfigurable computing is a computer
architecture combining some of the flexibility of
software with the high performance of hardware
by processing with very flexible high speed
computing fabrics like field-programmable gate
arrays (FPGAs). The principal difference when
compared to using ordinary microprocessors is
the ability to make substantial changes to the
data path itself in addition to the control flow.
On the other hand, the main difference with
custom hardware, i.e. application-specific
integrated circuits (ASICs) is the possibility to
adapt the hardware during runtime by "loading"
a new circuit on the reconfigurable fabric. The
reconfigurable computers can be categorized in
two classes of architectures: hybrid computer
and fully FPGA based computers. Both
architectures are designed to transport the
benefits of reconfigurable logic to large scale
computing. They can be used in traditional CPU
cluster computers and network infra structures.
Delay Variation
In alternative concepts between FPGAs can vary
by a great range. This is mainly due to the
resulting different length of paths, when a planar
orientated FPGA placement is done. Routing
1200 signals with equal length between four
FPGAs seems to be impossible. If switching
technology is used, the routing effort becomes
even more critical due to fast rising number of
routing/switching devices on the board.
Especially if pass transistor based switching
technology is used, different wire length and
their different capacities change the slope.

Fig no 3 Delay Structure
Fig no 2 Delay Variation Concentric

Structure
The clock edge arrives at the same time as the
data signals at the FPGA pins. The constant
insertion delay (signal traveling from the I/O-pin
of the clock tree to the individual clock input of
the registers) of the FPGA clock trees and
constant setup and hold times of registers
(placed at the I/O-blocks) guarantee that the
results can be reproduced. The receiving data
block is split
In to rising edge and falling edge receiving
registers so that both edges of the parallel routed
clock can be used .A self-timed wave-pipelined
structure simplifies the efforts to guarantee a
working solution. The clock signal is only
routed to the sending blocks and replaces the
low-skew global clocks. A clock is generated by
the sending FPGA and is sent out in parallel to
the data signals.
In almost all cases, FPGAs have sending and

receiving modules at the same time. This is why
system level clocks are lo skew signals. An
additional critical signal is the reset signal,
which resets the counter modules of both
sending and receiving blocks of source and
target FPGAs.
If this reset signal does not become inactive at
the same clock cycle on both sides, the counting
is not in sync and a system malfunction is
guaranteed. To avoid false mapping of sending
and receiving data due to incorrect pointer
counting the corresponding select information of
the data is also transferred.
IV Path Identifier

Create n*n modules that is among no of nodes

routing take place among them dynamically
nodes are selected, Switching technology is
implemented to reduce the inter connections and
to reduce delay between nodes. Then Routing
path metric is calculated Routing is done in four
ways One to One Routing, One to Many
Routing, All to one routing and All to all routing
solve compute intensive problems and also in
the verification and prototyping of large circuits.
This paper addresses the problem of routing
multi-terminal nets in a multi-FPGA system that
uses partial crossbars as interconnect structures.
The multi-terminal routing problem is first
modeled as a partitioned bin packing problem
and formulated as an integer linear programming
problem where the number of variables is
exponential, Compute an upper bound on the
routing solution.
Fig no 5 Look up Table
The FPGA is an array or island-style FPGA. It

consists of an array of logic blocks and routing
channels. Two I/O pads fit into the height of one
row or the width of one column, as shown
below. All the routing channels have the same
width (number of wires). Data is given as input
to LUT which is cascaded to SR FLIPFLOP
CTRL bits are given to set and clear flip flop
data Carry generator is provided to take carry in
and out Multiplexer is provided to select the
inputs. Each circuit must be mapped into the
smallest square FPGA that can accommodate it.
The FPGA logic block consists of a 4-input
look-up table (LUT), and a flip flop, as shown
below. There is only one output, which can be
either the registered or the unregistered LUT
output. The logic block has four inputs for the
LUT and a clock input. Since the clock is
normally routed via a special-purpose dedicated
routing network in commercial FPGAs, do NOT
route it or include it in your track count results.
That is, you can completely ignore the clock net,
since it is assumed to be routed on a special
global network.
COMPARISON RESULTS
The proposed multi-FPGA structure (MS) is
compared to a group of alternative concepts.
They can be classified by their routing
resources, switch routing delays and wave-based
pin multiplexing capabilities. The MS has no
routing limitations as well as the MP4 a
common maximum number of traces between
FPGAs in standard switch based concepts [13] is
700.Athird group of routing resources is tri state
based, This determined by the pin multiplexing
delay and if wave pipelining is possiblethe
wave-based pin multiplexing delay.
ATOMI ALGORITHM
The interconnection among FPGAs consists of
wires for emulation clock, _clk, and TOMi,
respectively. _clk, which is of higher frequency
than emulation clock, controls micro-operations

9
for the signal transfer between consecutive
edges of emulation clock. TOMi is composed of
wires that transfer logic signals from one FPGA
to another according to _clk. Each bit line of
TOMi shared by all FPGAs transfers a logic
signal driven by one of FPGA sin one clk cycle.
It is a bidirectional signal where the signal is
driven by a single source and transferred to
multiple destination FPGAs. Therefore, multi
terminal inter-FPGA nets can be easily routed.
SIMULATION RESULT
Atomi structure
Figure 7 Transmitter and Receiver

In this waveform for corresponding input output
is obtained the clock signal is unchangeable but
the testing inputs varies for each routing by this
routing path is calculated using all to all routing
for each input delay is provided in range of nano
seconds. At first input pin is forced values are
changed, clock is set to delay seconds

10
to a certain extent in the standard routing
concept.
FUTURE SCOPE
In the first phase partition coding is created
modules are generated and executed using
modelsim also corresponding waveform is
obtained. In the second phase, other modules
will be simulated and integrated. Apart from this
efficient routing path is determined. This is done
by
calculating
memory
size,
power
consumption. Finally all the modules will be
implemented
in
Cyclone-IV
FPGA
Development kit.
FIGURE 8 NETWORK
The
above
waveform
indicates
for
corresponding input output is obtained the clock
signal is unchangeable but the testing inputs
varies for each routing by this routing path is
calculated using Many to one routing for each
input delay is provided in range of nano seconds.
CONCLUSION
The proposed multi-FPGA structure (MS) is
compared to a group of alternative concepts.
They can be classified by their routing
resources, switch routing delays and wave-based
pin multiplexing capabilities. The MS has no
routing limitations as well as the MP4. A
common maximum number of traces between
FPGAs in standard switch based concepts .A
third group of routing resources is tri state based
The is determined by the pin multiplexing delay
and if wave pipelining is possible the wavebased pin multiplexing delay. The proposed
structure allows self-timed wave-based pin
multiplexing. Wave based pin multiplexing is
not possible at the MP4 and at the ATOMi, but
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I
must
thankful
to
Mrs.UMARANI
SRIKANTH.M.E., (Ph.D) Head of the
Department, PG studies and project coordinator
Mrs C.Subashini.M.E Assistant Professor,
Department of PG studies, without whose
guidance and patience, this dissertation would
not be possible. And engineering, project panel
members, Professors of the Department of
Electrical and Electronics Engineering for their
consistent encouragement and ideas.
REFERENCES
1. Y. Kwon and C. Kyung, ATOMi: An
algorithm for circuit partitioning into
multiple FPGAs using time-multiplexed,
off-chip,
multicasting
interconnection
architecture, IEEE Trans. Very Large Scale
Integr.(VLSI) Syst., vol. 13, no. 7, pp. 861
864, Jul. 2005.
2. V. Pavlidis and E. Friedman, 3-D
topologies for networks-on-chip,IEEE
Trans. Very Large Scale Integr. (VLSI)
Syst., vol. 15, no. 10, pp.10811090, Oct.
2007.
3. M.Lin,A.Gamal,Y.Lu,
and
S.Wong,
Performance benefits of monolithically

11
4.
5.
6.
7.
stacked 3-D FPGA, IEEE Trans. Comput.Aided Design Integr.Circuits Syst., vol. 26,
no. 2, pp. 216226, Feb. 2007.
Texas Instruments Incorporated, Dallas, TX,
Octal buffer/Driver,SN74LV244AT, 2005
M. Khalid and J. Rose, A novel and
efficient routing architecture for multiFPGA systems, IEEE Trans. Very Large
Scale Integr. (VLSI) Syst., vol. 8, no. 1, pp.
3039, Feb. 2000.
Xilinx, Inc., San Jose, CA, FPGA and
CPLD solutions, 1985. [Online].Available:
www.xilinx.com
Opencores, Stockholm, Sweden, Project
Aquarius,2007.[Online].Available:www.op
encores/aquarius.html
8. A.EjniouiandN.Ranganathan,Multiterminal
net routing for partialcrossbar-based multiFPGA systems, IEEE Trans. Very Large
Scale.
9. A. Joshi and J. Davis, Wave-pipelined
multiplexed (WPM) routing for gigascale
integration (GSI), IEEE Trans. Very Large
Scale Integr.(VLSI) Syst., vol. 13, no. 8, pp.
899910, Aug. 2005.
10. H. Krupnova, Mapping multi-million gate
SoCs on FPGAs: Industrial methodology
and experience, in Proc. Design. Autom.
Test Eur. Conf.Exhib., 2004, pp. 1236
1242.
11. CHIPit, Synopsys, Inc., MountainView, CA,
Predictable Success,2009. [Online].
Available: www.synopsys.com

12
ANALYSING RATES AND TRENDS OF ANTIBIOTICS

PRESCRIPTION IN RURAL PARTS OF BHANDARA
DISTRICT OF INDIA
ijcrr
Vol 04 issue 11
Category: Research
Revised on:12/04/12
U.P. Chamat, S.W. Lohe, R. H. Fulzele

Anurag College of pharmacy Warthi Bhandara
E-mail of Corresponding Author: ujwala_chamat@rediffmail.com
ABSTRACT
Study was carried out to find out the trends and rates of antibiotics prescribing by the physicians. Some
patients and pharmacists were interviewed with prepared questionnaires. A study was conducted on the
patients who are visiting to civil hospital, rural and primary health centers in Bhandara district. A total of
350 prescriptions were evaluated. For evolution of Prescriptions we follow the National list of essential
medicine 2009 and Local guidelines for Prescription pattern. Among those 62.28 % of prescriptions were
contain antibiotics and 37.72 % were not contain antibiotics. It indicates that the prescribing rate of
antibiotics is higher. While evaluating prescriptions we observed that there were some common errors in
prescribing antibiotic like, use of an antibiotics agents with inappropriate spectrum, unnecessary
prescription of antibiotics, incorrect dosage and antibiotics were prescribed for viral infections that does
not affect the viruses. This may leads to the development of antibiotic resistant bacterial population.
Because of this some efforts should be made like, promotion of good Prescription practices, physicians
should follow the local guidelines, design education programme for pharmacist, nurses & other
professionals working in these settings.
Keywords: Spectrum, bacterial resistance, WHO (World Health Organization)
____________________________________________________________________________________
INTRODUCTION
Prescription is a written order from a registered
medical practitioner or other property licensed
practitioner to a pharmacist to compound and
dispense a specific medication for the patient.
While considering present scenario about the use
of antibiotics many questions are arising in mind
like, whether health care providers follow
appropriate diagnostic procedure, also about the
correct selection of
products and dosage
regimen to fit underlying heath problems?
Whether they communicate with patient
regarding
proper
label
instructions,
contraindications or dosage?
.
Common error in antibiotic prescription and

misuse of antibiotics like, physicians not take
into account the patients weight and history of
prior antibiotics used. Since, both can strongly
affect the efficacy of antibiotics. Prescribing
inappropriate antibiotics like, use of antibiotic to
the viral infections such as common cold that
have no therapeutic effect. Dispensing of
antibiotics over the counter because physicians
prescribing same brands of an antibiotics.
However this may leads to the development of
antibiotic resistant bacterial population. Reapted
and longer use of same brand of antibiotic leads
to the emergence of resistant bacterial
population which cannot be killed by that

13
antibiotic this is known as antibiotic resistance.
The existence of antibiotic resistance bacteria
creates the danger of life threatening infections
that do not respond to antibiotics.
METHOD
Present study was conducted by randomly
collecting 350 prescriptions from patients
visiting to different health care centers including
civil hospitals, primary health care centers in

rural and urban areas of Bhandara district.
Patients and pharmacists get interviewed with
prepared questionnaires, cross-sectional survey
of prescription was done. National list of
essential medicine 2009 and local guiding for
prescription pattern was used as a reference for
the evaluations of collected data.
Observations
Mostly prescribed antibiotics in different age groups with symptoms
Age Group
(In Years)
0-2
2-4
4-6
6-8
8-10
10-12
12-14
14-16
No.of Prescriptions
Brand name
Symptoms
81
30
24
07
14
05
09
06
Septran
(Sulphamethoxzole+
trimethoprim)
Cough,
Rhinitis,
Fever,
Cold,
Pharyngitis,
Body ach,
Gastritis,
Itching,
Scabies
16-30
30-45
75- 100
57
69
--
Septran
(Sulphamethoxzole+
trimethoprim)
Amox (amoxicillin)
Cipro (ciprofloxacin)
Doxy (doxycycline)
Cibran (ciprofloxacin)
Ciplox (ciprofloxacin)
Cifran (ciprofloxacin)
Amox (amoxicillin)
Doxy (doxycycline)
RESULT
A total of 350 prescriptions were evaluated,
where 63 Male, 111 Female, 113 Male Child &
63 Female Child. Evolution data suggests that
62.28 % of prescriptions were containing
antibiotics among those 50.10% were in children
and 37.72 % were not containing antibiotics
indicating that prescribing rate of an antibiotics
is higher. Physicians are commonly prescribing
SEPTRAN, AMOX and DOXY in children and
SEPTRAN, CIPRO, CIPROX, CIBRAN,
CIFRAN, DOXY and AMOX in adults. While
Cough,
Rhinitis,
Fever,
Cold,
Pharyngitis,
Body ach,
Gastritis,
Itching,
Scabies
physicians in rural hospital and primary health

centers are following the same trends. None of
the drugs were prescribed in generic name. We
observed that some antibiotics were prescribed
for cold and Fever.
Some patients and pharmacists were interviewed
with prepared questionnaires from this we found
that, prescriptions contain antibiotics with
repeated brand name this may leads to the
patients are purchasing antibiotics over the
counter. Pharmacist are not guiding the patients
regarding dosage and schedule of antibiotics

14
administration. It may creates several problems
like patients not completing their antibiotics
course, skips the doses when they feel better and
take same antibiotics next time without
consulting to their physicians.
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS
While evaluating prescriptions we observed that
Physicians are mostly prescribing SEPTRAN in
children for COUGH, COLD, FEVER,
RHINITIS, OTITIS, UTRI and SCABIES.
SEPTRAN is followed by AMOX and DOXY.
While SEPTRAN, CIPRO, CIPROX, CIBRAN,
CIFRAN, AMOX, DOXY for COUGH, COLD,
FEVER, RHINITIS, OTITIS, UTRI, SCABIES
and ITCHING in adults. Physicians in rural
hospital & primary health centers are following
the same trend in adults and children. It is
observed that none of the drugs were prescribed
in generic name.
After evaluating the prescriptions, we
interviewed some patients and pharmacists. We
found that patients are not following complete
antibiotic therapy. They stop the antibiotics at
midcourse, not follow proper schedule of the
dose. It may leads to bacterial resistance and
reinfection. There is repetition of antibiotics
with same brand in the prescription. This may
leads to patients are taking antibiotics without
consulting to their physicians. Some patients are
demanding and purchasing antibiotics over the
counter.
Hence some useful tips need to be given by
physicians/pharmacist to their patients:Take an antibiotic exactly as the
physician/pharmacist tells you.
Do not skip the doses of antibiotics.
Do not take antibiotics for a viral infection
like a cold or flu.
Complete the prescribed course of treatment
even if you feel better.
Do not take antibiotics prescribed for
someone else. The antibiotic may not be
appropriate for your illness. Taking the
wrong medicine may delay the effect of

correct treatment and leads to bacterial
resistance.
Do not purchase an antibiotic over the
counter.
Do not ask your pharmacist for antibiotics
without prescription.
Talk to your healthcare professionals about
antibiotics resistance.
There are some errors made by physician while
prescribing antibiotics like use of antibiotics for
viral infections such as common cold and fever
which does not affect the virus. Antibiotic being
prescribed with improper dosage administration
with meal or without meal which affect the
absorption of the drug and in turn decrease the
bioavailability of drug. One of the foremost
concerns in modern medicine is antibiotic
resistance. If antibiotics are stopped in
midcourse, the bacteria may be partially treated
and not completely killed, causing the bacteria
to be resistant to the antibiotic. Those resistant
bacteria grow enough to cause the re-infection.
Because of this alarming prevalence of bacterial
resistance some efforts should be made like
Document the infection microbiologically
before starting an antimicrobial therapy.
Consider the weight and prior history of
antibiotics used.
Avoid use of certain antibiotics already
known to be associated with emergence of
bacterial resistance.
Promotion of good prescribing practices.
Streaming broad spectrum therapy.
Adhere to the local guidelines.
Prescribe the antibiotics with their generic
name.
Counseling with the patients
To improve the quantity of antibiotic use in
hospitals, a multidisciplinary antimicrobial
committee should be formed, which would be
composed of physicians, microbiologist and the
pharmacists etc. Teaching and training about

15
antimicrobial therapy for doctors, nurses,
pharmacists and undergraduate medical and
pharmacy students.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Thanks to the community pharmacist who
helped us to carry out this survey, thanks to
patients and Anurag College of pharmacy
Warthi for providing necessary literatures.
Authors are grateful to Mr. Ajay Pise and
Sandeep Rahangdale for his guidance. Authors
acknowledge the immense help received from
the scholars whose article has cited and included
in reference of this manuscripts. Thanks to the
editor, reviewers of IJCRR Journal Management
team.
REFERENCES
1. Dr. K.R. Mahada Dr. B.S. Kuchekar.
Concise
organic
pharmaceutical
chemistry page no 4.1 4.20 .
2. L. Pachuau, L. Chhani, T. Jamir. Indian

journal of hospital pharmacy, 48(2011)
page no. 38- 39.
3. Ansari K.U. Signh, S. Pandey.
Evaluation of prescription pattern of
doctor for rational drug therapy Indian
Journal of Pharmacol, 1998: 30 ,page
no.43- 46.
4. S. Ponnusankar, M. Chintan, S.
Karthikayen, B. Suresh. Indian journal
of hospital pharmacy Sept- Oct.2007 pg
no. 181 183.
5. S. Ponnusankar B. Suresh. Indian
journal of hospital pharmacy, July- Aug2007 page no. 145-152.
6. A. Kaur & Dr. B, G. Nagavi. Indian
journal of hospital pharmacy Marchapril -2007, page no. 72- 74.
7. National list of essential drugs 2009
page no 1-43.
8. Local guidelines for prescription pattern.

16
AN EMPRICAL ANALYSIS OF MARKETING OF OILSEEDS

IN HAVERI DISTRICT OF KARNATAKA STATE OF INDIA
Suresh Banakara, Anilkumar B Kote
ijcrr
Vol 04 issue 11
Category: Research
Revised on:27/04/12
Department of Economics Karnataka University Dharwad Karnataka
E-mail of Corresponding Author: suri.eco@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
Edible oilseeds mainly comprise groundnut, mustard, sesame, safflower, soyabean, and sunflower.
Oilseeds contribution to GDP stands only next to cereals and milk. Edible oil accounts for about 5.5
per cent of the family budget occupying the third place, next to cereals and milk. Among the edible oil
seeds, groundnut is the most important one accounting for about 46 per cent of the total area under oil
seed, about 67 per cent of the total oil seeds production and about 59 per cent of the total edible oil
production i n India. In oil seeds m a r k e t i n g v a r i o u s intermediaries are involved and they
transfer the oilseeds from producers to ultimate consumers. So the farmer should identify right time
and right place to market their produce. Processing and marketing of oil seeds are some of the major
factors responsible for the stagnation in the oil seed economy. The oil seeds industry in general and
groundnut in particular is faced with many problems and challenges. The inadequacy of cropped area, low
productivity lack of adequate supply of quality seeds absence of integrated nutrient supply management,
inefficient crop management practices, absence of suitable soil and moisture conservation etc are the
major problems in the area of production management. The problem areas of market of oil seeds and
groundnut relate to absence of scientific assembling and storage, lack of adequate transport and grading
facilities insufficient market information. The role of market intermediaries and the APMC have been
found unsatisfactory. High marketing costs and inadequate finance resulting in distress sales in the village
local sales at low prices are the other set of marketing problems of groundnut farmers and sellers.
Keywords: Production, Groundnut, Marketing, inadequate finance, crop management.
____________________________________________________________________________________
Introduction and Background of Haveri
District:
The oil seeds scenario in India has undergone a
transformation during the last 15 years. The
major contributory factors of this transformation
have been, Availability of improved oil seeds
production technology and its adoption,
expansion in cultivated area, price support
policy and institutional support particularly
establishment of technology mission on oil
seeds(TMO)in 1986. There has been large
regional variation in area, production and

productivity changes of oil seeds. Sattes like
Haryana, Madhya Pradesh, Rajstan and West
Bengal increased their oil seed production both
through area expansion and productivity
improvement. But states like Maharatsra,
Tamilnadu and Himachal Pradesh increased
theire oil seeds production mainly through
productivity improvement. In some sytes like
Orissa, area production and productivity
dseclined sharply.The Indian edible oil industry

17
is expected to grow at a rate of 6 percent
annually over the next five years with
consumption set to reach 20 mn tonnes by 2015 ,
said Rabo India in its latest research report. India
relies heavily on imports to meet over 50 percent
of domestic edible oil requirements. Through the
years, India's domestic production of oilseeds
has not grown in line with edible oil demand.
Lower levels of oilseed production have resulted
in low capacity utilization. With oilseed
crushing being considerably lower than expected
in the last six months, The Solvent Extractors'
Association of India has requested government
to consider revival package for the industry and
suggested revision of import duty on edible oils
to support farmers and the industry. The oilseed
crushing industry is facing tough times. The
industry is faced with negative crush margins
due to reserve selling by stockiest and farmers as
well as excessive speculation in the markets.
"The factors have made the prices of oilseed too
high for the crushers. Also, duty free import of
crude vegetable oils contributed to the negative

crush margins," Sethia stated. Indias overall
edible oil demand is expected to see a surge to
20.8 million tonnes by 2015 from the 15.6
million tonnes now. Of which, 10 million tonnes
(6.5 million tonnes now) will be supplied from
domestic sources while the remaining will be
imported. The import share in Indias edible oil
demand will rise marginally from 51 per cent
now to 53 per cent by 2015, said Mehta.
The study present study attempts a holistic
approach for optimizing economic and social
returns to all resources employed in the
production and processing of oilseeds. Oilseeds
farmers, processors and traders constitute the
majority of stakeholders on the supply side.
Likewise, consumers of edible oil and other
products of oilseeds seek satisfactory value for
their money, through reasonable prices and
acceptable quality for edible oil and other
products. The interests of all these stakeholders
will receive consideration in the study area.
Table 1: Comparative Picture of Income and its Growth in Haveri District

Sl.
No.
1
2
3
4
Haveri District
1999-2000
2006-07
228773
374781
16242
24297
7.31
2.70
Income Measurement
Gross Domestic Product* (GDP)
Per Capita Income* (PCI)
Growth Rate of GDP**
Growth Rate of PCI**
Karnataka
1999-2000
2006-07
10124745
20092235
19574
35469
10.29
8.86
* Rs. in Lakhs; ** Percent p.a. Source: DES, Bangalore

Table 2 shows sector wise composition of the
District Domestic Product (DDP). The service
sector generates about half of the district income
and the remaining shared almost equally by
agriculture and industry sectors. Agriculture is a
dominant sector and along with animal
husbandry it contributes about 25% to total
income. Registered manufacturing and other
services occupy the second place accounting for
11% of district income. All activities of service
sector and construction activities too are
contributing significantly.
Cropping
Pattern
and
Agricultural
Productivity of Haveri District
Cropping depends on soil, rainfall and climate
conditions. Since a major part of the district is
dependent on rainfall, the important crops grwon
are jowar, maize, wheat, millets, tur, grams,
sugarcane, cotton, groundnut, sunflower, etc.
Paddy is a major crop in canal irrigated areas.
Cropping pattern of the district is shown in
chart.1

18
Chart1: Cropping Pattern of Haveri District
Paddy
3.7
4.6
0.5
13.5
12.9
7.1
Jowar
11.7
Maize
35.1
Total Cereals
Total Pulses
Total Food Grains
Sugar cane
64.4
Spices
55.7
Vegetable Crops
Oilseeds
6.9
Cotton
Source: DSO, Haveri, 2008

Major crop groups of the district are cereals
(55% of sown area), pulses (7% of sown area),
spices and vegetables (4% of sown area). Food
grains occupy almost two-thirds of total sown
area. Major non-food crops are cotton (13.5% of
sown area) and oil seeds (11.7% of sown area).
Individually maize cotton, jowar and paddy are
preferred by the farmers of the district. The other
important crops of the district are wheat, millets
and paddy. Percentage area under pulses is less
in the district compared to the state. Oilseeds are

grown in 18% of area and cotton in 14% of area.
Vegetables are grown in remaining 2% of area
which reveals that horticultural crops do not
occupy a major portion in the cropped area of
the district. But the agricultural progress or
backwardness is better discussed using the yield
data. Hence, yields of major corps in the district
are presented in Table 2 in comparison with that
of the state, nation and its own potentiality.
Table 2: Comparative yield of Major Agricultural Crops

(kg/ha, Sugarcane in tonnes/ha)
S.
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Crop
Paddy
Jowar
Maize
Tur
Greengram
Ground Nut
Sunflower
Soyabean
Cotton
Sugarcane
India
Karnataka
1938
803
1817
703
970
552
958
204
69
2568
1653
3072
766
271
621
531
988
240
99
Source: DCAP, Haveri District

The data reveals that the district agricultural
yields are quite lower compared to the state as
well as the nation and far low when compared to
Haveri
1936
1855
2476
500
500
457
750
1000
299
50
Potential of
the disrict
3000
2200
3500
750
650
1500
1500
1800
400
75
the potential. Except in respect of Jowar,

Greengram, Sunflower and Cotton, the yield
levels of all major crops are lower than that of

19
the state or the nation. However, yield of maize,
which is a predominant crop, is higher than that
of the country and paddy yield is comparable to
the nations. This comparison of the productivity
of different crops reveals that agricultural
progress in the district is not so encouraging.
The district lags behind compared to the state in
productivity of all crops which is an indication

of wide opportunities available in the district.
Hence efforts should be made to raise it at least
to the state level. This is perhaps due to lack of
adequate irrigation facilities and consumption of
less amount of fertilizers. Chart 6 clearly depicts
the yield scenario of Haveri district.
Chart 2: Comparative yield of Major Agricultural Crops

(kg/ha, Sugarcane in tonnes/ha)
4000
India
3500
Karnataka
Haveri
3000
Potential of the disrict
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
ne
Su
ga
rc
a
Co
tto
ea
n
So
ya
b
we
r
Su
nf
lo
Nu
t
Gr
ou
nd
gr
am
Gr
ee
n
Tu
r
e
aiz
M
Jo
wa
r
Pa
d
dy
Source: Table 8
Average food grains production of the district
works out to be 133.6 kg which is higher than
the state average of 124 kg. Whereas Per capita
cultivated land for the district is 0.22 hectares
for the state it is 0.23 hectares, percentage
irrigated area of the district is lower than that of
the state. Since per capita fertilizer consumption
in the district (61 kg) is far lower than that of the
state (80 kg) increasing fertilizer usage may
bring about increase in yields. However,
opportunities for organic agriculture must also
be explored.
II.STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM: The
oil seeds industry in general and groundnut in
particular is faced with many problems and
challenges. The inadequacy of cropped area, low
productivity lack of adequate supply of quality
seeds absence of integrated nutrient supply

management, inefficient crop management
practices, absence of suitable soil and moisture
conservation etc are the major problems in the
area of production management. The problem
areas of market of oil seeds and groundnut relate
to absence of scientific assembling and storage,
lack of adequate transport and grading facilities
insufficient market information. The role of
market intermediaries and the APMC have been
found unsatisfactory. High marketing costs and
inadequate finance resulting in distress sales in
the village local sales at low prices are the other
set of marketing problems of groundnut farmers
and sellers.
In view of the above areas of production and
marketing inadequacies the researcher felt that

20
there is need for an micro level study of the
production and marketing of oil seed in general
and groundnut in particular in the study area
which is a major producer of groundnut in this
part of Karnataka state.
OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY:
The major objectives of the proposed study shall
be an production and marketing of oil seeds-a
case study of Dharwad district in Karnataka
state. The study shall have the following specific
objectives are outlined for the present study.
1.To study about the production dimensions of
the oil seeds in general and groundnut in
particular in the Dharwad district.
2.To examine the production problems and
production costs of oil seeds and groundnut of
the framers in the district
3.To study the marketing process of groundnut
and the market problems of the groundnut
farmers.
4.to analyze any other aspect of production and
marketing of groundnut germane to the study.
5. Production and marketing of oil seeds-a case
study of Dharwad district in Karnataka state., for
the purpose of the present study, two Villages
from Kalgatagi block are selected on the basis of
simple random sampling method. For the
purpose of the Production and marketing of oil
seeds, 60 households were selected from
different categories on the basis of simple

random sampling method.
ECONOMIC
DIMENSIONS
OF
GROUDNUT IN INDIA:
Groundnut which is known as Archishypogaes
Linnaeus is one of the words important oilseed
crops.groundnut seeds are a rich source of edible
oil with 43.55% and protein with 25-28%. The
approximate weight of the groundnut kernels is
70% in shells and kernels have oil recovery of
40-42%. The annual global production of
groundnut seed and oil vary between 21-24 and
5-5.5millon tons.
World Production of Groundnut:
The world production of groundnut rose from
23531 millon tones in 1991 to 35096 million
tones in 2001. This amounts to about fifty
percent increase in the production of groundnut
in a period of ten years. A trend of continous
growth of production during the decade was
observed except in 1997 and 1999 when there
was a decline in the production compared to the
production
in
the
previous
years
respectively.maximum production of groundnut
was 35096 mt in 2001 while the minimum was
23531 mt in 1991.
Table.No.3. Area under Groundnut crop. Production and yield per Hectare-world Trends.
Year
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
Area(000hectare)
20442
20720
21114
21889
22509
22827
23697
23266
23520
24291
25538
Production(000MT)
23531
24411
26082
28850
29277
31531
30160
24125
31794
34516
35096
Yield per Hectare/kg

1151
1178
1235
1318
1301
1381
1273
1467
1352
1421
1374

21
Source: Compiled from various issues of FAO production year books and FAO STAT data base includes
Groundnut.
Chart.No.3. Area under Groundnut crop. Production and yield per Hectare-world Trends
GROWTH INDEX OF GROUNDNUT:

The growth index of area under groundnut
production and yield per hectare has indicated a
trend of fluctuations between 1990-91 and 200001 with the base at 100 in 1981-82 the area of
production growth index rate rose from 116.6 in
1990-91 to 121.7 in 91-92 but declined to 114.6
in 92-93. A trend of fluctuation is further
observed in the subsequent period. The index
rose form 116.8 in 1993-94 but declined to
110.02 in 94-95 105.6 in 95-96 with a small rise
to 106.6 in 96-97 but fell to 99.9 in 97-98 and
rose to 103.8 in 98.99. the index fell to 96.3 in
99-200.
Production index between 1990-91 and 2000-01
varied between a minimum of 88.5 in 99-2000
and a maximum of 149.7 in 1998-99. The index
of growth of production of groundnut has
indicated a trend of fluctuations during the

period starting with in 1990-91 and reaching a
high of 149.7 in 1998-99 and reaching a low of
106.9 in 2000-01.
The index of yield of groundnut has also
indicated a similar trend of fluctuation during
the above period. The yield per hectare was
107.4 in 1990-91 and reached a high of 144.3 in
1998-99 and slided to alow of 91.9 in 19992000. The details are given in the following
table.

22
Table.No.4-Growth Index of Area, Production and yield per Hectare Groundnut.
Year
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
Area(000hectare)
116.6
121.7
114.6
116.8
110.2
105.6
106.6
99.5
103.8
96.3
NA
Production(000MT)
125.3
118.3
142.8
130.5
134.4
126.4
144.1
122.9
149.7
88.5
106.9
Yield per Hectare/kg

107.4
97.2
124.6
11.8
122.0
119.7
135.2
123.6
144.3
91.9
NA
Source: Agriculture situation in India-Data compiled from Economic Survey 1999-200 Government of
India.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

Sources of information about oilseed
market:
The farmers, who are cultivating oilseeds
having good knowledge in production, but
they are very much lack in the
knowledge of marketing these oilseeds. An
attempt was made to identify the sources of
knowledge acquired was

studied
by
selecting
four
major classifications
namely through newspapers, commission
mundis.through broker and neighbours
Henry Garrett ranking method was employed
to arrive the results accurately and the details
are shown in the following table

23
Table 5. Sources of information about oil seed market
Sl.
No
1
2
3
4
Informations
News paper
Commission Mundis
Through Brokers
Neighbours
Total
Score
2736
2188
2753
2323
Mean
Score
2.7360
2.1880
2.7530
2.3230
Rank
II
IV
I
III
Chart.5. Sources of information about oil seed market
ranked first with a Garrett score of 2753 points.

It is followed by the news paper source
with a Garrett score of 2736 points. The
other sources such as neighbour and
commission mundis are placed in the third
and fourth ranking with the Garrett s c o r e of
2323 and 2188 points respectively. From
the analysis, it is concluded that brokers
and newspapers are the major sources
providing information a b o u t o i l s e e d
market
Methods of selling oilseeds:

The farmers cultivating oilseeds are find
difficulty to sell their agriculture produced.
In this study an attempt was made to identify
the methods of selling the oilseeds. The
common methods
are
pre-harvest
contract,
using regulated market, selling
through commission agents and direct sales to
oil mills. The details are analyzed with the help
of percentage analysis and furnished in the
following table.

24
Table.6.Method of selling oilseeds by the respondents
Sl.
No.
1.
2.
3.
4.
Methods
Pre harvest contractors
Regulated market
Commission agents
Direct sales to oil mills
Total
It is examined from the above table

that32.6% of the respondents using
regulated market to sell their oilseeds.
28%
of
therespondents are using
commission agents tosell their
No. of
Respondents
121
326
281
272
1000
%
12.1
32.6
28.1
27.2
100
agricultural produce. 27.2% of the

respondents directly selling the oilseeds to
oil mills. On the other hand, 12.1%
of the respondents underwent pre- harvest
contract with the private brokers
Table 7. Methods practiced to sell the oilseeds when market is volatile

Sl.
Demand
No. of
No.
Respondents
1. Aggressive selling during
peak market
428
2. Store the oil seeds in the
godowns during inflation
191
3. Selling the oilseeds
immediately after harvesting
381
Total
1000
Methods of pricing the oilseeds:

Normally pricing methods are studied as
42.8
19.1
38.1
100
penetrating pricing strategy, skimming

pricing strategy market based pricing and

25
auctions. In this study, the style of pricing
practiced by the oilseed growers
was
studied with the help of percentage
analysis and the details are shown in the

following table.
Table 7. Pricing method of oilseeds practiced by the respondents market

practiced
Sl.No.
1.
2.
3.
4.
Pricing Method
Auction price made in the Regulated market
Selling of oilseeds according to market price
Penetrating pricing Strategies
Skimming pricing Strategies
No. of Respondents
20
30
20
10
Total
Percentage
25%
40%
25%
10%
80
100
Chart 7. Pricing method of oilseeds practiced by the respondents market

practiced
the prevailing price in the market.

It could be observed from the above table
that38.6% of the respondent using auction
price made in the regulated marked 58.0%
of the respondents selling their oilseeds
according to the market prices, 2.1% of the
respondents using penetrating
pricing
strategies, 1.3% of the respondents using
skimming pricing strategies. From the
analysis, it is inferred that most of the
respondents selling the oilseeds according to
Respondents
oilseeds:
Opinion
on
grading
on
In the era of competitive business,

customers preferred a good standard of
products in general, and in particular, to
oilseeds. The respondent's opinion on
grading the oilseeds in the market were
gathered and analysed with the help of
percentage method. The detailed opinions are
furnished in the following table.

26
Table 8. Respondents opinion on oilseeds grading in the market

Sl.No.
1.
2.
3.
Pricing Method
Assessed based on size
Assessed based on weight
Measuring Oil content level with the help of
Total
equipments
No. of Respondents
20
30
20
80
Percentage
25%
40%
25%
100
Chart.8. Respondents opinion on oilseeds grading in the market
It is witnessed from the above table

that52.1% of the respondents measuring oil
content level in each seed with a help of
specially designedequipment.26.7%of them
assessed based on weight. On the other hand
21.2% of the respondents opined that they
were assessed based on the size. From the
analysis, it is found that 52.1% of them
measuring the seeds graded them based on the
oil content level.
SUMMARY OF FINDINGS
CONCLUSIONS AND SUGEGESTIONS
The present study is a micro level analysis of the
production and marketing of oilseeds with
special reference to groundnut in two talukas of
Haveri District in North Karnataka region. The
analysis has covered 80 ground nut growing

farmers in the study area. The respondent 40
farmers from each talukas were interviewed with
a well structured interview schedule covering
different aspects of production and marketing
dimensions
The study is aimed at measuring the
benefits enjoyed by the farmers and the
problems faced by them during production
and marketing of oilseeds in the study
area.Field survey technique was employed to
collect the first hand information from the
sample
respondents. Interview schedule
was the main tool employed to collect the
pertinent data. The data thus collected were
arranged in simple tabular forms and
appropriate statistical tools were used for
27
dat a
anal ysi s .
Base d
on
t hi s
anal ysi s , Interpretations
were
made
systematically.
An
attempt was made to recapitulate the key
findings and conclusion. Based on these
findings, a few suggestions have also been
made.
On the marketing dimensions of groundnut
different aspects likes assembling , packaging,
storage, grading transport channel of distribution
marketing cost finance, pricing and price trends
during the 2009-2010 have been analysed in
detail and the major marketing problems of the
groundnut growing farmers have been analysed
on the basis of perceptions of the respondent
farmers. The major findings and conclusions
along with the necessary suggestions have been
provided here.
FINDINGS OF THE STUDY
1. It was observed that the yield levels of
groundnut in the state as a whole were
declining over time and that of sunflower too
was not encouraging. Hence, there is an
immediate need to take appropriate yield
raising measures for sustained production of
oilseeds in the study area.
2. The study has provided enough evidence that
the area allocation decisions in respect of
oilseed crops have been governed by their
relative profitability, indicating that price
factors are more important than non-price
factors. Hence, the ongoing price policy
should be directed towards assuring
appropriate remunerative prices to oilseed
producers in the study area.
3. It was revealed that groundnut and sunflower
prices in the domestic and international
market are integrated. This implies that
domestic market is responsive to changes in
the international market prices and producers
would benefit from the increases in the
international market prices. However, this
benefit has not been fully exploited by the
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
farmers because we are not self sufficient in

edible oils. Self sufficiency can be achieved
by evolving high yielding varieties and
providing improved technologies to the
producers. So, government should come out
with appropriate policy to overcome this
problem.
The production, consumption and exports
of major oilseeds have witnessed a
significant transformation in the last 14
years. During this 14 years period, in
absolute terms, world oilseed production
increased by 79% consumption by72%
and world trade by an impressive 131.4%.
The consumption of vegetable oils
worldwide has gone up by 3.6% in the last
seven years (2000-07). It has shown an
upward trend with variable rates - from a
minimum of 3% in2001-02 to as high as
7.5% in 2004-05. In the last two years
(2005-06 and
2006-07), the growth
percentage has declined (year on year),
and has stood at 6.7% and 5% respectively.
Sources of information about oilseed
market was studied and found that brokers
and news papers are the main sources
providing about information about oilseed
market.
Problems with regulated market was
studied and it was learned that the officials
in the regulated market taking more time
unnecessarily at the time of marketing
the oilseeds. It is followed by the
tactics played the buyers in fixing the
price through mutual understanding
Methods of selling oilseeds was studied
and found that regulated market and
commission agents are the main modes of
selling oilseeds. During volatility the
farmers
using
aggressive
selling
s t r a t e g i e s w h e n the market i s p e a k
positions. Some farmers store the oilseeds
in the godowns during the inflation

28
9. while analyzing the pricing methods
practiced in the oilseeds market, it is noted
that majority (58%) of the respondents
selling oilseeds according to the market
price and 38.6% of the respondents using
auction price made in the regulated market.
SUGEGESTIONS FOR THE POLICY
MAKERS
Among the selected oilseeds, castor seed crops
showing high yield in the tribal area and
forest areas. The tribal people are producing
good yield of castor seeds but finds difficult
to sell out in the market.
From the study it is divulged that the
farmers producing oilseeds have collected
latest information only from the fellow
farmers. Hence, it is suggested that more
number of seed The regulated market staff
should be trained psychologically to take
the farmers issue amicably. Necessary
training is very much essential to make
them to work efficiently without making
unnecessary time delay.
The following suggestions are recommended
for strengthening the marketing of oilseeds:
1. Better enforcement of regulated markets,
so that more farmers feel attracted to use
them (at present less than half), getting
the benefit of higher prices and for correct
quality and quantity
2. Strengthening
cooperative
marketing
institutions
and
introduction of forward marketing and
contract farming, which will also help the
farmer to get a better price for his
produce.
3. Promoting market integration, which
will also get a better price for the farmers.
4. Price incentives for edible oil storage in the
lean season.
5. Reducing the cost of storage by
introducing bulk storage facilities
6. Alleviating
the
over-regulation
of
markets and introduction o f f u t u r e
m a r k e t s and hedging p r a c t i c e s .
Rewarding better q u a l i t y produce with
better price.
7. Streamlining the six statutory regulations
regarding quality.
CONCLUSIONS
Oils and oilseeds played an important role in
the Indian economy for a long time India
produces a large
variety
of
oilseeds
including
groundnut, gingelly, sunflower
and castor seeds that earn the country a
huge share of foreign exchange while
analyzing the world level oilseed productivity,
India occupies the second place for groundnut
productivity and in sunflower seeds though
Russian federations are in top, India tries to
fulfill the domestic demand. The production,
consumption and exports of these selected
oilseeds have witnessed a significant
transformation in the last 14 years. Further
it is advised that the farmers are suffering more
due to lack of adequate working capital. A
separate Co-operative marketing society
exclusively for oilseed growers may be
established and it should help the farmers who
are in that need of adequate working capital. The
oil seeds industry in general and groundnut in
particular is faced with many problems and
challenges. The inadequacy of cropped area, low
productivity lack of adequate supply of quality
seeds absence of integrated nutrient supply
management, inefficient crop management
practices, absence of suitable soil and moisture
conservation etc are the major problems in the
area of production management. The problem
areas of market of oil seeds and groundnut relate
to absence of scientific assembling and storage,
lack of adequate transport and grading facilities
insufficient market information. The role of
market intermediaries and the APMC have been

29
found unsatisfactory. High marketing costs and
inadequate finance resulting in distress sales in
the village local sales at low prices are the other
set of marketing problems of groundnut farmers
and sellers.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
REFERENCES
Amarchand, D. and Varadharajan, B.,
Marketing, Konark Pvt, Ltd, 1989
Barkeley Hill, An Introduction to
Economics for students of Agriculture,
Oxford : Perguman Press,1980
Charley Watkins, Marketing Sales &
Customer Services 2002CIB, A.I.T.B.S.
Christopher Lovelock, Jochen Wirtz,
Services Marketing,Fifth2004, Pearson
Education, Delhi.
David. J. Luck, Ronald. S.Rubin,
Marketing Research, Seventh, Asoke.
K.Ghosh PHI.
PaulE. Green,Donald S. Tull and Gerald
Albaum, Research for Marketing
Decisions, 5Th edition, Prentice Hall of
India Pvt. Ltd, Delhi.
Rachman J. David, Modern Marketing,
Illinois: The Drydon Publishers., 1982.
Rao. M.V, Oil Seeds Technology
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
Mission Setting Pace

for
Self
Reliance, The Survey of Indian
Agriculture, 1988,pp.49.
Richard G.Lipsey, An Introduction of
Positive Economics, Great Britain :
English Language, Book Society, 1971.
Soumya Behera, Policy Changes and
Indian
Edible
Oil
Industry:
Introspection,
Commodity
India,
March 2002.
Subramani, M.R., Groundnut oil may
rise
on Consumer Switch- Over,
Business Line, January 9,2002.
Tomek, W.G. and Robinson, K.L.,
AgriculturalProduct Prices, Itheca :
Cornell University Press,1972.
Vijayendra Rao, A.R., The Edible oil
Industry- Fight for Survival , Indian
Food Industry, 20: 2001 pp.26.
William J.Stanton, Fundamentals of
Marketing, New Delhi :Mc Graw Hill
Book Company, 1984.
Xavier, M.J., Marketing in the
Millennium, Vikas House Pvt, Ltd,1999

30
EFFECT OF ATORVASTATIN, SIMVASTATIN AND

LOVASTATIN ON ANIMAL MODELS OF EPILEPSY: A
COMPARATIVE STUDY
ijcrr
Vol 04 issue 11
Category: Research
Revised on:27/04/12
Veena Nayak, Shalini Adiga, Poornima BM, Ravi Sharma, Arpita Garg
Department of Pharmacology, Kasturba Medical College, Manipal University,
Manipal, Karnataka
E-mail of Corresponding Author: drveenayak@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
Introduction: Statins are the widely prescribed drugs for hyperlipidemia. Now it is well accepted that
statins not only have hypolipidemic actions but also have a number of pleotropic effects.
Objective: To study the effect of atorvastatin, simvastatin and lovastatin on Maximal Electroshock
(MES) and Pentylenetetrazole (PTZ) induced seizures in Wistar rats. Material and methods:
Atorvastatin, simvastatin and lovastatin in their therapeutically equivalent doses were administered to
Wistar rats prior to induction of seizures by MES and PTZ. The abolition of hind limb extension (HLE)
and duration of seizures in MES model and latency for onset of seizures as well as duration of seizures
were observed in PTZ model. Statistical analysis: Data was analyzed using one way ANOVA followed
by Dunnetts post hoc test. p0.05 was considered statistically significant. Results: None of the statins
were able to abolish the HLE .Only simvastatin decreased the duration of seizures significantly in
comparison to control group in MES model. In PTZ model simvastatin and lovastatin decreased the
duration of seizures and also increased the latency for the onset of seizures in comparison to the control
group. Atorvastatin increased the latency but had no effect on duration of seizures in PTZ model.
Key words: Statins, seizures, atorvastatin, simvastatin, lovastatin
____________________________________________________________________________________
INTRODUCTION
Statins are one of the most commonly
prescribed drugs for cardiovascular diseases1.
They are most effective and well tolerated drugs
to treat dyslipidemia. They competitively inhibit
HMG-CoA reductase enzyme which catalyzes
the rate limiting step in cholesterol biosynthesis
2
. The benefits of statins appear to be greater
than just lowering the lipid levels. These
cholesterol-independent or pleiotropic effects of
statins include improving endothelial function,
enhancing stability of plaques, decreasing
oxidative stress and inflammation and inhibiting
thrombogenic response 3.Statins have also been
shown to have neuroprotective effects in

multiple sclerosis and spinal cord injury4, 5. A
previous study has also reported that simvastatin
reduced the number of inflammatory lesions in
patients with multiple sclerosis 6. In kainic acid
model, a model for temporal lobe epilepsy,
atorvastatin has shown to reduce kainic acid
induced seizure activities, hippocampal neuron
death and monocyte inflammation7.
It has also been hypothesized that statins reduce
the risk of developing epilepsy in the elderly. A
cohort study also showed that statins reduced the
hospitalization due to seizures. It was found that
for every one gram increase in the dose of

31
atorvastatin, the risk of hospitalization for
seizures decreased by 5%.8
However, the effects of statins on maximal
electroshock
(MES)
model
and
pentylenetetrazole (PTZ) induced seizure model
is lacking. Hence we planned to study the effect
of various statins on MES and PTZ induced
seizures.
Aim of the study - To study the effect of
atorvastatin, simvastatin and lovastatin on
Maximal
Electroshock
(MES)
and
Pentylenetetrazole (PTZ) induced seizures in
Wistar rats.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Drugs and chemicals:
Atorvastatin (Zydus Cadila Healthcare Ltd ) ,
simvastatin (Micro Labs Ltd ), lovastatin (Dr.
Reddys Laboratories Ltd) ,carbamazepine
(Novartis India Ltd, Mumbai), sodium valproate
(Sun Pharmaceutical Industries Ltd, Mumbai)
and pentylenetetrazole (Sigma Aldrich,
Mumbai) were used for the study. The doses
selected were the therapeutically equivalent
doses which were converted to rat dose
according the table of Paget and Barnes9.
Animals:
Albino rats weighing 150-200g were used for
the study. They were maintained under standard
conditions in Central animal house, Manipal
University, Manipal approved by the CPCSEA.
The rats were kept in polypropylene cages (U.N.
Shah Manufacturers, Mumbai) and maintained
on standard pellet diet (Amrut Lab Animal Feed,
Pranav
Agro
industries
Ltd,
Sangli,
Maharashtra) and water ad libitum. The rats
were maintained at a room temperature 26
20C, relative humidity 4555% and light/ dark
cycle of 12 h.
Study design:
The study was undertaken after obtaining
permission from the Institutional Animal Ethics
committee, Manipal. A total of 60 animals were
used for the study. They were divided into two

groups, the maximal electroshock group and the
pentylenetetrazole group.
I Maximal electroshock model
Rats were divided into 5 groups (n=6). The
groups I to V received gum acacia (1ml),
carbamazepine(108mg/kg),
atorvastatin(3.60mg/kg),
simvastatin(1.80mg/kg)
and
lovastatin(3.60mg/kg) respectively
45 min
before the electroshock. Maximal electroshock
seizures were induced as described by Toman et
al10 with a current of 150 mA delivered through
the ear clip electrode for 0.2 sec with the help of
convulsiometer. Absence of hind limb extension
(HLE) was taken as protection against seizures.
Only those animals which showed hind limb
extension during the screening procedure on the
previous day were included in the study.
II PTZ induced seizures
Rats were divided into 5 groups (n=10). The
groups I to V received gum acacia (1ml,),
sodium valproate (180mg/kg), atorvastatin
(3.60mg/kg),
simvastatin(1.80mg/kg)
and
lovastatin(3.60mg/kg ) orally respectively 1hour
before pentylenetetrazole (60mg/kg i.p.) 11. Each
animal was placed in an individual cage and
observed for 30min. The onset of seizure with
loss of righting reflex, number of seizures and
duration of the seizures in each group was
recorded.
Statistical analysis
All values are expressed as mean SEM. Data
was analysed using one way ANOVA followed
by Dunnetts post hoc test . p0.05 was
considered statistically significant. All statistical
analyses were carried out using SPSS software
version 17.
RESULTS
Maximal electroshock induced seizures:
In this model all animals treated with
carbamazepine showed 100% protection against

32
hind limb extension (HLE). None of the statins
protected against HLE, however the duration of
seizures was reduced significantly (p<0.001) in
simvastatin treated group in comparison to the
control group and was comparable to that of
carbamazepine treated group (table 1).
Pentylenetetrazole induced seizures:
In this model sodium valproate significantly
(p,0.001) increased the latency for seizure onset
and decreased the duration of seizures when
compared with the control group. Atorvastatin,
simvastatin and lovastatin also significantly
increased the latency (p<0.001) but a significant
(p<0.001) decrease in the duration of seizure
was observed only in simvastatin and lovastatin
treated groups. There was no mortality in
sodium valproate treated group. Among the
statins least mortality was seen in lovastatin
treated group. However there was no significant
difference in the number of seizures among the
different groups (Table 2).
DISCUSSION
Statins, the widely used hypolipidemic drugs are
now found to have a number of pleotropic
effects .Recently a cohort study concluded that
taking a statin daily decreased the hospitalisation
due to epilepsy. The authors suggested that
statins may have a role in the treatment or
prevention of seizures8.
In kainic acid model, atorvastatin was shown to
have decreased seizures, hippocampal neuron
death,
monocyte
infiltration
and
proinflammatory gene
expression.
Also
lovastatin decreased kainic acid excitotoxicity of
cultured hippocampal neurons7. But there were
no reports of effect of statins in generalised tonic
clonic seizures and petit mal seizures. Hence we

planned to study their role in maximal
electroshock and pentylenetetrazole induced
seizure models which have a close resemblance
to generalised tonic clonic and petit mal seizures
respectively.
In our study, simvastatin was comparable to
carbamazepine in decreasing the duration of
seizures, however none of the statins were
effective in abolishing the hind limb extension .
In PTZ model, simvastatin and lovastatin
decreased the duration of seizures and also
increased the latency for the onset of seizures in
comparison to the control group. Atorvastatin
increased the latency but had no effect on
duration of seizures in PTZ model.
The difference in the effect of statins could be
because of their difference in lipophilicity3.
Lovastatin and simvastatin are highly lipophilic
drugs whereas atorvastatin is less lipophilic. But
in a previous study atorvastatin has shown to
have antiepileptic effect in kainic acid induced
seizures where it had been hypothesized that it is
their antinflammatory action which is
responsible for its benefit in seizures7. The lack
of antiepileptic effect in our study with
atorvastatin could be because of the lower dose
used in our study. Hence, the authors plan to
further study the effect of all these statins in a
higher dose and on chronic administration in
animal models of epilepsy.
CONCLUSION
In the present study , statins did have an
antiepileptic effect , however the exact
mechanism is not known. Further preclinical and
clinical studies are required to study the role of
statins and mechanism in epilepsy.

33
Table 1: Effect of various statins on Maximal Electroshock seizures
Group (n=6)
Duration of seizures (sec)
Control
Carbamazepine
Atorvastatin
Simvastatin
Lovastatin
23.5 1.18
191.03*
26.3319
17.671.14**
26.51.87
Values are expressed as Mean SEM . ANOVA p=0.004. *p<0.01 and ** p<0.001 as compared to
control group.
Table 2: Effect of various statins in PTZ model
Group (n=6)
Latency
(min)
Duration of seizures
(sec)
Number of seizures
% mortality
Control
Sodium valproate
Atorvastatin
Simvastatin
Lovastatin
0.780.13
1.330.81*
1.330.21*
1.080.27*
1.40.2*
383.1780.04
53.515.34*
3288371.45
27.838.14*
26.54.16*
2.660.42
20.51
2.830.51
20.73
2.330.71
66.7
0
66.7
33.3
16.7
Values are expressed as Mean SEM . ANOVA p<0.05. *p<0.001 as compared to control group
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
REFERENCES
Etminan M, Samli A, Brophy JM. Statin use
and risk of epilepsy . neurology
2010;75:1496-1500
Bersot
TP.
Drug
therapy
for
hypercholesterolemia and dyslipidemia. In:
Brunton LL, Chabner BA, Knollmann BC,
editors. Goodman and Gilmans The
pharmacological basis of therapeutics .12th
ed. New York: Mc Graw Hill ; 2006.p. 877908.
Zhou Q, Liao JK . Pleiotropic effects of
statins. Circulation journal 2010;74:818-826.
Smaldone C, Brugaletta S, Pazzano V et a.
Immunomodulator activity of 3-hydroxy-3methilglutaryl-CoA inhibitors. Cardiovasc
Hematol Agents Med CHem 2009;7:279-294.
Park E, Velumin AA, Fehlings AG. The role
of excitotoxicity in secondary mechanisms of
spinal cord injury: a review with an emphasis
on the implications for white matter
degeneration . J Neurotrauma 2004; 21:754774.
6. Vollmer T, Key L, Durkalski V, Tyor W,

Corboy J, Markovic-Plese S,et al.
Simvastatin treatment in relapsing remitting
multiple sclerosis. Lancet: 2004:1607-1608.
7. Lee JK Won JS, Singh AK, Singh I. Statin
inhibits kainic acid-induced seizure and
associated inflammation and hippocampal
cell death. Neurosci Lett 2008; 440(3):260-4.
8. Das RR, Herman ST. Statins in epilepsy.
Neurology 2010; 75: 1490-1491.
9. Ghosh MN. Fundamentals of experimental
pharmacology. 3rd ed. Kolkata: Hilton &
company; 2007.
10. Toman JEP, Swinyard EA, Goodman LS.
Properties of maximal seizures and their
alteration by anticonvulsant drugs and other
agents. J Neurophysiol 1946; 9: 231-39.
11. Visweswari G, Prasad KS, Chetan PS,
Lokanatha V, Rajendra W. Evaluation of the
anticonvulsant effect of Centella asiatica
(gotu kola) in pentylenetetrazol-induced
seizures with respect to cholinergic
neurotransmission. Epilepsy and Behavior
2010; 17(3):332-335.

34
COMPARATIVE STUDY OF CHANGES IN MAXIMUM
EXPIRATORY PRESSURE (MEP) IN SAW MILL WORKERS
FROM BIJAPUR CITY OF KARNATAKA STATE OF INDIA
Kulkarni Chandrahas M1, Gannur D G1, Aithala Manjunatha2, Patil S M2
ijcrr
Vol 04 issue 11
Category: Research
Revised on:21/04/12
1
2
Dept of Forensic Medicine & Toxicology,

Department of Physiology, B.L.D.E.Universitys Shri B.M.Patil Medical College,
Bijapur
E-mail of Corresponding Author: drchandrahas.k@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
Background: Workers exposed to a variety of wood dusts have been shown to exhibit occupational
asthma, lung function deficits, and elevated levels of respiratory symptoms. Despite the popularity of pine
and spruce, the health effects of exposures to these woods have not been extensively investigated. A study
was undertaken to investigate the respiratory health of a group of sawmill workers processing pine and
spruce (n = 94)1. A comparative study of changes in Maximum Expiratory Pressure MEP (mm.Hg) was
carried out in saw mill workers of Bijapur city. This study consisted of 100 subjects of which 50 saw mill
workers & 50 controls of similar age & socio economic status. MEP(mm.Hg) values in saw mill workers
was significantly reduced in our study as compared to controls. MEP is used as a simple tool to measure
respiratory muscle strength. Probably the saw mill workers after prolonged exposure to the wood dust
develop respiratory muscle weakness and reduced cough reflex. The strength of respiratory muscles is
assessed best by using simple equipment i.e. modified Blacks apparatus. Many studies showed that
Maximal Expiratory Pressure alone can be used as a measuring tool for respiratory muscle strength. MEP
is useful in determining the ability of a person to cough effectively.
Key Words: MEP, Saw Mill Workers , Modified Blacks apparatus.
____________________________________________________________________________________
INTRODUCTION
In recent years many studies in concern with
respiratory effects of wood dust toxicity in the
exposed workers have been conducted. The
dusts of various woods including organic dusts
have been studied. Research efforts are also
extended with respect to their effects on health.
Cotton dust and grain dust are examples of
organic dusts on which substantial health
research efforts have been extended. Wood dust
is another variety of organic dust, exposure to
which is known to cause substantial health
impacts.
Early recognition of altered lung functions will

be of great clinical, social and preventive
significance in the Industrial workers, who are
constantly exposed to various air born
pollutants. Reduction in lung function is
reported in cotton mill workers, coal miners,
grain and flour mill workers, workers exposed to
tobacco dust, barley dust and talc dust.2-6.
Maximum Expiratory Pressure (MEP)
Various respiratory symptoms are associated
with respiratory muscle dysfunction. There are
reports of progressive weakness of respiratory
muscles in patients with multicore myopathy,
multiple sclerosis, motor neuron disorder,

35
malnutrition and congestive heart failure.
Measurement of respiratory muscle strength is
useful in order to detect respiratory muscle
weakness and to quantify its severity. In patients
with severe respiratory muscle weakness, Vital
Capacity is reduced, but is a non specific and
relatively
insensitive
measurement.
Conventionally, strength of respiratory muscles
is evaluated by determining both Maximal
Inspiratory Pressure (MIP) and Maximal
Expiratory Pressure (MEP), during maximal
static maneuver against a closed shutter7-13.
This study was undertaken to assess the
respiratory muscle strength in saw mill workers
using simple parameters and equipments.
METHODS
The study was conducted on the Saw mill
workers of Bijapur city in North Karnataka. The
subjects of control group are selected from
among the workers of BLDES Sri. B.M.Patil
Medical Collage (Same socio economic group).
Sample size:- About 50 subjects were included
in the study from each group. The age and sex
of the subjects of control group are selected so
as to match the study group.
All the individuals both in the study and control
groups were subjected to history taking and
clinical examination prior to tests.
Inclusion Criteria:
Only healthy male subjects were included in the
study. The health status of the subjects is
determined
through
thorough
clinical
examination and history taking.
Exclusion Criteria:
The subjects with the following disorders are
excluded from the study:
1.Subjects with any known cardiopulmonary
disorders.
2.Subjects with any known endocrine disorders.

3.Subjects with any known congenital defects.
4.Smokers.
The following parameters are recorded in the
subjects:
I. Physical Anthropometry
a} Height in cms. (nearest to 0.5 cm)
b} Weight in kgs (nearest to 0.5 kg)
c} Chest circumference in cms. (nearest to 0.1
cm)
II. Physiological parameters14-17
a} Respiratory Rate -It is recorded by inspection
and palpation of chest and abdomen & expressed
as cycles per minute.
b} Pulse rate It is expressed as beats per
minute. Right radial pulse is examined by
compressing radial artery in the semi pronated
forearm and slightly flexed wrist of the subject.
c} Blood pressure [SBP and DBP mm.Hg].It is
recorded by using mercurial sphygmo
manometer, (Diamond make) by palpatary and
auscultatory methods.
MEP(Maximum Expiratory Pressure)
MEP (Maximum Expiratory Pressure) is
recorded by using Modified Blacks Apparatus.
Subject is asked to deep inspiration and blow
forcefully into the rubber tube connected to
aneroid pressure gauge through three way
connector and hold for one second and looked
for pressure reading. Like this, three readings are
taken at the interval of one minute. Highest
reading is taken for calculation18.
Statistical analysis19,20
All the data are presented as Mean + SD
{SEM}. The significance of difference in
parameters between groups are ascertained by
Students t test, Z test & chi-square test.

36
RESULTS
Table 1 Showing Mean MEP & Chest Expansion in subjects & controls
Sl.no.
Parameters
MEP (mm Hg)
Chest
(cms)
Expansion
Mean + S.D.
Subjects
Controls
60.2+12.9
136 +1.84
Test Value
Z test
2.92
2.44+1.11
7.47
3.78+0.616
P Value
0.005
significant
0.001
highly
significant
Table 2: MEP(mm.Hg) Vs Duration of exposure(yrs)

Duration
of
exposure(in years)
0-5
5 - 10
10 - 15
15 - 20
20 - 25
25 50
50 75
0
0
0
6
3
10
14
8
0
0
75 95
9
0
0
0
0
15
10
25-50 MEP(mmHg)
50-75 MEP(mmHg)
75-95 MEP(mmHg)
0
0 to 5
5 to 10
10 to 15
15 to 20
20 to 25
Graph showing the Comparison of MEP with duration of exposure to wood dust (In years)
The anthropometric parameters like age (yrs),
weight (in kgs), height (in cms) and chest
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
The present study was undertaken on the sample
expansion (in cms) were recorded in both the
containing 50 saw mill workers applying
groups.
necessary inclusion and exclusion criteria as
Physiological parameters like pulse rate (bpm)
mentioned earlier. The subjects of study group
and blood pressure (SBP& DBP in mm.Hg)
(saw mill workers) were screened with proper
were recorded in both the groups.
taking of history with special reference to
Physiological parameter i.e. MEP (mm.Hg) was
21
history of occupation (questionnaire) . They
recorded in both the groups.
were subjected to clinical examination in detail.
In our study significant difference was seen
The experimental group was compared with 50
between subjects of control group &
subjects in control group from non-teaching staff
experimental group exposed to saw dust. The
of Shri. B.M.Patil Medical College (Age and
subjects exposed to saw dust showed decrease in
socio economic status were matched).
MEP (mm Hg) (Table-1)
Conflict of interest

37
The authors wish to state that they have no
conflict of interest that might improperly
influence this work. This study was unfunded.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to thank the principal Dr R C Bidari
, Shri B M Patil Medical College Bijapur
,karnataka,India for his constant inspiration and
support and other experts who have helped in
this case study.Authors acknowledge the
immense help received from the scholars whose
articles are cited and included in references of
this manuscript. The authors are also grateful to
authors / editors / publishers of all those articles,
journals and books from where the literature for
this article has been reviewed and discussed.
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"Standardized Questionaries on Respiratory
Symptoms"Br Med J. 1960 December 3;
2(5213): 1665.

38
WORK RELATED MUSCULOSKELETAL DISORDERS
AMONG DENTISTS IN CHENNAI- A QUESTIONNAIRE
SURVEY
Haritha Pottipalli Sathyanarayana1, Sudhakar Subramanian2, Abhay Pandey2
ijcrr
Vol 04 issue 11
Category: Research
Revised on:28/04/12
Department of Orthodontics, Faculty of Dental Sciences, Sri Ramachandra

University, Porur, Chennai
2
Department of Sports Physiotherapy, Saveetha College of Physiotherapy, Saveetha
University, Chennai
E-mail of Corresponding Author: suha_ortho@yahoo.co.in
ABSTRACT
Background: Musculoskeletal Complaints are very common among Dentists due to their bad posture
confined to restricted area of their clinical practice while treating the patients. The aim of this study is to
find out the most prevalent musculoskeletal complaint and the most commonly affected region among
dentists in Chennai. Methods: A self reported questionnaire survey was carried out among 270 dentists in
Chennai (response 90%). Questions include data to know about their background, regional pain, and
routine practice posture, frequency of work about their clinical practice and the occurrence of
musculoskeletal complaints in the past 3 years and chronic complaints in the past 3 months.
Results: 262 respondents completed the questionnaire and the result of the survey showed 76% of the
respondents had pain and 24% reported no pain. Among the respondents with pain, dentists had
significantly more neck pain than other regions. Conclusion: Based on the results of this study, the rate of
musculoskeletal disorders among dental professionals in Chennai has been found to be high due to their
increased work load and poor posture during work.
____________________________________________________________________________________
INTRODUCTION
The common risk factors which contributes to
the development of health disorders can be
grouped as those related to the personal
background
factors
(anthropometric
characteristics, age, hereditary factors) and those
related to occupation (repetitive motion, static
posture, force, awkward position, vibration,
temperature, biological factors, chemical
irritating or toxic factors, radiation). 1-2
Dentists at work are susceptible to the
occupational
health
hazards
and
the
development of cumulative trauma disorders.3
Dentists often work in static positions that are
uncomfortable and asymmetric. Several dental
procedures requires the dentist to assume and
maintain positions that might cause harmful

effects on the musculoskeletal system.4 The
dentists are prone more for neck and back
problems due to the limited work area and
impaired vision when procedures are done on
some regions in the oral cavity. These working
postures force a clinician to assume stressful
body positions to achieve good accessibility and
visibility in the oral cavity. Usually the dental
procedures are usually carried out for a long
period of time and demands more concentration
during work. Dentist treat patients with their
arms abducted and unsupported and the cervical
spine flexed forward and rotated which makes
them more susceptible for pain in the neck, back
and shoulder regions.5 Moreover the monotony

39
of work, work in noise and artificial light are
disadvantageous for dentists.
Increased
risks of Musculoskeltal Disorders (MSD) among
dentists are associated with psychological stress,
treating patients with high concentration and
precision. It is a well known fact that stress can
elicit muscular contraction and pain, especially
in the trapezius muscle. Headaches and
backaches are other symptoms experienced due
to overstressed muscles and joints. The dental
professionals are at a significantly high risk of
developing work related MSDs. Comparing the
prevalence of
upper body symptoms of
pathological conditions in dentists and
personnels working in a different types of
environment, such as farmers, pharmacists and
office employees , the symptoms occurred more
often among dentists. The aim of this study was
to survey the health status among dentists in
Chennai
regarding
the
prevalence
of
musculoskeletal pain.
After the suggestions from the experts in the
field, the questionnaire was checked, corrected
and validated. Informed consent was obtained
from all the dentists who participated in the
study. A total of 270 dentists (122 females- 45
% and 148 males-55%) practicing in Chennai
completed a validated questionnaire focussed on
MSDs. At least 1 year of work experience in the
current position was the only criterion for
eligibility to participate in the study. The
questionnaire was divided in to 3 sections. The
first section comprised of questions related to
demographic information like age, gender,
duration of work and acquired specialisation.
The second section included questions related to
work conditions like working posture, number of
breaks in between the appointments and number
of hours of practice per day and total number of
hours in a week. The third section dealt with the
MSDs and also physical activities. Some of the
questions allowed for multiple responses. The

data was analysed using SPSS 15.0.
RESULTS
Two hundred and sixty two questionnaires (97
%) were returned. Missing data were excluded
from the analysis. The study group comprised of
general dentists and dentists with various
specialisations in different fields of dentistry:
11% of respondents were general practitioners,
while 22 % of dentists were specialised in
orthodontics, 14 % in prosthodontics, 24 % in
conservative dentistry, 12 % in maxillofacial
surgery, 6 % in pedodontics, and
11 % in
periodontics. The mean number of years
employed in the dental profession among the
study group was six years. Most dentists (87.2
per cent) reported of having at least one MSD
symptom in the past 12 months. The most
prevalent musculoskeletal complaints among
dentists during the previous 12 months were
reported at the neck (42.5 per cent), upper back
(8.9 percent), lower back (28.7 per cent),
shoulder (12.3 per cent) and hand and wrist (7.6
percent)
From the episode of backache experienced by
the dentists in the last one year, 38 (55.9%) had
mild pain, 13 (19.4%) had moderate pain and
only 2 (3%) had severe pain. Forty (58.8%)
dentists had at least one episode of neck pain
during the last one year. Twenty-nine (42.6%)
had mild pain, 8 (11.8%) had moderate and 4
(5.9%) had severe pain.
DISCUSSION
In this survey, we found a higher prevalence of
lower back pain, neck pain and shoulder pain.
Musculoskeletal co morbidity was high and
significant number of dentists reported chronic
complaints and were seeking treatment for the
same. In this survey, self reported questionnaires
were used to collect the information regarding
age, gender, work experience, physical activity

40
and existence of musculoskeletal pain. There are
large numbers of studies relating to
musculoskeletal complaints among dental
surgeons in the Western literature but none has
been conducted in Chennai, Tamilnadu. This
study has been conducted to assess the workrelated complaints among dentists in our region
with the specific objectives to find out the
prevalence of neck, shoulder and back pain
among the dental surgeons and to identify the
risk factors associated with these symptoms.
Occupational back pain among dentists has been
reported between 37 percent to greater than 55
percentages in the literature.6 As in most of the
studies, there was a significant relation between
self reported physical factors and occurrence of
MSDs. The occurrence of MSDs is significantly
associated with physical work load.
Dentists can reduce the risk of developing MSDs
by using proper body posture and positioning
during clinical procedures, incorporating regular
rest breaks, maintaining good general health and
performing exercises regularly. The presented
results are based on the self reported experiences
of the dental professionals. Conducting
interviews and performing physical examination
would provide more detailed information. The
study allowed for a general assessment of the
occupational health hazards among the dentists
and further research will follow.
Most dentists today work in the sitting position
treating the patient in the supine position.
Because their work area (the mouth of the
patient) is narrow, performance of dental
treatment results in a very inflexible work
posture.7 Studies have shown that dentists have a
high frequency of musculoskeletal disorders, 8-10
and the reason is that dentistry is a profession
which demands concentration and precision.
Studies have shown that dentists report
more frequent and worse health problems than
other high risk medical professionals.11 Dentists
characterize their profession as requiring more
patience and physical self-sacrifice than they are

able to give. Dental professionals regardless of
the specialty should receive education about all
aspects of dental ergonomics, including rest
breaks. Physical exercise and regular rest breaks
are recommended to prevent the accumulation of
harmful agents. Short rest breaks during dental
procedures at regular intervals can reduce the
discomfort.
Fatigue and back pain are the most prevalent
physical complaints of Lithuanian dentists. A
study in Greece showed that 62% of dentists
reported at least one musculoskeletal
complaint12; while 87.2% of Australian dentists
reported having experienced at least one
musculoskeletal symptom in the past 12
months13. In India, neck and back disorders have
previously been reported at a higher frequency
that hand and wrist complaints14. In the USA,
29% of dentists reported symptoms of peripheral
neuropathy in the upper limbs or neck.15
Regarding chronic conditions, back pain and
fatigue were the most prevalent of all physical
disorders, suggesting that the back region of
dentists may be most affected by constant strain.
CONCLUSION
It was recognised that limited ergonomics in the
work environment of the dental professionals
results in MSDs, and the prevalence is high. The
symptoms of MSD increase with the number of
years of practice. The dentists should be aware
of the work related risk factors and educate
themselves in dental ergonomics.
1.
2.
REFERENCES
Leggat PA, Kedjarune U, Smith
DR.Occupational health problems in
modern dentistry: a review. Industrial
Health 2007, 45, 611-21.
Occupational hazards in orthodontics: a
review of risks and associated pathology
American Journal of Orthodontics &

41
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Dentofacial Orthopedics 2007 sep 132 (3),

280-92.
Valachi B, Valachi K. Mechanism leading
to musculoskeletal disorders in dentistry
The Journal of the American Dental
Association 2003 oct 134(10):1344-50.
Kierklo A, Kobus A, Jaworska M,
Botuliski B. Occupational stress in
dentistry: the postural component. Ann
Agric Environ Med. 2011 Jun; 18(1): 7984.
Murtomaa H.Work related complaints of
dentists and dental assistants. International
Archives
of
Occupational
and
Environmental Health 1982, (3): 231-6.
Musculoskeletal back pain among dentists.
General dentistry 1984 32:481-85.
Finsen L, Christensen H, Bakke M.
Musculoskeletal disorders among dentists
and variation in dental work. Appl Ergon
1998; 29(2):119-25.
Shugars D, Miller D, Williams D,
Fishburne C, Srickland D. Musculoskeletal
pain among general dentists. General
Dentistry 1987;4:272-6.
Murtomaa H. Work related complaints of
dentists and dental assistants. Int Arch
Occup Environ Health 1982;50: 231-6.
10. Kajland A, Lindvall T, Nilsson T.

Occupational medical aspects of the dental
profession. Work Environ Health 1974;
11:100-7.
11. Szymanska J (2002) Disorders of the
musculoskeletal system among dentists
from the aspect of ergonomics and
prophylaxis. Ann Agric Environ Med 9,
16973.
12. Alexopoulos EC, Stathi IC, Charizani F
(2004) Prevalence of musculoskeletal
disorders in dentists. BMC Musculoscelet
Disord 9, 516.
13. Leggat
PA,
Smith
DR
(2006)
Musculoskeletal disorders self-reported by
dentists in Queensland, Australia. Aust
Dent J 51, 3247.
14. Mamatha Y, Gopikrishna V, Kandaswamy
D (2005) Carpal tunnel syndrome: survey
of an occupational hazard. Indian J Dent
Res 16, 10913.
15. Droeze EH, Jonson H (2005) Evaluation of
ergonomic
interventions
to
reduce
musculoskeletal disorders of dentists in the
Netherlands. Work 25, 21120.
Table 1: Baseline and demographic information of dentists

Characteristics
Age (year)
Weight (kg)
Height (cm)
Duration of
employment( year)
Duration of daily work
(hour)
Number of days
working weekly
Minimum
28
53
152
3
Maximum
52
102
186
18
Mean
36.4
70
165
6
SD
6.8
10.7
8.1
4.8
1.5
1.2
0.6

42
DETECTION OF VIRUS STRAIN THAT CAUSED FOOT AND

MOUTH DISEASE OF BASRAH MARSHES CATTLE BY
USING PCR TECHNIQUE
Khitam Jassim Salih1, Majeed Hussein Majeed2
ijcrr
Vol 04 issue 11
Category: Research
Revised on:07/03/12
1
2
Vertebrate Department, Marine Science Center, Basrah University

Nursing College, Basrah University, Iraq
E-mail of Corresponding Author: khitam _36@ yahoo.com
ABSTRACT
Although, the disease has been controlled successfully in many parts of the world by regular vaccination
of susceptible animals and slaughtering of infected animals, no country has been considered safe, because
of the highly contagious nature and rapid spread of the infection for the effective control of the disease,
outbreaks should be detected at an early stage and persistent infections should also be recognized to
prevent further transmittance. The purpose of this study was to determine the virus strain that caused
FMD in cattle of Basrah marshes by amplified VP3gene in seven strains of FMDV deposited in the Gen
Bank database. The results revealed that the O strain type was appear in a total of cases (100%) of the
virus strain that caused foot and mouth disease in cattle of Basrah marshes by amplified VP3gene from
seven serotype of FMDV. From the total cases 8% were ASIA1 serotype , 4% SAT1, 2% SAT2, while
the other strains A, C and EUR were 0% . The results showed interaction among the strains in appearance
of FMD, the interaction between O and ASIA1strain was 7%; O and SAT1 was 4%; O and SAT2 was
2%; O, ASIA1 and SAT1 were 4%; O, ASIA1 and SAT2 were 2%; O, ASIA1, SAT1 and SAT2 were
2%. The interaction between ASIA1 and SAT1 was 4%; ASIA1 and SAT2 was 2%; ASIA1 , SAT1 and
SAT2 were 2%.
Keyword : FMD, Bsrah marshes, PCR, Viruse strains of Foot and Mouth Disease
____________________________________________________________________________________
INTRODUCTION
Foot-and-mouth disease or hoof-and-mouth
disease (Aphtae epizooticae) is an infectious and
sometimes fatal viral disease that affects clovenhoofed animals, including domestic and wild
bovids. The virus causes a high fever for two or
three days, followed by blisters inside the mouth
and on the feet that may rupture and cause
lameness. Foot-and-mouth disease is a severe
plague for animal farming, since it is highly
infectious and can be spread by infected animals
through aerosols, through contact with
contaminated farming equipment, vehicles,
clothing or feed, and by domestic and wild

predators (CFIA, 20011). The FMD virus is a
member of the genus Aphthovirus in the family
Picornaviridae. There are seven immunological
distinct serotypes O, A, C, SAT1, SAT2, SAT3
and Asia 1and over 60 strains within these
serotypes(Knowles et.al., 2003). The virus
responsible for the disease is a picorna virus, the
prototypic member of the genus Aphthovirus.
Infection occurs when the virus particle is taken
into a cell of the host. The cell is then forced to
manufacture thousands of copies of the virus,
and eventually bursts, releasing the new particles

43
in the blood. The virus is highly
variable(Martinez-Salas
et.al.,2008).
FMD
occurs throughout much of the world, and whilst
some countries have been free of FMD for some
time, its wide host range and rapid spread
represent cause for international concern. After
World War II, the disease was widely distributed
throughout the world. In 1996, endemic areas
included Asia, Africa, and parts of South
America(FMD, 2007). FMD generally involves
mortality rates below 5%, but even so it is
considered the most important disease of farm
animals since it causes huge losses in terms of
livestock productivity and trade. Although
FMDV rarely causes death in adult animals, the
virus can cause severe lesion in the myocardium
of young animals, leading to high mortality rates
(Sharma and Das, 1984; Domingo et.al., 1990
and Woodbury, 1995)
Aim of study:
The purpose of this study was to determine the
virus strain that caused FMD in cattle of Basrah
marshes by amplified VP3gene in seven strains
type of FMDV deposited in the GenBank
database.
Sampling fluid from vesicles and saliva:
One hundred cases of cattle(cows and buffalo)
infected with FMD were used to collect the fluid
from vesicle and saliva using a sterile tubes,
needles and syringes. The fluid kept in transport
medium (normal saline at pH 7-8.in 4-10 C)
and transport to laboratory within 24 hours .
RNA Extraction:
RNA samples were extracted using the total
RNA Mini kit (tissue)
following the
manufacturer's instructions. Briefly, 400 l of
the RB buffer that is included in the kit added to

the tubes that containing the FMD fluid ,then 4
l of -mercaptoethanol followed by 400 l of
70% ethanol, then transferred to a Mini RNase
column previously inserted into a 2ml collecting
tube. RNA was immobilized in the column by
centrifugation, sequentially washed, and diluted
in 50 l of RNase free water.
Reverse transcription polymerase chain
reaction:
The following primers were used F5'ACTGGGTTTTACAAACCTGTGA-3' and R5'GCGAGTC CTGCCACGGA-3' along with the
probe 5'-TCCTTTGCACGCCGTGGGAC-3'in
the one-step RT-PCR amplification started with
reverse transcription for 1 hr at 60C, followed
by PCR with the following parameters: 55
cycles of 2 sec at 95 C and 30 sec at 60C.
(Knowles et al ,2005). The amplified PCR
products (672 bp) of the expected length were
subjected to electrophoresis in a 1% agarose gel
and visualized by staining with ethidium
bromide under UV light. The other RT-PCR
protocol for VP3 gene amplification by used a
kit of green master mix, the reaction mix include
green master mix 12.5l, forward primer and
reverse
primer(modified
from)(Gelagay
et.al.,2009). (table:1) each 1l, DNA 5l, D.W.
5.5l, then PCR amplification according to the
following thermal profile: initial denaturation at
95C for 5 min; 94C for 30 sec, annealing at
50C for 30 sec and extension at 72C for 2.5
min, for 30 cycles. The final extension step of
72C for 10 min. The products were 320bp
analyzed by 1% agarose gel electrophoresis and
visualized under UV light after staining with
ethidium bromide

44
Table:1 shows the sequences of the primers that used to detected the FMD virus strains
Strains types
primers
Asia1 VP3
F5'-CATCGCCCTTGGACTACGA-3'
R5'-CACGATTTAGCGATCAGTCAGAG-3'
F5'-TBGCRGGNCTYGCCCAGTACTAC-3
'R5'--GACATGTCCTCCTGCATCTGGTTGAT -3'
F5'-TACCAAATTACACACGGGAA -3'
R5'-GACATGTCCTCCTGCATCTGGTTGAT -3'
F5'-TACAGGGATGGGTCTGTGTGTACC -3'
F5'-GTGTATCAGATCACAGACACACA -3'
R5'-ACAGCGGCCATGCACGACAG -3'
F5'-TGGGACACMGGIYTGAACTC -3'
R5'-ACAGCGGCCATGCACGACAG -3'
F5'-GAAGGGCCCAGGGTTGGACTC -3'
OVP3
A VP3
C VP3
SAT 1 VP3
SAT2 VP3
EUR VP3
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The primary diagnosis according to the case
history and the cardinal signs and symptoms of
FMD which are wobble between increase the
Figure.1
body temperature ,salivation, anorexia, laminas

and appear of vesicles in mouth and
foot(between digits space of hooves); the FMD
was determine (figure.1-8).
Figure.2

45
Figure.3
Figure.4
Figure. 5
Figure.6
Figure.7
Figure.8
The laboratory diagnosis depended on PCR

technique by amplified of the 3AB gene of
FMDV which is a member of the genus
Aphthovirus in the family Picornaviridae. The
whole volume of gene were 672 bp (Fig 9,10)
which fixed that the infections were FMD not
another diseases. The results revealed that the O

strain type was appear in a total of cases (100%)
of the virus strain that caused foot and mouth
disease in cattle of Basrah marshes by amplified
VP3gene from seven strain type of
FMDV(figure 11.table 2).From the total cases

46
8% were Asia1 strain type(figure 12. table 2) 4%
SAT1, 2% SAT2, (figure 13,14.table 2)while the
other strains A, C and EUR were 0% (figure.1517.table 2). The results showed interaction
among the strains in appearance of FMD, the
interaction between O and ASIA1strain was 7%;
Figure.9:Agarose gel showing high molecular weight of

virus RNA.
O and SAT1 was 4%; O and SAT2 was 2%; O,

ASIA1 and SAT1 were 4%; O, ASIA1 and
SAT2 were 2%; O, ASIA1, SAT1 and SAT2
were 2%. The interaction between ASIA1 and
SAT1 was 4%; ASIA1 and SAT2 was 2%;
ASIA1 , SAT1 and SAT2 were 2% (table. 2).
Figure.10:Amplified of the VP3gene of FMDV (672bp)

Lane 1 ladder, lane 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8 PCR product.
Table:2 shows the ratio of VP3 gene of FMD virus strain in Basrah marshes cattle
Strains of FMD virus in100
cases
O
ASIA1
SAT1
SAT2
A
C
EUR
O+ASIA1
O+SAT1
O+SAT2
VP3gene %
OR
95% (CI=)
100
8
4
2
0
0
0
7
4
2
12.5
0.5
0.5
0.57
0.5
(6.75-14.91)
(0.002-1.01)
(0.008-0.9)
(0.04-1.05)
(0.06-0.8)
O+ASIA1+SAT1
O+ASIA1+SAT2
O+ASIA1+SAT1+SAT2
ASIA1+SAT1
ASIA1+SAT2
ASIA1+SAT1+SAT2
4
2
2
4
2
2
0.5
1
0.5
1
(0.009-1.3)
(0.3-2.8)
(0.01-0.9)
(0.1-3.6)

47
Figure .11:Amplified of the VP3 gene of O strain Lane

Figure.12:Aamplified of the VP3 gene of ASIA1strain
1,8 ladder , lane 5,7(Negative) lane 2, 3, 4, 6 PCR product.
Lane 1 ladder,lane2, 3, 4, 5 (Negative) lane7,8
PCR (320bp)
product(320bp).
Figure.13:Aamplified of the VP3 gene of SAT1 strain

Lane1 ladder,lane3, 5, 6, 7 (Negative) lane 2, 4
PCR product (320bp)
Figure.14: amplified of the VP3 gene o f SAT2 strain

Lane 1, 8 ladder ,lane 4, 5, 6, 7(Negative) lane 2, 3 PCR
product(320bp).
Figure.15:Aamplified of the VP3 gene of A strain Lane 1

ladder,lane2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 (Negative)PCR product.
Figure.16:Amplified of the VP3 gene of C strain Lane1

Ladder ,lane 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 (Negative) PCR product.

48
Figure. 17:Aamplified of the VP3 gene of EUR strain Lane 1

Ladder , lane 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8(Negative) PCR product .
Infection with foot and mouth disease tends to

occur locally, the virus is passed on to
susceptible animals through direct contact with
infected animals or with contaminated pens or
vehicles used to transport livestock. The clothes
and skin of animal handlers such as farmers,
standing water, and uncooked food scraps and
feed supplements containing infected animal
products can harbor the virus as well. The absent
of control measures such as quarantine and
destruction of infected livestock, and export
bans for meat and other animal products to
countries not infected with the disease. Almost
the viral disease laboratory diagnosed by use
the ELISA assay, but this way of laboratory lack
of the high sensitivity, so the PCR is the
standard laboratory assays which applied to
detect FMDV by detect DNA/RNA. Although
the program of the vaccination against FMD is
in continue in Iraq but this disease become
endemic specially in marshes cattle. The failed
in immunization may be due to lack the athletic
with the virus strain that endemic in regions or
due to activate the strain which is occurred by
the vaccine not originally present in the region;
Also one of the difficulties in vaccinating
against FMD is the huge variation between and
even within serotypes. The lose of crossprotection between strain types which meaning
that a vaccine for one serotype won't protect
against any others and in addition, two strains

within a given serotype may have nucleotide
sequences that differ by as much as 30% for a
given gene; so the FMD vaccines must be highly
specific to the strain involved. As we know the
vaccination only provides temporary immunity
that lasts from months to years and this idea
agree with Tamilselvan et.al., (2009) the main
constraints in controlling this disease and why it
is considered as the most dreaded viral disease
are its high contagiousness, wide geographical
distribution, broad host range, ability to establish
carrier status, antigenic diversity leading to poor
cross-immunity, and relatively short duration of
immunity. Poor surveillance and diagnostic
facilities as well as inadequate control programs
are major problems in control of this disease in
the country. Although, the disease has been
controlled successfully in many parts of the
world by regular vaccination of susceptible
animals and slaughtering of infected animals, no
country has been considered safe, because of the
highly contagious nature and rapid spread of the
infection for the effective control of the disease,
outbreaks should be detected at an early stage
and persistent infections should also be
recognized to prevent further transmittance.
These can be achieved when vaccination is
regular and effective and when diagnostic tools
available are specific and sensitive and at the

49
same time rapid(Bruner and Gillespie, 1973).
Analysis of the viral genome is importance to
monitor the field isolates in areas where the
disease is endemic The virus particle which
sediments at 146S consists of a single stranded
positive sense RNA molecule of about 8.5 kb
with a molecular weight of 2.6 106 daltons
enclosed in a capsid which is composed of 60
copies each of four structural proteins named
VP1, VP2, VP3 and VP4. VP1 is exposed on the
surface of the virion and has immunogenic
property. (Suryanarayana et.al., 1999). The
results of the current study secure the O strain is
the main strain that causes FMD in Iraq marshes
cattle depend on genetic diagnosis of VP3 gene.
Also the results showed that the other strain such
as ASIA1 ,SAT1 and SAT2 respectively are
combined with strain O in FMD accident. While
the genetic diagnosis that used in the current
study discovered the strains A,C and EUR not
have any role in FMD occurrence. According to
Global Animal HealthInternational Disease
Monitoring
Preliminary
Outbreak
Assessment(2009) the middle east specially Iran
was endemic in FMD strain type O and Iraq not
endemic with this disease, so we think the main
causes that make Basrah marshes cattle become
endemic in FMD from 2009-2011 is as a result
of animal contraband between Iran and Iraq ,
random greasing with neighbouring countries,
contaminated of marshes water that are link and
sharing between Iran and Iraq and used the
vaccine that prepare in Iran which contain
different strain.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Authors acknowledge the immense help
received from the scholars whose articles are
cited and included in references of this
manuscript. The authors are also grateful to
this article has been reviewed and discussed
8.
9.
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Bruner DW and Gillespie JH (1973). The
family Picornaviridae. in Hagans Infectious
Disease of Domestic Animals, pp. 1207
1028, 6th edition,.
Domingo E, Mateu MG, Martnez MA,
Dopazo J, Moya A and . Sobrino F (1990).
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foot-and-mouth disease virus, in Applied
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Tesfaye R, Mesfin S, Nigel PF, Jemma W,
Geoffrey HH, and Nick J (2009). Genetic
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Viruses, Ethiopia, 19812007. Emerging
Infectious Disease Journal. Volume 15:1-5
Veterinary Science Team(2009). Global
Animal HealthInternational Disease Monitoring Preliminary Outbreak Assessment
Reference
(http://archive.defra.gov.uk/foodfarm
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/diseases/monitoring/documents/fmd-meupdate-: VITT/1200 FMD in Middle East
Date
Foot and Mouth Disease. Washington State
Department of Health. March 2002.
Archived
from
the
original
on
(2007)(ttp://www.
doh.wa
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Canadian
Food Inspection Agency
(2011).(http://www.inspection.
gc.ca/english/anima
/heasan/disemala/fmdfie/questionse.shtm.
Knowles NJ, Samuel AR(2003). Molecular
epidemiology of foot-and-mouth disease
virus. Virus Res ;91:6580).
Martinez-Salas E, Saiz M, Sobrino F (2008).
"Foot-and-Mouth Disease Virus". Animal
Viruses: Molecular Biology. Caister
Academic Press. pp. 138
Sharma PK. and Das SK (1984). Occurrence
of foot-and-mouth disease and distribution

50
of virus type in the hill states of North
Eastern region of India, Indian Journal of
Animal Sciences, vol. 4, pp. 117118.
10. Suryanarayana VV., Pradeep B , Reddy GR
and Misra LD (1999). Serotyping of footand-mouth disease virus from aerosols in the
infected area Indian Veterinary Research
Institute, Hebbal, Bangalore 560 024, India.
pp1-4 online
11. Tamilselvan RP, Sanyal A De, and Pattnaik
B. (2009). Genetic transitions of Indian
serotype O Foot and Mouth Disease Virus
isolates responsible for field outbreaks
during 20012009: a brief note: OIE/FAO

Reference laboratories network meeting:
New Delhi, India, pp. 11-13
12. Woodbury EL (1995). A review of the
possible mechanisms for the persistence of
foot-and-mouth
disease
virus,
Epidemiology and Infection, vol. 114, no. 1,
pp. 1

51
COMPARISON OF MEAN ARTERIAL BLOOD PRESSURE

IN FOUR DIFFERENT BODY POSITIONS BETWEEN
HYPERTENSIVE AND NORMOTENSIVE INDIVIDUALS
Prakash J. Patel, Dhaval Patel
ijcrr
Vol 04 issue 11
Category: Research
Revised on:01/05/12
DPOs Nett Physiotherapy College, Thane , Maharastra

E-mail of Corresponding Author: Dhavalcompany2@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
Objectives: It is known that changes in the body positions leads to the various changes in the cardio
vascular system. It is also known that many factors influence on individuals BP measurement, however
BP is constantly changes from one position to another. Change in positions well known to cause change
in intravascular and intra cardiac volumes and pressures, and in neurohumoral activity. Surprisingly there
is little information available on the BP changes in various positions between hypertensive and
normotensive individuals. Purpose of the study to compare mean arterial blood pressure response between
supine, sitting, standing and supine with crossed leg positions. Methods: 100 volunteers,50 hypertensive
and 50 normotensive, male 49, Female 51, age range 18 35 years, with mean age of normotensive
individuals 22.74 2.90 and mean age of hypertensive individuals were 27.70 3.19 . Four different
positions were used in this study: Sitting, Standing, Supine and supine with cross leg. Blood pressure
measured by standardized mercury sphygmomanometer and MABP value was calculated as per formula.
Results: Comparison of changes in MABP scores in different positions between hypertensive and
normotensive individuals shows p value < 0.01 which were statistically significant. Conclusion: The
study shows that there is significant difference of positions on MABP response between hypertensive and
normotensive individuals. The study concluded that in standing position MABP is lower than other
positions and supine position has higher MABP values.
Keywords: Hypertensive, Normotensive, Positions, MABP (mean arterial blood pressure)
____________________________________________________________________________________
INTRODUCTION
Blood pressure is the lateral pressure exerted on
the wall of the vessels by the column of blood
present in it. The maximum pressure, which
occurs during systole, is called systolic pressure
and the minimal pressure produced during
diastole is called diastolic pressure. The
difference between two pressures is called pulse
pressure. The average of pressure produced
during a cardiac cycle is known as mean
pressure. It is calculated by taking the diastolic
pressure and adding one third of pulse pressure.

Systolic pressure ranges from 100 to 140 mm of
Hg. With the average pressure of 120 mm of Hg.
In adults, diastolic pressure ranges from 70 to 90
mm of Hg and the average is 80 mm of Hg.
Pulse pressure is the difference between systolic
and diastolic pressures and is 40 mm of Hg. The
mean arterial blood pressure is 100 mm of Hg.1
The concept of stages of hypertension has been
applied to define levels of blood pressure. Many
clinicians have continued to use more

52
descriptive terms such as mild, moderate, or
severe hypertension. Therefore, to avoid
confusion between physicians and patients
regarding the risk associated with hypertension,
it is best to describe the degree of blood pressure
elevation using a staging system. When systolic
and diastolic blood pressure fall into different
categories, the higher stage should be used to
classify the patient's blood pressure because both
are independent risk factors for subsequent
cardiovascular events.2
Hypertension is the most common diseasespecific reason for which Americans visit a
physician. It is currently among the leading
causes of morbidity and mortality in the world
and is expected to have an even greater impact
on the health of the public as more of the world
becomes developed.3 In addition to the
morbidity and mortality directly attributable to
hypertension, high blood pressure is a powerful
risk factor that in this case increases the
likelihood that an individual or population will
develop a wide variety of cardiovascular
diseases 4,5,6,7,8 Movement from a supine or
sitting position to standing causes a rapid loss of
blood from the thoracic and abdominal cavities
and pulling in extremities, reducing venous
return and cardiac stroke volume. Under normal
conditions, this stimulates baroreceptors to
active the sympathetic nervous system, leading
to vasoconstriction and increased heart rate to
maintain a stable blood pressure as
parasympathetic nerve signals to the heart are
withdrawn, thus causing short term blood
pressure changes, although up regulation of
sympathetic activity is necessary for regulation
of blood pressure, hyper reactivity is associated
with harmful effects, including the development
of hypertension.9
A change in the body position from upright to
the supine increases left ventricular blood filling
with simultaneous stroke volume and cardiac
output increases but decreases heart rate and

arterial blood pressure.10
Orthostatic stresses are common daily events in
humans. In the upright position, a gravitational
displacement of blood from the thorax to the
venous vascular beds of the legs, buttock and
abdomen occurs. During orthostasis, approx.
600700 ml of blood is transferred to the regions
below the diaphragm 11, 12. Which is known as
venous pooling This results in a reduced
venous return to the heart and a fall in central
venous pressure with a consequent decrease in
cardiac filling, stroke volume and cardiac output
13
.
Gravity imposes numerous cardiovascular and
neurohumoral adjustments on the human body in
the standing position. Physiological adaptations
mainly due to the effect of gravity occur during
changes of position and can influence the
symptoms of various diseases involving not only
the circulatory system but also other systems
(respiratory, digestive, osteoarticular etc).14
Posture affects blood pressure, with a general
tendency for it to increase from the lying to the
sitting or standing position. However, in most
people posture is unlikely to lead to significant
error in blood pressure measurement provided
the arm is supported at heart level. None the
less, it is advisable to standardize posture for
individual patients and in practice blood
pressure is usually measured in the sitting
position. 15
The indirect blood pressure measurement is
perhaps the most frequently performed clinical
procedure and important therapeutic decisions
rely on its accuracy. However, its accuracy
strongly depends both on the number of
measurement and the circumstances during the
procedure. Unfortunately, it is perhaps one of
the most inaccurately performed procedures
done by healthcare providers. 16
The position of the patient during the
measurement is often neglected. The reference

53
point for the measurement of the blood pressure
is the right atrium, the so called heart level.17
A change in posture is well known to cause
changes in intravascular and intracardiac
volumes and pressures, and in neurohumoral
activity.18, 19, 20, 21 Thus, the impact of body
positioning needs to be verified as significant
heamodynamic variations may lead to different
interpretation of the study.22, 23
Some of the identified sources of error included
inappropriate cuff size, wrong arm position,
failure to allow a rest period before taking blood
pressure, deflating the cuff too rapidly, not
measuring the BP in both arms, and failure to
palpate for maximal- systolic pressure before
auscultation. 24
It is known that failure to support the arm, even
when the arm is in slightly flexed at the elbow
and at heart level position 25 can raise the blood
pressure by as much as 10% this effect is even
greater in hypertensives and the patients taking
b- blocker .26
By understanding how MABP varies in different
body positions between the hypertensive and
normotensive individual, physiotherapist can
better advice on positional changes that may
help in improve the stability of cardiovascular
response in hypertensive patient.
Keeping in view the above this study intended to
examine the comparison of Mean arterial blood
pressure in four different body positions
between hypertensive and normotensive
individuals and to find out the changes in MABP
scores in various positions between hypertensive
and normotensive individuals.
METHODOLOGY
In Observational study, A total of 100
individuals,
50
hypertensive
and
50
normotensive. With age of 18 to 35 years were
obtained. Before they enter into the study
protocol, they were explained about the
procedure. A written consent form obtained
from those subjects who were willing to

participate in the study after screening for the
inclusion and exclusion criteria. Purposive
sampling technique used to collect 100 subjects
of both sexes in the age group of 18 35 years.
Inclusion Criteria:(1) 50 hypertensives and 50
normotensive subjects in age group of 18 to 35
years (both male and female) (2) Person scoring
100 in 36 SF questionnaire.28 (3) Hypertensive
individual with mild grade (140/90 mm of Hg).
(4) BMI 18.5 29 kg/m2
Exclusion Criteria: (1) Individual with any
cardiovascular problems or under medication,
(2) Hypertensive individual with SBP140 mm
of hg, and DBP 90 mm of hg. 3) Acute
systemic illness (4) Recent history of postural
hypotension. (5)Renal hepatic disease, severe
anemia, hypothyroidism and cerebro vascular
accident (6) After any abdominal surgery,
hernia, (7) Pregnant women, (8) Smokers.
Procedure: Subjects were instructed to wear
loosen and comfortable clothing and not to eat
food or do any exercise 1 hour before they start
their procedure. Prior instructions about the
procedure were given to each enrolled subject as
explained below.
Positioning: BP was taken in each of four
different postures: supine, sitting, standing and
supine with crossed leg.
Sitting: Subjects sat on chair with arm and back
support. The height of the seat was adjusted so
that the angle of hip and knee joint was 90
Standing: Subjects were instructed to stand free
with feet slightly apart, aiming for an equal
weight distribution between left and right feet.
Supine: The subjects resting comfortably on
their backs in horizontal position on a couch. A
pillow was placed under the head.
Supine with crossed leg: The subjects resting
comfortably on their backs in horizontal position
on a couch. A pillow was placed under the head.
The subjects were instructed to cross the right
leg in front of left leg at thigh level and relaxed.

54
Technique:- Patients profile was recorded and
arm circumference was measured midway
between the shoulder acromian and elbow.
Systolic and diastolic blood pressure were
recorded
by
using
standardize
sphygmomanometer and stethoscope from
brachial artery at elbow as the appearance of the
korotkoff sounds (phase 1 and 5). Firstly, sitting
BP was taken from the left arm, which was
flexed at the elbow and supported at the heart
level on the chair. After 1 minute of standing BP
was measured in standing with arm supported on
desk or table. After 1 minute of rest in supine BP
was measured. Finally, after 1 minute BP was
again taken in the supine with crossed leg
position. In all the position BP was measured 3
times and mean of 3 readings taken for calculate
MABP. All the measurements were recorded
separately in an evaluation chart for each
subject. The Mean arterial Blood Pressure was
obtaining by using this formula: MABP = DBP
+ (1/3 SBP DBP)
RESULTS
Among the 100 subjects, 50 hypertensive and
50 normotensive individuals and their data were
taken up for statistical Analysis.
Analysis result shows that, among the
normotensive individuals mean and standard
deviation of MABP in sitting position is 88.14
7.25, in standing position 86.00 7.28, in supine
position 90.76 7.15, in supine with cross leg
position 89.96 7.12, by ANOVA and multiple
comparison shows that, there is significant
difference among the positions. Further value is
less in standing position compare to sitting
position compare to supine with cross leg
position and compare to supine position. So
supine position has higher value then other
positions.
Result shows that, among the hypertensive
individuals mean and standard deviation of
MABP in sitting position is 102.32 3.95, in

standing position 100.60 4.07, in supine
position 104.74 3.84, in supine with cross leg
position 103.96 3.71, by ANOVA and
multiple comparison shows that, there is
significant difference among the positions.
Further value is less in standing position
compare to sitting position compare to supine
with cross leg position and compare to supine
position. So supine position has higher value
then other positions.
Result shows that, in sitting position
hypertensive individual have significantly higher
value with mean difference 14.48 compare to
normotensive as p < 0.01, in standing position
hypertensive individual has significantly higher
normotensive as p < 0.01, in supine position
hypertensive individual has significantly higher
normotensive as p < 0.01, in supine with cross
leg position hypertensive individual has
significantly higher value with mean difference
14.00 compare to normotensive as p < 0.01.
DISCUSSION
Result of this study shows that in the supine
position, a significantly higher MABP was
observed compared to other positions in both
hypertensive and normotensive individuals.
Similarly lower MABP was observed in the
standing position compared to other positions in
The position of the body is known to affect the
BP readings with BP increases successively
from the supine to sitting and standing and
standing position. One study shows that SBP
and DBP were significantly higher in the supine
position than in the sitting position.29 Results of
this study supports the result of the present
study. There is a theoretical basis and studies
that suggest crossing leg may increase the blood
pressure30, 31

55
The slowed pulse rate in the horizontal posture
as compared with sitting, and quicker rate in
standing as compared with sitting, squatting,
depend on wholly different mechanisms and
may vary independently. Variation in the
cardiovascular parameter in sitting, standing and
supine posture is associated with hydrostatic
influence acting on the altered position of the
thighs, horizontal or vertical in these postures. 32
A significant fall in BP can be prevented by a
complex regulatory system comprising a series
of
neurohumoral
mechanisms
and
cardiovascular reflexes that regulate peripheral
vascular resistance and capacitance, stroke
volume and HR, with BP as the controlled
variable. This baroreceptor reflex plays a key
role in this. 33
In present study blood pressure fluctuations
more seen in the normotensive individuals then
in the hypertensive individuals. Also hand
placement for measuring blood pressure has
major factor for error or fluctuations in various
positions. As per world health organization and
international society of hypertension guidelines
on BP measurement recommend that BP should
be measured routinely with patients arm
supported at heart level.34 so in this study also,
hand position was kept at the heart level to avoid
errors.
CONCLUSION
The study shows that there is significant
effect of positions on MABP between
From the results obtained it concluded that
standing posture having low MABP value
than other positions and also supine has
higher value in both normotensive and
hypertensive individuals. Also sitting is the
optimal position to measure the blood
pressure in clinical practice.
Thus, the study concluded that there are
higher fluctuations in blood pressure in
normotensive then in the hypertensive

individuals.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I acknowledge the immense help received from
the scholars whose articles are cited and
included in references of this manuscript. I am
also grateful to authors/ editors/ publishers of all
those articles, journal and books from where the
literature for this article has been reviewed and
discussed.
A study in all its sense certainly can be
accomplished by the guidance and assistance of
many people. I take this opportunity to express
my gratitude to all those who have helped me for
completing this study successfully.
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2. Critical pathways in cardiology, by
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3. Murray CJ, Lope AD. Evidence-based
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Burden of Disease Study. Science 1996;
274(5288):740743.
4. Kannel WB. Blood pressure as a
cardiovascular risk factor: Prevention and
treatment. JAMA 1996; 275:15711576.
5. MacMahon
S,
Rodgers
A.
The
epidemiological association between blood
pressure and stroke: Implications for
primary
and
secondary
prevention.
Hypertens Res 1994; 17(suppl I):S23S32.
6. Klag MJ, Whelton PK, Randall BL, et al.
Blood pressure and end-stage renal disease
in men. N Engl J Med 1996; 334:1318.
7. Criqui MH, Langer RD, Fronek A, et al.
Large vessel and isolated small vessel
peripheral arterial disease. In: Fowkes FCR,
ed. Epidemiology of Peripheral Vascular
Disease. Ireland: Springer-Verlag; 1991:85.

56
8. Neiman, D.C. The exercise health
connection (1998)- human kinetics
9. Elissa wilker, Murry A. Mittleman, Augusto
A, Litonjua et al. postural changes on blood
pressure associated with interactions
between candidate genes for chronic
respiratory diseases and exposure to
particular matter. Environmental health
prospective; volume 117, number 6, June
2009: 935-940.
10. Wieslaw pilis, Leon Rak, et al. Influence of
body position on cardio vascular changes
during isometric excercises.gymnica vol 28,
1998:43-46.
11. Rowell, L. B. (1993) Reflex control during
orthostasis. In Human Cardiovascular
Control (Rowell, L. B., ed.), pp. 3780,
Oxford University Press, New York.
12. Smith, J. J. and Ebert, T. J. (1990) General
responses to orthostatic stress. In Circulatory
Responses to the Upright Posture (Smith, J.
J., ed.), pp. 146, CRC Press, Boca, Raton,
FL.
13. Smit, A. A. J., Halliwill, J. R., Low, P. A.
and Wieling, W.(1999) Pathophysiological
basis of orthostatic hypotension. In
autonomic failure. J. Physiol. 519, 110
14. Remy C. Martin-Du Pana, Raymond
Benoitb, Lucia Girardier. The role of body
position and gravity in the symptoms and
treatment of various medical diseases.
SWISS MED WKLY 2004 ;134:543551
15. Gareth beevers, kregory Y H Lip, Eoin
OBrien. ABC of hypertension- BP
measurement part 1- sphygmomanometry:
factors common to all techniques.
16. Armstrong RS (2002) Nurses knowledge of
error in blood pressure measurement
technique. International journal of clinical
nursing practice 8,118-126.
17. Guyton
A.
Textbook
of
medical
physiology.WB
Saunders:
Philadelphia.1986.
18. Blomquist, C.G. and Stone, H.L. (1984)

cardiovascular adjustments to gravitational
stress.
Handb.
Physiol.
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2
Cardiovascular. Syst. 3, 1025 1063.
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and Payne, N. (1976) the response of
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20. Gauer, O. H. and Thron, H.L. (1965)
Postural changes in the circulation, Handb.
Physiol. Circulation, 2409 2437.
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Regulation during Physical Stress, Oxford
University Press, Oxford. 1st Citations.
22. Bornscheuer A, Mahr KH, Botel C,
Goldman R, Gnielinski M & Kirchner E (
1996). Cardiopulmonary effects of lying
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Sahagian P, Ransil BJ & Grossman W
(1986). Effects of supine and lateral
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Circulation 73, 579 585.
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standard cuff on blood pressure readings in
patients with obese arms. Blood pressure
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pressure
measurement.
Part
1.
Sphygmomanometry: factors common to all
techniques. BMJ 2001; 322: 981-985.
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28. Shuichi Takishita Takashi Touma Nobuyuki
Kawazoe et al. Usefulness of Leg-Crossing
for Maintaining Blood Pressure in a Sitting
Position in Patients with Orthostatic
HypotensionCase
Reports.
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421-425 (1991)
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Avvampto CS. Effect of one leg crossed
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323364.

58
MYLOHYOID GROOVE BRIDGING IN NORTH COASTAL

ANDHRA POPULATION
Indira Devi.B, Raju. Sugavasi, Sujatha.M, Sirisha.B, Sridevi.P
ijcrr
Vol 04 issue 11
Category: Research
Revised on:02/05/12
Department of Anatomy, RIMS Medical College, Rajiv Gandhi Institute of Medical

sciences, Kadapa, A.P.
E-mail of Corresponding Author: anatraju@yahoo.co.in
ABSTRACT
The Bony plates stretch over the mylohyoid groove of the mandible either completely or partially is called
as mylohyoid bridging. Presence of such mylohyoid bridging may compress the mylohyoid neurovascular
bundle which produces the neurological or vascular disorders. This study is clinically important for
Dental surgeons, anesthetists, anthropologists.
Objectives: To study the site, extension and location of the bony bridging of mylohyoid grooves on right
and left sides of mandibles in north coastal Andhra population of south India and compare the present
study results with those of previous studies. Methods: The present study is conducted on 60 macerated
mandibles, which are available in the osteology section of department of anatomy. In each mandible we
have examined both medial sides of the mylohyoid grooves and their bony bridging. Results and
Conclusion: In the present study mylohyoid groove bony bridges were found as incomplete or partial
type on total 4 sides (2 proximal and 2 distal types) out of 120 sides of 60 mandibles (incidence as
3.33%). All bony bridges were seen unilaterally, No cases were found as complete bony bridges.
Keywords: Mandible, Mylohyoid bridging, Mylohyoid nerve.
____________________________________________________________________________________
INTRODUCTION
Mylohyoid groove located on the medial side of
ramus of the mandible, it extends downwards
and forwards from below the posterior part of
the mylohyoid line and it transmits the
mylohyoid neurovascular bundle [1]. Sometimes
the bony plates stretch over the mylohyoid
groove as completely or a small part is called as
mylohyoid bridging, Depending on the
extension of bony bridge over the mylohyoid
groove this is classified as complete type and
incomplete or partial type [2]. Some authors
classified bony bridging into distal (type 1),
proximal (type 2) and common, uncommon
types [3, 4].

A Total number of 60 macerated mandibles were
available in the Department of anatomy,
Maharajahs Institute of medical sciences,
Nellimarla, Vijayanagaram, North costal Andhra
Pradesh, South India were used for this study.
All mandibles belong to adult at different
unknown ages. In each mandible both medial
sides were examined for mylohyoid grooves and
their bony bridges. The site and extent and
location of the bony bridging of mylohyoid
grooves on right and left sides of mandible were
recorded. Each side of bony bridging taken as a
separate case for the purpose to compare the

59
present study results with those of previous
studies.
disturbances and also mylohyoid nerve varies in

its course and distribution [14].
RESULTS
A total 120 sides of mylohyoid grooves were
studied from 60 macerated mandibles. In the
present study mylohyoid groove bony bridging
were found total 4 sides. All bony bridges were
seen unilaterally, (2 proximal and 2 distal types).
Proximal type of bony bridge seen one at right
and one at left side (FIG. 01 and 02), same as
distal type seen one at right and one at left side
(FIG.03 and 04). In the present study the
Incidence of mylohyoid bony bridge in north
costal group of Andhra population of south India
is 3.33 %( 4/120 : 33.3).
CONCLUSION
All mylohyoid groove bridges found in the
present study were incomplete, unilateral, and
proximal, distal types. No cases were found as
complete bony bridges. Out of 120 sides, a total
4 sides (2 proximal and 2 distal types) were
observed bony bridges. The incidence of present
study in North costal group of Andhra
population in south India is 3.33%.
DISCUSSION
Mylohyoid groove bridging can be useful as a
genetic marker in population studies and other
non metric cranial traits. The mylohyoid groove
bridging
received
attention
of
many
anthropologists.
According to Arensburg (1979) [5] during
development of the mandible the membrane
covering the mylohyoid groove ossifies at
different locations either proximally, distally, or
at middle ,occasionally ossifies at multiple levels
leads to Bony bridging.
Incidence of mylohyoid bridges have been
reported from different populations and different
parts of India, According to Gopinath (1995) [6]
incidence is 8.63, Manjunath (2003) [7] 6.39,
Narayana (2007) [8] 7.20, Shantharam V (2011)
[9]
3.91 and in the world the incidences as
American whites [10] 11.50, Europeans [11] 0.47,
East Asians [12] 2.60, Modern Japanese [13]. In
the present study the incidence is 3.33.
The Clinical significance of mylohyoid bony
bridging is important for Dental surgeons,
anesthetists as the mylohyoid nerve passes
through a bony tunnel may get compressed
against the bone which creates neurological
AKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I express my Thanks to Dr. B. Narasinga Rao,
professor and HOD of Anatomy, Maharajahs
Institute of medical sciences, Nellimarla,
Vijayanagaram for his guidance and support
throughout this study, and colleagues for their
proper suggestions and encouragements to
accomplish my work. Authors also acknowledge
the immense help received from the scholars
whose articles are cited and included in
references of this manuscript. The authors are
also grateful to authors, editors, and publishers
of all those articles, journals and books from
where the literature for this article has been
reviewed and discussed.
1.
2.
3.
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Mylohyoid bridging in north Indian
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Hanihara T, Ishida H requency variations
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60
4.
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Turan-Ozdemir S, Sendemir E incidence

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Arensburg B, Nathan H Anatomical
observations on the mylohyoid groove,
and the course of mylohyoid nerve and
vessels. J Oral Surg. 1979; 37: 93 96.
Gopinathan K, Chhabra S, Dhall U
Mylohyoid bridging in north Indian
population. J Anat Soc India.1995; 44:
119 125.
Manjunath KY. Mylohyoid bridging in
south Indian mandibles. Indian J Dental
Res. 2003; 14: 206 209.
Narayana K, Narayan P, Ashwin K,
Prabhu LV. Incidence, Types and Clinical
implications of a non metrical variant
mylohyoid bridging in human mandibles.
Folia Morphol. 2007; 66 (1) : 20 24.
Shantharam V, Manjunath KY, Deepthi
Shastri. Bony Bridging of the Mylohyoid
groove. Anatomica Karnataka. 2011; 5
(3): 45 - 49.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
CorruciniRS, An examination of the

meaning of cranial discrete traits for
human skeletal biological studies.1974,
Am J Phys Anthropol, 40: 425 445.
Ossenburg NS, The Mylohyoid Bridge: an
anomalous derivative of Meckels
cartilage. J Dent Res, 1974, 53: 72 82.
Sawyer DR, Kiely ML, Jugular foramen
and mylohyoid bridging in an Asian
Indian population, 1987, Am J Phys
Anthropol; 72: 473 477.
Jidoi K, Nara T, Dodo Y, Bony bridging
of the mylohyoid groove of the human
mandible,, Anthropol Sci , 2000; 108: 345
370.
Narayana K, Vasudha S. Intraosseous
course of the inferior alveolar (dental)
nerve and its relative position in the
mandible.2004; 15: 99 - 102.

61
Fig 01: Arrow showing Incomplete, proximal type of Mylohyoid Bony Bridging on Right side of the
Mandible
Fig 02: Arrow showing Incomplete, proximal type of Mylohyoid Bony Bridging on left side of the
Mandible

62
Fig 03: Arrow showing Incomplete, Distal type of Mylohyoid Bony Bridging on Right side of the
Mandible
Fig 04: Arrow showing Incomplete, Distal type of Mylohyoid Bony Bridging on left side of the
Mandible.

63
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN LEVELS OF THYROID
HORMONES AND THYROID ANTIBODIES IN BREAST
CANCER
G.S.R.Kedari1, G.S.R.Hareesh2
ijcrr
Vol 04 issue 11
Category: Research
Revised on:26/04/12
Department of Biochemistry, Saveetha Medical College, Thandalam, Chennai,

Tamilnadu
2
Department of Surgery, Rajiv Gandhi Institute of Medical Sciences(RIMS),
Kadapa, YSR District, Andhra Pradesh
E-mail of Corresponding Author: kedari.gsr@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
Objective: Breast cancer is a common malignancy in women in both western countries and in
India and is still one of the leading causes of death in women. The relationship between breast
cancer and thyroid diseases is controversial. The aim of the present study is to evaluate the
incidence of auto immune and non auto immune thyroid diseases in breast cancer patients
Methods: The role of thyroid hormones status in breast cancer patients was estimated by
measuring serum free Triiodothyronine, serum free Tetraiodothyronine, serum Thyroid Stimulating
hormone levels and the role of antibodies by measuring anti thyroid peroxidase (anti-TPO)
antibodies , anti thyroglobulin antibodies(anti-Tg) in blood. For this, 100 cases of breast cancer
patients were included. The findings were compared with 75 age matched healthy females.
Results: A significant increase in the levels of Thyroid Stimulating Hormone and anti-Thyroid
peroxidase antibodies were observed in the cases as compared to controls. There were no
significant differences in the levels of free Triiodothyronine(FT3), free Tetraiodothyronine(FT4),
and anti thyroglobulin antibodies(anti-Tg). Conclusion: Our results indicate increased incidence of
auto immune and non auto immune thyroid diseases in breast cancer patients when compared to
controls.
Keywords: Autoimmune Thyroid diseases, Non auto immune thyroid diseases, anti TPO antibodies,
anti Tg antibodies.
____________________________________________________________________________________
INTRODUCTION
Breast cancer is a hormone dependent
neoplasm. It is the most common malignancy
in
women in western countries and
accounts for 18.4% of all cancers in female
patients.(1).Qualitative
changes
in
the
lifestyle of women in developed countries
that can influence risk factors for breast
cancer, such as age at menarche, menopause,
or first pregnancy, may partially explain this
phenomenon.(2).The fact that both breast
cancer and thyroid disease predominantly

affect females and that both have a
postmenopausal peak incidence has inevitably
resulted in a search for an association
between the two diseases.(3,4). Conflicting
results regarding the clinical correlation
between breast cancer and thyroid diseases
have been reported in the literature. Many
studies showed that thyroid diseases are
common
among
women
with
breast
cancer(5),whereas other reports did not

64
confirm such an association of breast cancer
with thyroid diseases(6,7).Almost every form
of
thyroid
disease, including
nodular
hyperplasia(8),hyperthyroidism(3) and thyroid
cancer(9,10), has
been
identified
in
association with breast cancer. These findings
have led to the investigation of the
relationship between breast cancer and
autoimmune thyroid diseases.(AITDS).The aim
of the present study was to determine the
prevalence of thyroid diseases in patients
with breast cancer as compared with that in
the general female population and further
investigate the possible relationship between
thyroid disorders and breast cancer risk to
create awareness in female population.
The present study was conducted in the
department of surgery and department of
biochemistry , S.V. Medical college, Tirupati.
The study included 100 patients with breast
cancer and 75 age matched controls. All the
subjects belonged to age group of 35-75
years and had no history of previous thyroid
diseases. Out of cases, a total of 80 patients
had
invasive
ductal
carcinoma,10 had
invasive lobular carcinoma and 10 had
mixed(invasive ductal and lobular) carcinoma.

Four weeks after surgical procedure , clinical,
ultrasonographic evaluation were done for all
the patients and
biochemical parameters
were studied in all the subjects before
starting chemotherapy, hormone therapy or
radiotherapy. Informed consent was obtained
from all the cases and controls regarding the
study and the parameters which were
estimated. Fasting blood
samples were
collected by venipuncture technique and for
separation of serum, the blood is centrifuged
at 3000rpm for 5 min. The separated serum
is used to estimate serum TSH,FT3,FT4,TPO
antibodies and anti TG abs. Serum TSH,FT3
& FT4
were
estimated
by ELISA
method(11,12). Estimation of thyroid auto
antibodies by using RIA for thyroid
peroxidase
antibodies(TPO-Abs) )
and
quantitative indirect enzyme immunoassay
based
on
the
sandwich
method(antithyroglobulin immunoradiometric
assay kit) for thyroglobulin antibodies(TGAbs) which are also called as microsomal
antibodies were done. All the results were
expressed as mean SD and statistical
comparison was done.
RESULTS
Table 1: Comparison of levels of thyroid hormone status in controls and cases
FT3( pmol/l)
FT4(pmol/l)
TSH(IU/ml)
Patients
(n=100)
3.780.53
9.340.26
4.310.52
Controls
(n=75)
3.720.57
9.270.28
3.580.49
P value
Not Significant
Not Significant
<0.001
(Highly Significant)
Table 2: Comparison of levels of thyroid antibodies in cases and controls

Patients
(n=100)
Controls
(n=75)
106.2121.33
22.475.14
<0.001
((Highly Significant)
28.927.52
28.757.50
Not Significant
TPO antibodies(IU/ml)
Thyroglobulin
antibodies(IU/ml)
P value

65
Evaluation of thyroid function was based on

serum thyroid hormones. The mean values
for
serum
thyroid
hormones
were
3.780.53(pmol/l) for FT3, 9.340.26 for FT4
and 4.310.52 for TSH in breast cancer
patients. The mean values in the control
group were 3.720.57 (pmol/l) for FT3,
9.270.28 (pmol/l) for FT4 and 3.580.49 for
TSH. The differences between breast cancer
patients and the control group in mean
serum free T3, free T4 were not statistically
significant whereas TSH is statistically
significant. The mean values for serum
thyroid auto antibodies were 106.2121.33 for
anti TPO antibodies and 28.927.52 for anti
Thyroglobulin antibodies in breast cancer
patients,
and
22.475.14
and
28.757.50,respectively in the control group.
Thus, the mean value for serum anti-TPO
antibodies was higher in breast cancer patients
than in the control group, whereas the
difference between the groups in mean
values for serum antithyroglobulin antibodies
was not statistically significant.
DISCUSSION
The present study found a high prevalence
of autoimmune thyroiditis, confirmed mainly
by antibody positivity, in breast cancer
patients. The coincidence of thyroid disease
and breast cancer has long been a subject of
debate. Although
associations
with
hyperthyroidism, hypothyroidism, thyroiditis
and nontoxic goiter have been reported in
the literature, no convincing evidence exists
of a casual role for overt thyroid disease in
breast cancer. Geographical variations in the
incidence of
breast cancer have been
attributed to differences in dietary iodine
intake, and an effect of iodine on the breast
has
been
postulated.(13). The possible
interactions between thyroid gland and breast
tissue are based on the common property of

the mammary and thyroid epithelial cell to
concentrate iodine by a membrane active
transport mechanism(14) as well as on the
presence of TSH receptors in fatty tissue,
which is abundant in mammary gland.(15)
Increased incidence of breast cancer has
been reported in areas of endemic goiter but
no change in incidence occurred when the
goiter rate decreased after iodine prophylaxis.
Nonetheless, an association of breast cancer
with nontoxic goiter continues to be reported
in areas of low iodine intake.(16). Reports on
the association of breast cancer with
decreased
dietary iodine
intake
have
suggested that such deficiencies may result
in subclinical hypothyroidism predisposing to
breast disease. The presence of an iodine
pump in both thyroid and breast (17) have
led to studies on a possible direct effect of
iodine
on
the
breast.(18).Studies
in
humans(19) have shown that treatment with
elemental iodine results in the resolution of
fibrocystic breast disease and breast pain. . In
the thyroid, I- is required for thyroid
hormonogenesis whereas in the breast I- is
needed in breast milk as a source of
neonatal nutrition. Both organs require a
method of oxidizing I- to I2(organification)
in order to produce iodoproteins(20,21). This
involves the presence of H202 as an
oxidizing agent catalyzed by TPO in the
thyroid and by lactoperoxidases in the breast.
Apart from the requirement for iodide as a
nutrient in breast milk, there is no known
role for iodine in the normal or diseased
breast. However, a breast requirement for I2
rather than I- has been suggested.(22). It has
been postulated that formation of iodolipids
such as iodolactones or iodoaldehydes
represents a form of thyroidal auto
regulation(23), which may be the mode of

66
action of iodide inhibition of thyroid
function in the Wolff-Chaikoff effect.(24-26).
Additionally ,some
endocrine
stimuli
identified in thyroid products that exert a
simultaneous action on the breast and the
various thyroid antibodies, which could also
interact with various receptors on breast
tumors, have
been
postulated
to
be
responsible for the coincidence of mammary
and thyroid gland disorders.(10,27). The
presence of circulating TPO antibodies in
asymptomatic individuals has been implicated
as conferring an increased risk for future
hypothyroidism(28), there is no agreement on
the significance of its association with breast
cancer.(29). A fivefold excess in breast cancer
has been reported in Japanese patients with
AITD(30). However, no significant association
between breast cancer and Hashimotos
thyroiditis was reported in a study from the
Mayo Clinic in the USA(31). Thus, like
other reported associations, the relationship
between AITD, iodine intake and breast
cancer is far from clear. Equally, there is
little agreement on the significance of any
published association between a range of
thyroid disorders and breast cancer.(3,4).
It has been proposed that the presence of
thyroid abnormalities may influence breast
cancer progression.(32). A recent
report
suggested a better prognosis for breast
cancer among patients with increased levels
of TPO(32). It has been proposed that the
immune response might be directed both by
tumor and by thyroid tissue(33), or that the
tumor and thyroid share common properties,
as they both express TPO and the sodium
iodide symporter gene.(34,35), Although high
TPO level has been shown to be very
important factor in antibody-dependent cell
cytotoxicity in the thyroid, and there may be
a possible association between autoimmune
thyroiditis and the immune system, there is
no agreement on the significance of its

association with breast cancer.
Despite the many different studies and
approaches to the problem outlined above,
there is still no definitive answer as to the
significance of the association between
thyroid status and breast cancer. Although
available evidence strongly indicates that
thyroid hypo function contributes to breast
cancer progression, the possibility that thyroid
autoimmunity might be associated with
improved
prognosis
deserves
further
investigation. The possibility of genetic predisposition to both conditions also needs to
be explored.
CONCLUSION
In this paper, we have studied thyroid
autoantibody levels and thyroid function tests
in breast cancer patients and controls. There
was a significant difference between the
groups in terms of TPO Abs levels and TSH
levels. However
no
difference
was
demonstrated for other variables, such as Tg
Abs FT3 and FT4.These results indicate a
significant association between breast cancer
and autoimmune and non autoimmune
thyroid disorders. However, more research on
this subject is required to confirm this
association.
ACKNOWLEDMENTS
We acknowledge the immense help received
from the scholars whose articles are cited
and
included
in references
of
this
manuscript. We are also grateful to authors,
editors and publishers of all those articles,
journals and books from where the literature
for this article has been reviewed and
discussed.

67
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69
EFFECTIVE UTILIZATION OF SUGAR INDUSTRY WASTE

FOR BIO- ETHANOL PRODUCTION
Unsia Habib, Muddasar Habib
ijcrr
Vol 04 issue 11
Category: Research
Revised on:01/05/12
Department of Chemical Engineering University of Engineering and Technology

Peshawar Pakistan
E-mail of Corresponding Author: unsiah@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT
Energy crises are widespread particularly in developing countries like Pakistan. Available fuel
resources are decreasing day by day causing a remarkable increase in the cost of fuel. Each year
Pakistan spends a huge amount of money to import fuel to meet its energy requirements. The need to
develop alternate fuel resources is the demand of the day. Studies show that Ethanol can be used as an
alternative energy source. Pure Ethanol and mixture of ethanol with other fuels is used in vehicle as
fuel in many countries of the world. The paper describes a process to produce ethanol using sugar
molasses and yeast as the raw material. Sugar molasses is the waste of the sugar industry after sugar
production. Ethanol is produced from sugar molasses through fermentation. Lab scale Unit is
designed and fabricated to perform the experiments and find the effect of various parameters like
temperature, dissolved oxygen, mixing effect, PH. Keeping PH between 4.8 to 5, temperature
between 30 C37C, stirrer speed 150 RPM were found to show the maximum productivity.
Key Words Ethanol, Fermentation, Molasses, Saacharomyces cerevisiea.sugar industry waste
__________________________________________________________________________________
INTRODUCTION
Energy crises are widespread particularly in developing countries like Pakistan while the modern
world fuel demand is increasing day by day. Fuel Resources present in Pakistan are limited and is on
the verge of depletion. The energy requirements of Pakistan are mostly fulfilled by importing the fuel
which is causing a huge strain on the economy of the country. All these factors along with others are
boosting the cost of fuel with the passage of time. Hence the need to search for the alternative fuel
resources is inevitable. The production of environmentally friendly bio-ethanol is possibly one of the
solutions to the problem. Pure Ethanol and ethanol gasoline (10:90 or 10:20 ratio) blend can be used
a transportation fuel Error! Reference source not found.. No change in car engine is required for 10:90 ethanol
gasoline blend .Ethanol is an environmentally friendly fuel as it produces less harmful gases on
burning Error! Reference source not found.. Ethanol mixed with gasoline increases the octane number of the
gasoline so it can replace the lead additives in fuel as lead is highly hazardous and causes air
pollution Error! Reference source not found.. Ethanol is produced from sugar, starches and cellulose through
fermentation by yeast .The most effective and inexpensive strain of yeast used for fermentation is
Saacharomyces Cerevisiea also known as Bakers yeast Error! Reference source not found..
Several attempts have been made previously to improve the production of ethanol. Using finger millet
flour in ethanol fermentation from sugar increases the yield of ethanol and reduces fermentation time .
Paper sludge can be used as an effective raw material for ethanol production after mechanical
70
crushing and tenderness by chemicals Error! Reference source not found.. Kitchen garbage is converted to
ethanol by using acid tolerant bacteria Error! Reference source not found..
Sugar molasses is the most important raw material that can be used for ethanol production Error! Reference
source not found.
. Molasses is a cheap source of raw material as it is the waste of sugar industry also it
contains nutrients that accelerate the fermentation process Error! Reference source not found. .
In this work laboratory scale unit has been designed for the production of ethanol from sugar molasses
and various parameters like PH, Dissolved oxygen, Temperature, Mixing effect have been
investigated.
EXPERIMENTAL SETUP
Laboratory scale experimental unit is designed to produce ethanol from sugar molasses. The purpose
of the experimental unit is to study the effect of various parameters on ethanol yield and provide a
basis for larger scale set up for ethanol production. The complete view of the unit designed for ethanol
production is shown in Error! Reference source not found.
Figure 1 here
The unit consists of the following components
Reactor
Stirrer
Water Tanks
Pump (centrifugal pump)
Heater
Copper tubes
PH meter
Oxygen meter
Wood stand
Reactor
This is the main part where fermentation occurs. Acrylic glass cylinder is used as a batch reactor with
a height of 16 inches, outer diameter of 8 inches and an inner diameter of 7.75 inches. The capacity of
the reactor is 7 liters. Acrylic glass cylinder was selected because it is transparent and can withstand
high temperature. The head of the cylinder has ports for a thermometer, air inlet, electric motor for
stirrer, PH meter, oxygen meter, hot water inlet and outlet
Figure 2 here
Stirrer
Stirrer is used for proper mixing of the reactants to maximize the conversion. Stirrer consists of stir
bar with an impeller diameter of 3/4 inches .Stir bar spins by an electric motor. A 12 volt DC motor is
used for this purpose. An adapter is used for converting AC current to DC for the motor.
Figure 3 here
Water Tanks
Temperature is maintained in the reactor through hot water circulation Two Water tanks are used for
circulating hot water in the reactor one for the inflow and other for the outflow. The tanks are
connected to one another through pipes and ball valve.
Figure 4 here
Pump
A centrifugal pump is used for pumping hot water from water tanks to the reactor.
Figure 5 here
Heater
The electric rod heater is used in the water tank which supplies hot water to the reactor.
71
Copper tubes
Hot water flows in copper tubes in the reactor for heat transfer between hot water and the reactants.
Figure 6 here
PH Meter
PH meter is used to measure the PH of the Process.
Figure 7 here
Oxygen Meter
The dissolved Oxygen is measured in the process through an Oxygen meter.
Figure 8
Wood Stand
Wooden stand is used to assemble all the parts of the unit.
Figure 9 here
Process Description
The raw materials used in experimental unit were sugar molasses and yeast. Molasses is the byproduct obtained from the processing of sugar cane into sugar. The strain of yeast selected was
Saacharomyces Cerevisiea and the sugar molasses was collected from Muree Breweries industry
Pakistan. Molasses selected was found to contain 40% sugar. The raw materials were inserted in the
batch reactor and they were allowed to react for 72 hours for the complete conversion of molasses to
ethanol. The sugar molasses react by the process of fermentation in the presence of yeast to produce
ethanol and carbon dioxide by the following reaction.
C6H12O6 yeast enzyme
2C2H5OH + 2CO2
The temperature, PH, stirrer speed and dissolved oxygen were measured during the reaction. The
concentration of the ethanol obtained from the reaction was measured by refractometer which
measures the concentration with the help of the refractive index of the solution. A simplified flow
sheet of the process is shown in Figure 10.
To study the effect of various parameters on ethanol production temperature, PH and stirrer speed
were varied one by one and the optimum conditions for maximum yield were identified. The
temperature of process was maintained through the heat transfer between hot water flowing in the
copper tubes and the raw material. The water was transported from the water tank to the copper tube
through centrifugal pump. Hot water entered the reactor from the first water tank, circulated inside
the copper tube and leaves from the other end of the second water tank as shown in Figure 11 and
Figure 12. The two tanks were connected through the pipe and ball valve so that the water can be
reused. A bypass valve from the exit of the first tank to its entrance allows the reheat of the water if
needed. PH of the process was maintained by adding acid or base to the reactants. Mixing, PH and
temperature effects on the process were studied by varying these parameters. A complete unit design
and process flow sheet is shown in Figure 11 and Figure 12.
Figure 10, Figure 11 and Figure 12 here
The three parameters selected i.e. Temperature, pH and mixing effect were changed one by one and
their effects were studied. Figure 13, Figure 14 and Figure 15 shows the effect of these parameters on
the ethanol production. The ethanol concentration increases with increase in temperature till 30 C
and then increases steadily till 37C, after 37C the concentration of ethanol starts decreasing rapidly.
This is because the yeast enzyme ceases their activity at higher temperatures. Similarly it can also be
seen from Figure 14 that maximum ethanol is produced in the PH range of 4.8 to 5 further increasing

72
the PH reduces the ethanol production. Hence the microbes use maximum sugar in slightly acidic
medium. Mixing slightly increases the productivity at 150 -155 RPM.
Figure 13 and Figure 14 here
CONCLUSIONS
A lab scale unit was designed for the ethanol production from sugar molasses. The design was found
to be relatively simple and provides a basis for larger scale set up of ethanol production. The raw
material used was the byproduct of the sugar industry, hence an effective method for utilization of the
waste was carried out on lab scale for producing ethanol. The experiments showed that the maximum
ethanol concentration was achieved at PH 4.8-5, temperature 30C37C, stirrer speed of 150 RPM.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors acknowledge the immense help received from the scholars whose articles are cited and
included in references of this manuscript. The authors are also grateful to authors / editors / publishers
of all those articles, journals and books from where the literature for this article has been reviewed
and discussed.
REFERENCES
1. Mustafa Balat, Havva Balat. Recent trends in global production and utilization of bio-ethanol fuel.
Applied energy 2009 Mar 12 ; 86 (11): 227382.
2. Kanji Harijan, Mujeebuddin Memon, Mohammad A. Uqaili, Umar K. Mirza. Potential
contribution of ethanol fuel to the transport sector of Pakistan . Renewable and Sustainable
Energy Reviews 2009 Jan; 13 (1) : 291-5.
3. Li-Wei Jia, Mei-Qing Shen ,Jun Wang ,Man-Qun Lin. Influence of ethanolgasoline blended fuel
on the emission characteristics from a four-stroke motorcycle engine. Journal of Hazardous
Materials 2005 Aug 31; 123 (1-3) : 29-34.
4. Valerie Thomas, Andrew Kwong . Ethanol as a lead replacement: phasing out leaded gasoline in
Africa. Energy Policy 2001 ; 29: 1133-43.
5. A A Brooks .Ethanol Production Potential of local yeast strains isolated from ripe banana peels.
African Journal of Biotechnology 2008 Oct 20 ; 7 (20) : 3749-52.
6. L.V.A. Reddy, O.V.S. Reddy . Rapid and enhanced production of ethanol in very high gravity
(VHG) sugar fermentation by Saccharomyces cerevisiae: Role of finger millet (Eleusine
coracana L.) flour. Process biochemistry 2006 Mar ; 41 (3) : 727-9.
7. Hongzhi Ma, Qunhui Wang , Dayi Qian, Lijuan Gong, Wenyu Zhang . The utilization of acidtolerant bacteria in ethanol production from kitchen garbage, Renewable Energy 2009 Jun ; 34
(6) : 146670.
8. Maiorella B.L. Blanch HW and Wilke C.R. Feed component inhibition in ethanolic fermentation
by Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Bio technology and Bioengineering 1984 Oct ; 26 (10) : 1155-66.
9. Yuya Yamashita, Chizuru Sasaki, Yoshitoshi Nakamura .Development of efficient systems for
ethanol production from paper sludge pretreated by ball milling and phosphoric acid.
Carbohydrate Polymer 2010 Jan 20; 79 (2) : .250-4

73
Figure 1 Experimental Unit for ethanol Production
Figure 4 Water Tanks
Figure 2 Reactor
Figure 5 Centrifugal Pump
Figure 3 Stirrer with accessories
Figure 6 Copper Tubes

74
Figure 7 PH Meter
Figure 9 Wood Stand
Figure 8 Oxygen Meter
Figure 10 flow diagram of the ethanol production process

75
Figure 11 Flow diagram of the Experimental Unit
Figure 12 Top view of the unit

76
Figure 13 Temperature effect
Figure 14 PH Effect
Figure 15 Mixing Effect

77
RAIN FADE SLOPE ESTIMATION

PROCESSING TECHNIQUES
USING
SIGNAL
Chandrika Panigrahi1, S.Vijaya Bhaskara Rao1, G. Rama Chandra Reddy2
ijcrr
Vol 04 issue 11
Category: Research
Revised on:02/05/12
1
2
Department of Physics, S.V.University, Tirupati

School of Electronics, VIT University, Vellore
E-mail of Corresponding Author: drsvbr@rediffmail.com
ABSTRACT
Fade slope estimations extensively depends on the rain type (convective/stratiform), drop size distribution
and the melting layer (bright band) height. Tropics show unusual changes in these parameters due to
occasional severe thunderstorms, cyclones and seasonal monsoon (SW and NE) currents. An ITU-R
prediction based on temperate climatic conditions often fails to estimate accurately rain attenuation and
rain fade slopes. Hence, precise experiments and data processing techniques in tropics are quite required
to compare the ITU-R results. In this paper we have taken up fade slope estimations over an operational
Ku band link in southern India using different signal processing techniques viz., time domain, frequency
domain and wavelet domain. For the first time biorthogonal spline wavelets are used to differentiate rain
fades to estimate the rain fade slopes. The results are significantly different from ITU-R predictions.
Keywords: Rain Attenuation, Fade Mitigation Techniques, Fade slope, Wavelets, Spline wavelets.
____________________________________________________________________________________
INTRODUCTION
Attenuation on Sat Com links is mainly due to
precipitation, Gaseous absorption, cloud
attenuation and scintillations caused by
refractive index fluctuations. Rainfall induced
attenuation is considered to be the major
propagation impairment on earth-space links,
operating above 10GHz. Fade Slope, defined as
rate of change of rain attenuation is an important
input for the control loop of propagation
impairment mitigation techniques.
In tropical climates, convective rainfall,
characterized by heavy, yet short lasting, events
contribute largely to the statistical behavior of
attenuation. The rainfall in India exhibits large
regional and seasonal variations. A pronounced
spatial and seasonal variation in DSD [1] is
observed during the southwest and north east

monsoon climates. Fade slope, termed as the rate
of change of the physical variable attenuation is
the steep rise or fall fronts of a substantial
duration due to a sudden impact or leaving of a
rain cell from the radio path. The rain cell edges
are characterized by multiple peaks of rain DSD.
Thus the rain fade slope characteristically
depends on rain drop size distribution. Hence it
is imperative to study fade dynamics in different
drop size distribution environment. With this
motivation the present study is intended to
explore the fade dynamics during the NE
monsoon period at MCF, Hassan, where an
operational Ku band link is monitored for this
purpose

78
Fade slope studies have received tremendous
importance owing to their significant role in
determining the tracking speed of the control
loop of the fade mitigation techniques. Fade
slope is a stochastic parameter varying with
time. A deterministic relation between
attenuation and rain fade slope is barred [2].
The statistical dependence of fade slope on
attenuation is investigated by [3-6] and modeled
in [6] which form the basis for the ITU-R model
[7]. Fade slope is elucidated to depend on
climatic parameters like rain type, horizontal
wind speed [6] and is also established to be
influenced by the dynamic parameters like the
filter bandwidth of the receiving system [6,8].
Fade slope also depends on frequency [9] and its
dependence on elevation angle is also reported
in [10]. The studies reported and those formed
basis for the ITU-R model are from temperate
regions of the world. The inapplicability of the
ITU-R models to the tropical regions is
investigated by [11-13] and they developed
model fits for their regions viz., for Japan [12]
and Brazil [13]. Considering the wide variability
of climatic conditions in the tropics, it is
imperative to develop models that fit for the
specific regions.
Current objective of the work is to provide the
fade slope characteristics of a tropical location in
India for NE monsoon season using time
domain, frequency domain techniques already
ascertained by [14-15]. In the case of wavelet
domain, method proposed for estimating fade
slopes using Daubechies wavelets is presented in
[16]. We are the first to apply the biorthogonal
spline wavelet differentiation to differentiate
rain fades to estimate the rain fade slope
profiles. The cumulative and dynamic statistical
analyses of the fade slopes are considered.
Database for fade slope statisitics:
Data collected from the satellite receiving
antenna available at Hassan, at MCF (Master
Control Facility) which is approximately 900m
above the sea level on the point of latitude

13.07N and 76.8E, and directed toward INSAT
3B on the geostationary orbit of longitude
83.5E is used for the studies.
Rain attenuation is obtained by subtracting a
reference level from the measured signal level.
The reference level is obtained by averaging the
entire received signal level data during no rain
term. It is seen that the normal signal level
during no rain term is -80dBm.
Rain
Attenuation thus obtained is superimposed by a
high frequency component, due to scintillations,
which is the rapid fluctuation in signal strength
due to variations in refractive index in the
troposphere.
Secondary statistics such as fade slope are not
derivable from primary rain fade statistics; it
must be extracted from the time series data. Rain
fade slope is measured from the attenuation time
series data obtained after low pass filtering.
Estimation of rain fade slope using signal
processing techniques:
Fade slope is estimated using different signal
processing techniques viz.,
time domain
method, Frequency domain method, Wavelet
domain method described for the case of
biorthogonal wavelets [18] to compare and to
estimate the bias in each case. Description of
each method is given below:
Time domain method:
Scintillations are filtered out by employing a
simple 10-point moving average window to the
attenuation data. The initial transients are
removed from filtered output and then delay
correction is made to obtain the attenuation time
series. It is observed that with increase in
window length high frequency scintillations are
smoothed out effectively, but the higher
attenuation values are also smoothed out and
their value is reduced significantly. Fade slope is
the time derivative of rain attenuation. In the
time domain method fade slope is estimated

79
from the filtered attenuation time series data
using,
(
i
)
A
(
i t
)A
(
t
)
dB
Sec
----------- (1)
2
t
where A is the attenuation, i is the instant of

time at which fade slope is estimated, and t is
the time duration over which the fade slope is
calculated.
Frequency domain method:
The attenuation data are smoothed out to filter
out the tropospheric scintillations by employing
a low pass filter. The bandwidth of the low pass
filter is determined by evaluating the attenuation
power spectrum. The frequency at which the
attenuation power spectrum begins to have a
slope of -20dB is considered as cutoff
frequency. Empirically cutoff frequency is
considered as 0.02Hz.
Fade slope is estimated in frequency domain by
performing the differentiation of the signal in
Fourier domain and then converting back to the
time domain by employing inverse Fourier
transform. Fade slope is estimated in frequency
domain using the following algorithmic steps,
I. If x(n), n=0, 1, 2.L-1 is the attenuation
time series data.
II. Obtain X(k) the N-point FFT of x(n) where
N is next power of 2 to the length of x(n)
III. Regarding the conjugate anti-symmetry
property of FFT, Multiply X(k) with j2f
where f k N to obtain P(k)
IV. The inverse FFT of the product P(k) is
taken and the redundant points for k>L are
removed to obtain the rain fade slope.
Wavelet domain method:
A Wavelet is a waveform of limited duration
that has an average value of zero. Wavelets are
functions defined over a finite interval and
having an average value of zero. The wavelet
transform is a tool for carving up functions,
operators, or data into components of different
frequencies, allowing one to study each

component separately. Wavelets are especially
useful in analyzing transients or time-varying
signals.
Discrete wavelet transform:
The Discrete Wavelet transform is a transform
with a discrete-time mother wavelet, (non-zero)
integer dilation parameter and a discrete
translation parameter. In CWT, the signals are
analyzed using a set of basis functions which
relate to each other by simple scaling and
translation. In the case of DWT, a time-scale
representation of the digital signal is obtained
using digital filtering techniques. The signal to
be analyzed is passed through filters with
different cutoff frequencies at different scales.
The Discrete wavelet transform is defined for
discrete scale parameter a of the form 2-s and
translation parameter b of the form k2-s , where
k,s Z . The CWT for these discrete parameters
is expressed as
s
s s
s
2
W
f
k
2
,
22
f
(
t
)2
tk
dt
(2)
If the function f(t) is a discrete function with a

sampling rate of 1, the above equation
transforms to
s
s s
s
2
w
f
k
2
,
22
fn
2
n
k
(3)
The above equation represents the Discrete

wavelet transform.
The Discrete Wavelet Transform (DWT), which
is based on sub-band coding is found to yield a
fast computation of Wavelet Transform. It is
easy to implement and reduces the computation
time and resources required.
Spline wavelet fade slope estimation is easier to
implement in signal processing domain than the
Daubechies wavelet fade slope estimation which
is a numerical differentiation technique.
Biorthognal wavelets:
Biorthogonal spline wavelets basis were
introduced by Cohen-Daubechies-Feauveau [17]

80
in order to obtain wavelet pairs that are
symmetric, regular and compactly supported.
Biorthogonal wavelets build with splines are
especially attractive because of their short
support and regularity. The symmetry and short
support properties are very valuable for reducing
truncation artifacts in the reconstructed signals.
In the most general case, the construction of
biorthogonal wavelet bases involves two
multiresolution analyses of L2: one for the
analysis, and one for the synthesis. These are
~
usually denoted by Vi
~x
where
and
i Z
and Vi
i Z
are the analysis and

synthesis scaling functions, respectively. The
corresponding analysis and synthesis wavelets
~x
and
x are then constructed by taking
linear combinations of these scaling functions
~
~
~
x
2 2kg
k
xk
(4)
x
2 2k
g
k xk
(5)
They form a biorthogonal set in the sense that
,~
j,l
i,k
(6)
i j,k l
i2
2x k
where i,k 2
This allows us to obtain the wavelet expansion
of any L2 function as
f
,~
i
,
k i
,
k
f L
,f
2
iZ
k
Z
The Attenuation data are decomposed using

biorthogonal spline wavelets. Scintillations are
removed by employing wavelet shrinkage
technique with sqtwolog threshold using
bior6.8 wavelet. The Analysis wavelet
~x
behaves like a
th
order differentiator
where is the order of approximation of the

corresponding scaling function [18].
The discrete wavelet transform is a fast
algorithm for discrete signal decomposition, but
is non-redundant. The draw-back of nonredundant transform is their non-invariance in

time. The stationary wavelet transform is a
redundant transform which makes the wavelet
decomposition time-invariant. Hence the fade
slopes are estimated using the stationary wavelet
transform to achieve time invariance.
Fade slope is estimated in wavelet domain by
following the algorithmic steps,
1. If x(n), n=0, 1, 2.L-1 is the attenuation
time series data.
2. The data is extended symmetrically in one
dimension for reducing the boundary effects
in the calculation of SWT.
3. The detail coefficients at level one are
multiplied by -1 to obtain the rain fade
slope.
All the above algorithms are implemented with
Matlab to obtain the rain fade slope profiles.
RESULTS
The dependence of fade slope on fade depth is
illustrated by the fade slope conditional
distribution. Joint statistics of fade slope, and
attenuation, A were generated by storing fade
slope values in bins of sizes 0.001dB/s and 1dB
for and A, respectively. A(t) values were
rounded within 0.5dB intervals. Lastly the bin
counts at each attenuation interval were divided
by the product of the total number of samples
and the bin size to obtain the probability density
function. The conditional probability density of
fade slope obtained, using time domain method,
frequency domain method and in wavelet
domain for different attenuation levels are
shown in Figures 1, 2, 3 respectively. The
statistical parameters calculated for the
corresponding fade slope conditional densities
are given in Tables 1, 2 and 3 respectively. The
fade slope distribution is observed to have time
symmetry from the median value calculated
from the distributions. Decreasing value of
kurtosis with increasing attenuation indicates the

81
fade slope distribution becomes flatter with
increasing attenuation. Skewness is decreasing
with increasing attenuation indicates that
distribution becomes symmetrical at higher
attenuation values.
It is observed that the descriptive statistics of
fade slope conditional probability distributions
obtained with frequency domain and wavelet
domain estimated fade slopes are in good
comparison from attenuation levels above 3dB.
The fade slope distributions are observed to be
leptokurtic and the skewness which is the
measure of symmetry of a distribution also
shown a good performance when obtained using
frequency domain estimation. Higher Kurtosis
observed in the time domain method and in
wavelet estimated fade slope conditional
distribution at 1dB, 2dB and 3 dB points out
higher variance of the distribution.
If we plot rain attenuation against rain fade
slope, this type of plot is referred to as a phasespace representation of the data, provides a
better visualization of the dynamics of the rain
fading than a simple time series of rain fade
slope. In this type of diagram, motion with time
occurs as a series of clockwise loops. If the rain
fade slope at a time is positive, then rain
attenuation is increasing, and in a phase space
diagram, A(t+1) must lie to the right of A(t).
Similarly, if the rain fade slope at a time t is
negative, the attenuation is decreasing and in a
phase space diagram A(t+1) must lie to the left
of A(t). In a phase space diagram any closed
0 , as it is
loop must lie across the line
possible to return to the same value of rain
attenuation by having a series of positive rainfade slopes followed by a series of negative rain
fade-slopes (or vice versa).
The typical plots of time series of rain
attenuation, fade slope and its corresponding
phase-space representations obtained using
wavelet, frequency and time domain methods
are shown in figure 4(a), 4(b) & 4(c)
respectively. From time series fade slope

profiles plotted, a less noisy profile is obtained
through wavelet method, a noisier profile is
obtained through frequency domain method and
a much noisier profile through time domain
method. The Fade slopes estimated in wavelet
domain method present less noise traces.
The phase-space plots of data obtained are
0 . The
closed contours across the line
phase-space plots obtained from the frequency
domain method presents too smooth plot due to
the filtering out of high frequency dynamics of
rain attenuation. Lower fade slope estimates of
time domain method even at higher attenuation
is better depicted from the phase-space plot of
data. From the phase-space representation of
fade slope, it can be observed that high
frequency dynamics of rain attenuation are
better depicted in the wavelet domain method in
comparison to the frequency domain and time
domain methods at higher attenuation levels.
Cumulative distributions of fade slopes
estimated using three methods are shown in
Fig.5 and a plot generated using RAPIDS, Fig.
6 (Radio Propagation Integrated Database
System) [19] simulated data for ITU R-model is
considered for comparison. It can be observed
that the 0.001% time exceedance of fade slope is
higher for the fade slopes estimated using
wavelet domain method. It can be visualized that
wavelet domain estimate of 0.001% time
exceedance of fade slope is higher than
frequency domain method though both give
instantaneous measure of the fade slope. It can
be attributed to the fact that wavelet estimates
are able to measure high frequency rain
attenuation and corresponding fade slope. The
time domain and ITU-R estimates are in
comparison due to the fact that both involve 10
sec time lag in the fade slope estimation.

82
CONCLUSIONS
Rain fade slope, an essential input for the fade
mitigation technique control loop is estimated
using three methods. Rain attenuation is
estimated by filtering in time, frequency and
wavelet domains. Considering the scintillation
removal, wavelet method offers better
performance over the frequency domain, which
is better in comparison with the time domain
method.
Rain Fade slopes estimated using wavelet
domain method are able to depict well the high
frequency variations of the rain attenuation as
wavelet method of differentiation offers good
performance
while
frequency
domain
differentiation induces high frequency spurious
signals inducing noise into the fade slope
estimations.
Wavelet domain method of fade slope
estimation offers advantages over frequency
domain method, as differentiation is stable in
wavelet domain rather than in frequency
domain. But from the phase-space plot at lower
attenuation levels the wavelet domain method is
depicting a bit noisier estimates, which may be
one of the reasons for higher standard deviation,
skewness and kurtosis observed from the
conditional probability density for the wavelet
domain method. Thus it can be considered the
thresholding technique employed for filtering
may need some modification for better
performance at all attenuation levels. Time
domain estimates of fade slope involve time lag
in the estimation. Thus we observe lower values
of fade slopes in time domain method when
compared to other methods.
The biorthogonal spline wavelet differentiation
is easy to implement in signal processing
domain compared to db wavelet filtering.
under RESPOND for providing Junior Research

Fellowship. We are thankful to S.V.University
authorities for providing facilities in the
Department of Physics, S.V.University, Tirupati
to carry out this work. We are thankful to Master
Control Facility (MCF), Hassan for providing
the data. Authors acknowledge the immense
help received from scholars whose articles are
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
One of the author is grateful to Advanced Centre
for Atmospheric Sciences, Sponsored by ISRO
8.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
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Radhakrishna B, Narayana Rao T, Narayana
Rao D, Prabhakara Rao N, Nakamura K and
Ashok Kumar Sharma. Spatial and seasonal
variability of rain drop size distributions in
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Sweeney G Dennis and Charles W Bostian.
The Dynamics of Rain-Induced Fades. IEEE
Trans Ant Prop 1992; 40 (3): 275-8.
Matricciani E. Rate of change of signal
attenuation from SIRIO at 11.6GHz. IEE
Electron Lett 1981; 17(3): 139-41.
Stutzman WL, B Nelson. Fade slope on 1030GHz Earth-Space Communication linksmeasurements and modeling. IEE Proc
Microw Ant Prop 1996; 143: 353-7.
Timothy IK, JT Ong and EBL Choo.
Descriptive Fade Slope Statistics on
INTELSAT Ku-band Communication link.
Electron Lett 2000; 36(16): 1422-4.
Van de Kamp MMJL. Statistical Analysis of
Rain Fade Slope. IEEE Trans Ant Prop
2003; 51(8):1750-9.
ITU-R P.1623-1. Prediction method of fade
dynamics on Earth-space paths. 2003-05; 17.
Matricciani E. Effects of filtering on rate of
change of rain-induced Attenuation.
Electron Lett 1982; 18: 477-8.

83
9. Rucker F. Frequency and Attenuation
dependent Fade Slope Statistics. Electron
Lett 1993; 29: 744-6.
10. Erkki T Salonen, Pasi AO Heikkinen, Fade
slope analysis for low elevation angle
satellite links, International Workshop of
COST Actions 272 and 280, Satellite
Communications- From Fade Mitigation to
Service Provision, ESTEC, Noordwijk, The
Netherlands, (2003).
11. Franklin FF, Fujisaki K, Tateiba M. Fade
dynamics on Earth-space paths at Ku-Band
in Fukuoka, Japan Fade- Slope Evaluation,
Comparison and Model. IEEE Ant Wireless
Prop Lett 2006; 5: 80-3.
12. Dao H, Md Rafiqul Islam, Al-Khateeb ASK.
Fade Dynamics Review of Microwave
Signals on Earth-Space Paths at Ku-Band.
Proceedings International Conference on
Computer and Communication Engineering
(2008): 1243-7.
13. Couto de Miranda E, Maria Christina
Quesnel, and LAR da silva Mello. Empirical
Model for the Statistical Characterization of
Rain Fade Slope in Tropical Climates. J
Microwave,
Optoelectronic
and
Electromagnetic Applications. 2009; 8(1):
143S-153S.
14. Van
de
Kamp,M.M.J.L.,
Climatic
Radiowave Propagation Models for the
design of Satellite Communications
Systems,
Ph.D.
Thesis,
Eindhoven
University of Technology, 1999.
15. Baxter PD, Upton GJG, and Eden D.
Revised method for calculation of fade
slope. IEE Electron Lett May 2001; 37(10):
658-60.
16. Baxter PD, Upton GJG, and Eden D.
Measurement of Rain-fade-slope: Fourier
and Wavelet methods. Open Symposium on
Propagation and Remote Sensing, URSI
Commision F, Feb 2002; 1-13.
17. A. Cohen, I. Daubechies and J. Feauveau.
Biorthogonal basis of compactly supported
wavelets. Comm Pure Appl Math 1992; 45:
485560.
18. Unser M, Blu T. Wavelet Theory
Demystified. IEEE Trans Sig Proc Feb
2003; 51(2):470-483.
19. Alain
Rogister,
D.
Mertens,
D.
Vanhoenacker-Janvier, Antonio Martellucci,
and Bertram Arbesser-Rastburg. RAPIDS:
RAdio Propagation Integrated Database
System, COST 280.
Table 1. Statistical parameters of the conditional probability density of time domain estimated fade
slope
Parameter
1dB
2dB
3dB
4dB
5dB
6dB
7dB
Mean
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
Median
0.0000
0.0000
0.0000
0.0000
0.0000
0.0000
0.0000
STD
0.0100
0.0104
0.0076
0.0032
0.0030
0.0032
0.0031
Skewness
24.3544
25.4722
24.5097
8.7236
8.0744
9.0453
8.7916
Kurtosis
635.8783
692.6396
655.7587
89.9883
80.2517
104.4850
100.7694

84
Table 2 Statistical parameters of conditional probability density of Fade slope obtained using
frequency domain method
Parameter
1dB
2dB
3dB
4dB
5dB
6dB
7dB
Mean
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
Median
0.0000
0.0000
0.0000
0.0000
0.0000
0.0000
0.0000
STD
0.0040
0.0042
0.0031
0.0017
0.0018
0.0019
0.0020
Skewness
9.7240
10.1831
10.1355
4.2518
4.5624
4.4103
4.6884
Kurtosis
102.7613
112.5274
117.5097
24.3351
29.8284
24.6513
28.6078
Table 3 Statistical parameters of conditional probability density of Fade slope obtained in wavelet
domain
Parameter
1dB
2dB
3dB
4dB
5dB
6dB
7dB
Mean
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0004
0.0003
0.0003
0.0003
Median
0.0000
0.0000
0.0000
0.0000
0.0000
0.0000
0.0000
STD
0.0149
0.0147
0.0090
0.0013
0.0011
0.0012
0.0011
Skewness
31.8818
31.6575
34.0755
5.2749
4.0659
4.7346
5.3833
Kurtosis
1024.37
1006.22
1216.12
38.7395
22.0730
29.4098
38.6667

85
Fig.1. Conditional Probability density of fade slope obtained using Time domain method as a
function of attenuation
Fig.2. Conditional Probability density of fade slope obtained using Frequency domain method as a
86
Fig.3. Conditional Probability density of fade slope obtained in wavelet domain method as a
Fig.4(a) Time series of Rain attenuation, Fade slope and phase-space plot of Oct 1304 using biorthogonal spline wavelets

87
Fig. 4(b) Time series of Rain attenuation, Fade slope and phase-space plot of Oct 1304 using DFT
method
Fig. 4(c) Time series of Rain attenuation, Fade slope and phase-space plot of Oct 1304 using Time
domain method

88
Fig.5 Cumulative distribution function of fade slope estimated using three signal processing
methods
Fig. 6. Simulated plot for CDF of fade slopes from RAPIDS

(Source: RAPIDS)
89
A STUDY OF GAMMA-GLUTAMYLTRANSFERASE (GGT) IN
TYPE 2 DIABETES MELLITUS AND ITS RISK FACTORS
Shrawan Kumar Meena1, Alka Meena2, Jitendra Ahuja3, Vishnu Dutt Bohra1
ijcrr
Vol 04 issue 11
Category: Research
Revised on:29/04/12
Dept. of Biochemistry, Jhalawar Medical College, And Hospital, Jhalawar (Raj)

Dept. of Biochemistry, Lady Harding medical college and hospital, New Delhi
3
Dept. of Biochemistry, Geetanjali Medical College and Hospital, Udaipur (Raj)
2
E-mail of Corresponding Author: drjitendraahuja@yahoo.co.in
ABSTRACT
Objective To study the Serum gamma-glutamyltransferase (GGT), other liver derived enzymes and
lipid profile in patients of type 2 Diabetes mellitus (DM) and find out the any correlation of liver derived
enzymes with diabetic related risk factor and association between enzyme level and blood sugar level in
diabetic and non diabetic subjects. Research Design and Methods This is a cross-sectional
prospective study in 60 cases of type 2 DM randomly selected from medical wards of a tertiary care
hospital and 30 age, sex matched controls. Blood sugar, Serum gamma-glutamyl transferase (GGT), other
liver enzymes like SGOT, SGPT, ALP, Lipid profile, BMI, waist circumference and prevalence of
obesity and hypertension were assessed. To define the type 2 Diabetes mellitus (DM) we used revised
criteria of ADA, 1997. Results GGT, Fasting Blood glucose and BMI increased statistically significant
(p<0.00l) in type 2 DM subjects when compared with the control subjects. Statistically significant
difference (p<0.05) in SGPT was found in subjects of type 2 DM. Comparison of other parameters like
BP, alkaline phosphates, PL, TG and VLDL were also found Statistically significant difference (p<0.01).
Conclusions serum GGT level within its normal range predicted type 2 diabetes mellitus and may alter
the association between body mass index, lipid profile and type 2 DM.
____________________________________________________________________________________
INTRODUCTION
Gamma-glutamyltransferase (GGT) is located
on the external surface of most cells and
mediates the uptake of glutathione. It has been
found as a useful indicator of an early liver cell
damage or Cholestatic disease, due to alcohol
consumption. (1)
In addition to its diagnostic uses serum gammaglutamyltransferase (GGT)
has substantial
epidemiological
significance(2).Prospective
studies have shown a significant relationship
between serum GGT and the development of
specific conditions including coronary heart
disease(CHD) and stroke(3,4).
In addition to alcohol, obesity has been found

(5) to have a major effect on serum GGT and
there is increasing evidence (5-8) that linking
raised serum GGT levels with other metabolic
disturbance such as glycemic disorders,
hypertension, hypertriglyceridemia and low
HDL cholesterol.Non alcoholic fatty liver
disease obesity, insulin resistance and
hyperinsulinemia (9) are also closely associate
with elevated serum GGT. These interrelations
between Serum GGT with obesity and other
metabolic disturbance raise the possibility
which elevated Serum GGT levels can help in

90
predicting the development of metabolic
syndrome and type 2 diabetes.
Furthermore serum GGT showed a strong and
graded relation with diabetes which suggested a
role of GGT in the pathogenesis of diseases
(2,9,11).Now ,it is clear from several studies
conducted in past decades the raised Serum
GGT serves has an independent predictor for
type 2 diabetes mellitus.(2,6,8,10,11).
Keeping this in mind the present study was
planned to evaluate the role of GGT in Diabetes.
In Indian population such study was not
conducted so far. Indians has specific diabetic
phenotype which predisposes them to diabetes
even earlier than other populations.
MATERIAL AND METHOD
This study were carried out on randomly
selected 60 type 2 diabetes mellitus subjects in
age from 35 to 65 years visiting out patients
department of endocrinology and general
medicine of a tertiary level hospital. A
comparison was done with 30 age, sex; socioeconomic status matched healthy subjects
serving as control.
The questionnaire included age, gender, family
history of DM, hypertension and stroke, food
habit and physical, activity, social status, history
of medication and history of alcohol intake.
Anthropometric measurements like BMI, waist
circumference were recorded as they are two
important predisposing factors for development
of insulin resistance.
Sample collection:
Blood sample drawn from anticubital vein in
plan via from all subjects after overnight fast of
12-14 hours.Sample was analyzed for sugar,
bilirubin, enzymes and lipids.
1. Subject (Case) selection:(a) Inclusion criteria: Subjects having fasting
blood sugar level >126 mg/dl or subjects on
medication for DM.
(b) Exclusion criteria: alcohol abuse, obstructive
liver disease, hepatitis and presence of any
malignancy.
2. Control selection:(a) Inclusion criteria: (a) Subjects having fasting
blood sugar level <126 mg/dl.
(b) Exclusion criteria: Same as considered in
subject selection.
Statistical analysis-Comparison
were made
using unpaired student t Test, between mean
value of control group with those of diabetes
mellitus type 2 group. A p value of > 0.05 was
taken as insignificant < 0.05 as significant and
<0.001 as highly significant. Coefficient of
correlation r was determined between two
comparable groups with help of SPSS package.
RESULTS
The present study was carried out in department
of biochemistry at SMS hospital on randomly
selected 60 previously diagnosed patients of
type 2 diabetes mellitus and 30 age and sex
matched healthy volunteers served as control
and assessed correlation of GGT and other risk
factors.

91
Table no.1 Mean SD of various parameters of case and control group patients
Parameters
BMI
SBP
DBP
Glucose
SGOT
SGPT
ALP
Cholesterol
PL
TG
HDL
LDL
VLDL
GGT
Mean SD
Case
27.514.34
127.508.32
83.736.80
152.3166.41
28.078.79
32.9614.66
222.1956.72
185.2229.13
210.9738.87
198.33157.56
44.745.17
102.7527.64
39.6631.51
33.7313.57
Control
24.502.94
122.706.80
80.004.47
81.308.40
24.806.97
26.8010.80
189.749.38
176.2030.07
188.4034.85
131.1068.13
43.804.82
107.728.62
26.2013.63
19.504.74
P-Value
Significance
< 0.001
< 0.01
< 0.01
< 0.001
> 0.05
> 0.05
< 0.01
> 0.05
< 0.01
< 0.01
> 0.05
> 0.05
< 0.01
< 0.001
Sig
Sig
Sig
HS
NS
Sig
Sig
NS
Sig
Sig
NS
NS
Sig
HS
Abbreviations :BMI body mass index, SBP-Systolic blood pressure, DBP-Diastolic blood pressure,
SGOT-Serum glutamate oxaloacetate transaminase, SGOT-Serum Glutamate Pyruvate Ttransaminase,
ALP-Alkaline phosphatase, PL-phospholipids, TG-triglycerides, HDL-high density lipoprotein, Low
density Lipoprotein, VLDL-very low density lipoprotein, GGT- Gamma-glutamyltransferase.
controls. Fasting blood glucose was come
Table no. 1 shows that a high value of serum
across statistically significantly different (p <
GGT in type 2 DM subjects statistically highly
0.001) between case and control. SGPT is
significant (p < 0.001) when compare with the
another liver marker which was statistically
control group. Statistically significant difference
significantly different (0.05) between case and
(p < 0.001) in BMI was found in subjects of DM
control groups.
2 when compared with normal subjects.
Statistically significant difference (p < 0.001) in
BP was also found statistically significant (p<
alkaline phosphatase, PL, TG and VLDL were
0.01) in diabetic patient on comparison with
obtained in subjects of type 2 DM when
compared with normal subjects.
Table no.2 Correlations between GGT and other risk factors
Correlation
GGT vs. BMI
GGT vs. SBP
GGT vs. DBP
GGT vs. Glucose
GGT vs. SGOT
GGT vs. SGPT
GGT vs. ALP
GGT vs. Cholesterol
GGT vs. PL
GGT vs. TG
GGT vs. HDL
GGT vs. LDL
GGT vs. VLDL
r-value
+ 0.060
-0.123
-0.113
+ 0.329
+0.485
+0.387
-0.015
+0.060
+0.161
+0.325
-0.179
-0.273
+0.325
p-value
> 0.05
> 0.05
> 0.05
<0.05
<0.01
<0.01
> 0.05
> 0.05
> 0.05
< 0.05
> 0.05
> 0.05
< 0.05
significance
NS
NS
NS
Sig
Sig
Sig
NS
NS
NS
Sig
NS
NS
Sig

92
It was observed that there was a positive
correlation between GGT and BMI, GGT and
Glucose, GGT and SGOT, GGT and SGPT,
GGT and cholesterol, GGT and PL, GGT and
TG, GGT and VLDL. The correlation between
GGT vs. SGOT, SGPT, Glucose, TG and VLDL
was established to be good correlation. It was
also observed that there was a negative
correlation between GGT vs. BP, ALK, HDL,
and LDL.
DISCUSSION
DM is a very common clinical condition over 50
year of age in developed countries but the
prevalence of diabetes in India is 13-15 % and
expected to rise further .India has already
become the diabetic capital of world. Various
studies have been conducted and are in progress
all over the world for early detection and
prevention of DM.
The object of our study is weighing the
relationship of risk factor of DM 2 like HT, age,
BP, BMI, dyslipidemia and liver derived
enzymes.GGT is liver derived enzyme and our
aim to identify the role of GGT in DM2.
This study was conducted on randomly selected
60 type 2 DM patients and 30 age and sex
matched controls. In all subjects who were
selected for this study a through history taking
and physical examination was performed. Cases
and controls were investigated and all the
observations were analyzed.
This present study showed that the mean BMI of
the type 2 DM group was 27.51 4.34 while
that of control group was 24.5 02.94,
statistically significant difference (p<0.00l was
noted when comparison was made between
them. Bombellli M et.al.2011 also found
significant difference exist (p<0.0001) between
BMI of DM and control group (12). Correlation
between GGT and BMI were not significant
(r=0.060, P>0.05 in study group).
20 out of 60 (33.3%) in type 2 DM group and in

control group only 2/30 (3.3%) were
hypertensive. The mean SBP SD and DBP
SD in case and control groups were
127.508.32 / 122.706.80 and 83.736.80 /
80.004.47respectively which is statistically
significant different (p<0.00l) when comparison
were made between Type 2 DM and controls.
Duk-Hee Lee et al (2003) showed correlation
between BP and DM2 (13).The correlation
between GGT and BP were not significant (SBP
= r-0.123, DBP = r-0.1 13).
This study revealed that 34/60 subjects had
blood glucose >126 mg% out of which 12 had
abnormal GGT and 22 had normal GGT. 26 out
of 60 subjects were 70-126 mg% FBS in which
20 had normal GGT and rest 6 had abnormal
GGT.
The mean FBS SD of all subjects of DM2 and
control were 173.4157.31 and 81.308.40
respectively. Which was statistically significant
difference (p=0.01).Correlation between GGT
and BMI (r=+0.329, p<0.05) were significant in
study groups.
Hepatic dysfunction resulting from the insulin
resistance syndrome may contribute to the
development type 2 diabetes (14) Alanine
arninotransferase (ALT) is the most specific
marker of this hepatic pathology. Gammaglutamyltransferase (GGT) is considered to be
sensitive indicator of liver damage but if not
specific (15). Obesity also affects that GGT. A
number of Prospective studies (6,8,9,11,16,17)
have shown that S. GGT or ALT help predict the
development of type 2 diabetes independent of
obesity and alcohol intake. These are an
independent risk factor for the development of
type 2 diabetes and It is hypothesized that
S.GGT might be a marker for visceral and
hepatic fat deposition and, by inference, marker
of hepatic insulin resistance (4). A number of
cross-sectional studies (7) have since shown
relationships between GGT/ALT and the

93
metabolic syndrome and insulin resistance,
suggesting that GGT/ALT may serve as a
marker for insulin resistance. (18)
Several possible mechanisms, how serum GGT
increases the risk of type 2 diabetes. Elevation of
serum GGT could he the expression of an excess
deposition of fat in the liver, termed
nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. Fatty liver is
though to cause hepatic insulin resistance and to
contribute to the development of systemic
insulin resistance and hyperinsulinaemia. GGT
could serve as a marker of the insulin resistance
syndrome in the pathogenesis of diabetes.
Another possible mechanism is that GGT plays
an important role in antioxidant systems.
Experimental studies have reported that GGT
has a central role in the maintenance of
intracellular antioxidant defenses transport into
most types of cells. Hence, raised GGT
concentrations could be a marker of oxidative
stress, which might also pay a role in the cause
and development of diabetes. Other studies
suggested that elevated serum GGT could be the
expression of subclinical inflammation which
also contributes to the development of type 2
diabetes. (19)
Nakanishi et al (2003) said that the risk for
development of IFG or type 2 diabetes increased
in a dose-dependent manner as serum GGT
increased in middle-aged Japanese men. The
increased relative risk for IFG or more
pronounced in obese men. (8)
Noriyuki et al (2004) revealed with adjustment
for age, family history of diabetes. BMI alcohol
intake, cigarette smoking, regular physical
activity (fasting plasma glucose the risk for type
2) and white blood cell (WBC) count, the risk of
metabolic syndrome an type 2 diabetes increased
in correlation with the levels of serum GGT,
ALT aspartate aminotransferase (AST) and
alkaline phosphatase.These concluded serum
GGT may be an important predictor for
developing metabolic syndrome and type-2

diabetes in middle aged Japanese men. (10)
A.O. Rantala et al (2000) revealed that
significant association between GGT and the
components of the metabolic syndrome.
Elevated levels of GGT may not always indicate
increased alcohol consumption, but may also
suggest the existence of the metabolic syndrome
with its subsequent deleterious consequences.
(7)
Lee DH, et al (2005): GGT within the
physiologic range predicted microalbuminuria
among patients with hypertension or diabetes
and may act as a predictor of microvascular and
/ or renal complications in these vulnerable
groups. (20).
Up to 57% diabetics, especially those with
vascular Complications have raised Gamma glutamyltransferase activities. Such rises occur
in the absence of liver disease, and the
possibility of enzyme induction was put forward
after a study of a group of serum enzyme values,
such as alkaline phosphatase and glucose 6phosphatase with increased activity in some
diabetic patients. (15)
Serum GGT showed a strong and graded
relation with DM (Messinger et al 2005).
(19)Association between serum GGT and risk
for diabetes Perry et. al. has recently
demonstrated that a raised serum GGT is an
independent risk factor for the development of
type 2 DM.(6)
Out of 60 subjects in DM2 group 1 had
abnormal SGOT and GGT and rest 59 had
normal SGOT.All controls had normal GGT and
SGOT.The mean SGOT SD of all subjects of
DM2 and controls were 28.078.79 and
24.806.97 respectively. Taken together,
statistically insignificant difference (p>0.05)
was noted when comparison were made between
type 2 DM and control. Correlation between
GGT and SGOT were significant (r=+0.485,
p=<0.Ol).

94
Association between other liver enzyme SGOT,
SGPT and ALP and development of IFG or type
2 DM have also been observed by Perry et al
1998 and Nakanishi et al 2003 (6,8).
The mean SGPTSD of all subjects of DM2 and
controls were 32.9614.66 and 26.8010.80
respectively. Comparison were made between
diabetes mellitus type 2 and control groups,
statistically significant difference (p<0.01) was
noted. Correlation between GGT and ALP were
not significant (r=-O.015, I p>0.05) in our study
group.
The mean PL SD subjects of DM2 and control
were 2 10.9738.87 and 188.4034.85
respectively. Which was statistically significant
difference (p<0.01). The mean TG SD subjects
of DM2 and control were 198.33157.56 and
131.1068.13 respectively. The mean TG SD
were also showed statistically significant
difference (p<0.001). Lee et al (2003), observed
association between serum GGT and high
fasting TG, high blood cholesterol and low
blood HDL (11). But in our study observed that
the correlations were normal between serum
GGT v/s TG and serum GGT v/s VLDL.
In conclusion, above study recommend that
serum GGT is a superior predictor of type 2
diabetes, irrespective of alcohol consumption.
We hypothesize that it might be had some role in
the pathogenesis in diabetes. The first
explanation it might be related with oxidative
stress and secondly associations of obesity
(BMI) with diabetes may be modified by serum
GGT level. For the prophecy of type 2 diabetes
in obese subjects, it may be helpful to establish
serum GGT because it is simple, easy and
economical to measure and modifies the obesity
related type 2 diabetes risk.
are also grateful to authors / editors / publishers

of all those articles, journals and books from
where the literature for this article has been
reviewed and discussed.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We acknowledge the immense help received
from the scholars whose articles are cited and
included in references of this manuscript. We
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1185-91.

96
PREVALENCE OF OVERWEIGHT AND OBESITY AMONG

WOMEN IN MADURAI CITY
C.Thilakam1, K.RethiDevi2
ijcrr
Vol 04 issue 11
Category: Research
Revised on:28/04/12
1
2
Dept of Home Science, V.V.Vanniaperumal College for women, Virudhunagar

Dept of Sociology, Mother Teresa Womens University, Kodaikanal
E-mail of Corresponding Author: thilagachakkrapani@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
Excess body weight poses one of the most serious public health challenges of the 21 st century globally.
Comparison of NFHS-2 (1998-1999) and NFHS-3 (2005-2006) data indicated that prevalence of obesity
among Indian women has elevated from 10.6 to 12.6 per cent with an increment of 24.5 per cent between
the years 1998-1999 and 2005-2006 and accordingly, TamilNadu ranks 4th in the order of prevalence of
obesity. Since obesity is more common among women than in men, a study on prevalence of obesity
among women in Madurai city was taken up. A total of 3012 women in age group 25-65years were
selected by simple random sampling method and the study indicated that the prevalence of obesity among
women in Madurai city is nearly, 11.4 per cent. Similarly, in the present study, aspects pertaining to the
socio economic profile of the respondents revealed that a high prevalence of overweight and obesity was
seen among Hindu respondents, married and those who were above 30 years, women with 1 or 2 children,
women who had college education were likely to be obese. Besides, housewives and other dependent
ladies in the family with sedentary nature of work, middle and high income, nuclear families and urban
residing women were more obese than their counterparts. Therefore the selected socioeconomic
parameter can be regarded as significant predictors of obesity.
Key words-NFHS National Family Health Survey, Std- standard
____________________________________________________________________________________
INTRODUCTION
Unhealthy lifestyle, food habits and other
substance abuse underlie much of the noncommunicable disease epidemics. Excess body
weight poses one of the most serious public
health challenges of the 21st century. During the
past few decades, prevalence of obesity has
grown to epidemic proportions and is regarded
as the major contributor to the global burden of
diseases (Koon, 2002). A growing number of
adults, children and adolescents around the
world, are facing the danger of becoming obese.
Obesity is more common in women, but men are

more likely to be overweight.
Comparison of NFHS-2 (1998-1999) and
NFHS-3 (2005-2006) data indicated that
prevalence of obesity among Indian women has
elevated from 10.6 to 12.6 per cent with an
increment of 24.5 per cent between the years
1998-1999 and 2005-2006 and accordingly,
TamilNadu ranks 4th in the order of prevalence
of obesity. Since obesity is more common
among women than in men, a study on
Prevalence of Overweight and Obesity among
women in Madurai city was taken up.

97
Objectives
1. To assess the prevalence of overweight and
obesity among women in Madurai city
2. To compile the socio-demographic profile of
BMI grade in the selected respondents
By simple random sampling method, 3102
women respondents in age group 25-65 years
were selected from hospitals, banks, offices,
Government and private schools and colleges,
business enterprises, NGOs and households in
and around Madurai city. Their anthropometry
measurements like height and weight were
recorded. All the samples were screened for
obesity by calculating their Body Mass Index
(BMI) using the universally accepted BMI
formula.
The total number of respondents (N=3102) were

categorized as underweight, normal, overweight
and obese based on WHO (1997) BMI
classification. Using proportionate stratified
random sampling method, 300 women in each of
the four BMI categories, i.e., 1200 women were
selected randomly.
Several factors have been linked to obesity that
significantly influence the prevalence of
overweight and obesity across different socioeconomic groups.
1. Prevalence of overweight and obesity
among women
Table 1 and Figure 2 portray the
distribution of respondents based on BMI.
Table 1 Distribution of respondents based on BMI

Body Mass Index (BMI) grade
Number
Per cent (%)
Underweight (< 18.5)
311
10.03
Normal (18.5- 24.9)
1644
53.00
Overweight (25.0- 29.9)
792
25.53
Obesity (30 >)
342
11.03
Morbid obesity (40 >)
13
0.42
3102
100.00
Total
Out of 3102 women respondents (age group of

25-65 yr) screened, significant portion (1644
respondents; 53%) were in the normal BMI. The
number of underweight respondents was 311,
corresponding to 10 per cent of the total sample.
As much as 792 respondents were in the
overweight category corresponding to 26 per

cent of the total sample. Likewise, 342 (11%)
were obese and 13 (0.42%) were morbid obesity,
indicating that the prevalence of obesity among
women in Madurai city is nearly, 11.4 per cent.

98
Figure 2 Percentage distribution of respondents based on Body Mass Index (BMI) into underweight;
normal; overweight; obese and morbid obese category.
2. General profile of the respondents
The general profile of the respondents in the
present study includes aspects such as religion,
age, marital status, number of children,
educational status, occupation, nature of the job,
total income of the family, type of family and
place of residence. The variables that
significantly contribute for overweight and

obesity were included in the general profile.
2.1 Religion and body mass index
Classification of the respondents (N=1200) into
different categories of body mass index (BMI)
grade based on religion was shown in Table 2
Table 2 Distribution of respondents based on religion and body weight

Religion
Under weight
(300)
Hindu
N
280
Muslim
13
Christian
%
(26.8)
(93.3)
(14.8)
(4.3)
(10.6)
(2.3)

Normal
Over
(300)
weight
(300)
N
%
N
%
230
(22.0) 275
(26.3)
(76.7)
(91.7)
45
(51.1) 12
(13.6)
(15.0)
(4.0)
25
(37.9) 13
(19.7)
(8.3)
(4.3)
Obese
(300)
N
261
18
21
%
(24.9)
(87.0)
(20.5)
(6.0)
(31.8)
(7.0)
Total
(1200)
(%)
1046
(87.2)
88
(7.3)
66
(5.5)
Figures in parenthesis indicates the percentage

99
A significant proportion of women respondents
were Hindu (87.2%) followed by Muslim (7.3%)
and Christian (5.5%) respectively. From the data
it could be observed that prevalence of obesity
among women significantly differed by religion.
Data of the present study fall in line with the
study conducted by Agrawal (2002) where
Hindu women were reported to be more
overweight and obese than Christian.
group of 40-49 year are more than 12 times as

likely to be overweight or obese as women in the
age group of 15-19 year. Whitney and Rolfes
(2002) indicated that adult in the age group of 25
-55 years gain an average of pound per year.
As age is one of the major determining factors of
obesity, it was decided to establish relationship
between age and body weight among the
respondents. Table 3 shows the distribution of
respondents based on age in relation to BMI.
2.2 Age and body weight

Mishra (2004) stated that overweight and obese
increase rapidly with age. Women in the age
Table 3 Distribution of respondents based on age and body weight
Age
Under weight
(300)
Below 27
N
136
28 to 48
125
49 and above
39
%
(54.2)
(45.3)
(19.1)
(41.7)
(13.3)
(13.0)

Normal
Over
(300)
weight
(300)
N
%
N
%
51
(20.3) 44
(17.5)
(17.0)
(14.7)
189
(28.9) 164
(25.0)
(63.0)
(54.7)
60
(20.4) 92
(31.3)
(20.0)
(30.7)
Total
(1200)
(%)
Obese
(300)
N
20
177
103
%
(8.0)
(6.7)
(27.0)
(59.0)
(35.0)
(34.3)
251
(20.9)
655
(54.6)
294
(24.5)

Based on the raw data, quartiles were calculated.
Using quartile values three categories of age
group were computed. In the overweight
category more women were in the age group of
28 to 48 years followed by those who were
above 49 years. The reason behind this fact is
that growing number of urban Indian women
aged 35+ are the victim of sedentary lifestyles,
rich food, lack of exercise and a gradual slowing
down of metabolic rate. Similarly, obesity is
more common among women (59.0%) in the age
group of 28-48 years followed by those above
49 years (34.3%). Average statistics show that
people who are between forty to forty-five are

twenty to thirty pounds heavier than they were
when they were twenty years of age. The present
data shows that over weight and obesity is high
among women in the 30 plus than among
women in the early fifties. While overweight
and obesity is least among women in the age
below 27 years.
2.3 Marital status and body weight
In women, onset of obesity is more common
during pregnancy and menopause. Table 4
portrays the distribution of respondents based on
marital status and body weight.

100
Table 4 Distribution of respondents based on marital status and BMI
Marital status
Under weight
(300)
%
(22.6)
(68.3)

Normal
Over
(300)
weight
(300)
N
%
N
%
177
(19.5) 273
(30.1)
(59.0)
(91.0)
Married
N
205
Unmarried
74
(42.1)
(24.7)
63
(35.8)
(21.0)
12
(6.8)
(4.0)
Widows and separated
21
(18.0)
(7.0)
60
(51.2)
(20.0)
15
(12.8)
(5.0)
Total
(1200)
(%)
Obese
(300)
N
252
%
(27.8)
(84.0)
907
(75.6)
27
(15.3)
(9.0)
176
(14.7)
21
(18.0)
(7.0)
117
(9.8)

In the present study, majority of the respondents
75.6 per cent were married, 14.7 per cent were
unmarried and only 9.8 per cent were widows
and separated women. However, in the
overweight category as much as 91.0 per cent of
the respondents were married followed by 4.0
per cent unmarried and 5.0 per cent widow and
separated women. Results of the present study
clearly indicate that women according to Indian
culture usually put on weight after marriage.
Data indicates that obesity rate is high among

married women (84.0%) than unmarried women
(9.0%). Based on the results of the present study
and the literature it is concluded that married
women are more likely to be overweight and
obese than unmarried women.
2.4 Number of children and body weight
Table 5 shows the distribution of respondents
based on the number of children and body
weight.
Table 5 Distribution of respondents based on number of children and BMI

Number of
children
Under weight
(300)
Nil
N
11
1 or 2
200
3 and above
15
Unmarried
74
%
(12.0)
(3.7)
(24.1)
(66.7)
(14.8)
(5.0)
(42.1)
(24.7)

Normal
Over
(300)
weight
(300)
N
%
N
%
17
(18.5)
35
(38.0)
(5.7)
(11.7)
199
(23.9) 244
(29.4)
(66.3)
(81.3)
21
(20.8)
9
(8.9)
(7.0)
(3.0)
63
(35.8)
12
(6.8)
(21.0)
(4.0)
Obese
(300)
N
29
188
56
27
%
(31.5)
(9.7)
(22.6)
(62.7)
(55.5)
(18.7)
(15.3)
(9.0)
Total
(1200)
(%)
92
(7.7)
831
(69.3)
101
(8.4)
176
(14.7)

101
It is interesting to note that out of 300
respondents in the underweight grade about 66.7
per cent of women have one or two children, 5.0
per cent have three or four children, only 3.7 per
cent had no issues. As much as 24.7 per cent in
the underweight grade were unmarried.
However, in the case of overweight and obese
grade slight variation was observed, among the
respondents, major share overweight (81.3%)
and obese (62.7%) were represented by
respondents with 1 or 2 children. Data indicates
that there is no relationship between the number
of children and the BMI grade. Similar data was
obtained by Krishnaswamy (2003) that in

women, obesity develops just around pregnancy
and after menopause.
2.5 Education level and body weight
Agrawal (2002) reported that educated women
are more obese and overweight when compared
to others.Several studies show association
between education and bodyweight, therefore, it
was decided to establish the same in the present
study. Table 6 portrays distribution of
respondents based on their educational level and
body weight.
Table 6 Distribution of respondents based on educational level and BMI

Educational level
Under weight
(300)
N
1-5 std
6-10 std
15
11-12 std
20
College level
265
(0.0)
(0)
(9.3)
(5.0)
(9.9)
(6.7)
(35.9)
(88.3)

Normal
Over
(300)
weight
(300)
N
%
N
%
30
(30.6)
22
(22.5)
(10.0)
(7.3)
44
(27.2)
58
(35.8)
(14.7)
(19.3)
78
(38.6)
56
(27.7)
(26.0)
(18.7)
148
(20.1) 164
(22.2)
(49.3)
(54.7)
Obese
(300)
N
46
45
48
161
Total
(1200)
(%)
%
(46.9)
(15.3)
(27.7)
(15.0)
(23.8)
(16.0)
(21.8)
(53.7)
98
(8.2)
162
(13.5)
202
(16.8)
738
(61.5)

Table 6 shows a high level of 54.7 per cent of
overweight women had college education and it
is surprising to see almost a similar 53.7 per cent
of obese women had college level education.
Overall data reveals that 46.3 per cent obese
women had only school education. Likewise
45.3 per cent of overweight women had only
school education which reveals social factors
such as low educational level also contribute to a

predisposition to obesity.
2.6 Occupation and body weight
It has been well established that occupation
significantly influences weight gain. Lifestyle
and status of an individual is determined by the
occupation. Table 7 indicates the distribution of
respondents based on occupation and body
weight.

102
Table 7 Distribution of respondents based on occupation and BMI
Occupation
Under weight
(300)

Normal
Over
(300)
weight
(300)
N
%
N
%
58
(28.2) 43
(20.8)
(19.3)
(14.3)
N
50
%
(24.3)
(16.7)
Executives/ Managers/
entrepreneurs
58
(21.7)
(19.3)
78
(29.2)
(26.0)
59
(22.1)
(19.7)
Workers-institutions/
business centres/ household
paid helpers/ labours
16
(14.4)
(5.3)
38
(34.2)
(12.7)
23
(20.7)
(7.7)
Housewives and other

family members
176
(28.6)
(58.7)
126
(20.5)
(42.0)
175
(28.4)
(58.3)
Teachers/professors/ clerks
Obese
(300)
Total
(1200)
(%)
N
55
%
(26.7)
(18.3)
206
(17.2)
72
(27.0)
(24.0)
267
(22.3)
34
(30.6)
(11.3)
111
(9.3)
139
(22.5)
(46.3)
616
(51.3)

Working status of women shows that more than
half (51.3%) of the respondents do not engage in
remunerative jobs. Among those working
women 17.2 per cent were by profession
teachers, professors and clerks, 22.3 per cent
were executives. Managers and entrepreneurs
and the remaining 9.3 per cent as workers in
institutions, sales workers in business centres,
household paid helpers and labours. From Table
7, it is clear that among those who were
overweight and obese a higher percentage of
them (58.3% and 46.3% respectively) were
housewives. Next to housewife, women whose
occupation is related to teaching profession and
clerical were mostly (14.3%) overweight and

(18.3%) obese due to its sedentary nature.
2.7 Nature of work and body weight
Globalization is also playing an important role
for modernization and sedentary life. In this
study respondents occupation were classified as
sedentary, moderate and heavy. Teaching,
clerical and work of house wives were
categorised as sedentary work, the work of the
administrators and entrepreneurs as moderate
work and the last category viz., paid helpers,
scavengers and cleaners work as heavy.
Table 8 reveals the distribution of respondents
based on their nature of work and body weight.

103
Table 8 Distribution of respondents based on the nature of work and BMI
Type of work
Under weight
(300)
Sedentary
N
129
%
(18.0)
(43.0)
Moderate
171
(40.7)
(57.0)
(0.0)
(0.0)
Heavy work

Normal
Over
(300)
weight
(300)
N
%
N
%
173
(24.1)
222
(31.0)
(57.7)
(74.0)
81
46
Obese
(300)
N
193
Total
(1200)
(%)
%
(26.9)
(64.3)
717
(59.8)
(19.3)
(27.0)
78
(18.6)
(26.0)
90
(21.4)
(30.0)
420
(35.0)
(73.0)
(15.3)
(0.0)
(0.0)
17
(27.0)
(5.7)
63
(5.3)

It is clear from Table 8 that among the total
respondents majority (59.8%) are engaged in
sedentary work, 35.0 per cent perceived their
work as moderate and among the low paid
workers only 5.3 per cent expressed that their
work as heavy when compared to other counter
parts. Among the overweight respondents
(74.0%) and obese (64.3%) a higher percentage
of women with sedentary type of work followed
by those who do moderate work. It is obvious
that under weight and overweight women did
not engage in heavy work as they are not fit for
it. Only 5.7 per cent of obese were in heavy
work because of their low educational status,
they were forced to work as labourers in spite of
their body weight. It is understood that from the
study that high percentage of overweight and
obese respondents were doing sedentary work

and thus it is concluded that sedentary work is
prone to overweight and obesity.
2.8 Monthly income and body weight
Obesity is more prevalent among people in the
lower socio-economic strata in the developed
countries where as in developing countries
obesity is a problem more common in the higher
socio-economic strata (Shah et al., 2004).
Likewise, Minna et al (2009) pointed out that
household income is the strong indicator and
predictor of obesity among women. Hence, it
was decided to relate income to obesity in the
present study. Table 9 portrays the distribution
of respondents based on their familys monthly
total income and body weight.

104
Table
9
total income
Distribution
Total monthly
income (`)
of
Under weight
(300)
N
<Rs. 10,000
67
Rs 10,000 Rs. 20,000
150
Rs. 20,000 >
83
(20.8)
(22.3)
(25.5)
(50.0)
(28.6)
(27.7)
respondents
based
on
their

Normal
Over
(300)
weight
(300)
N
%
N
%
124
(38.5)
75
(23.3)
(41.3)
(25.0)
164
(27.9)
154
(26.2)
(54.7)
(51.3)
12
(4.1)
(4.0)
71
(24.5)
(23.7)
familys
Obese
(300)
N
monthly
Total
(1200)
(%)
%
56
120
124
(17.4)
(18.7)
(20.4)
(40.0)
322 (26.8)
(42.8)
(41.3)
290 (24.2)
588 (49.0)
When the influence of total monthly income on

body weight was analysed, a positive correlation
between income and obesity was obtained.
Further, it was observed that as the income
increases level of obese also increases, however,
this relationship doesnt hold good for other
BMI grade. Further, distribution of the
respondents in this group pertaining to
overweight and obesity were 51.3 and 40.0 per
cent respectively. Results infers that women
from high socio-economic group whose total
monthly family income was more than Rs.20,
000 were found to be overweight (23.7%) and
obese (41.3%). Data indicates that substantial

proportions of women belonging to high
standard of living were overweight or obese.
2.9 Type of family and body weight
In the present era the concept of traditional
family is disappearing, globalization has
changed the lifestyle of women on the whole.
Preliminary data suggested that emergence of
nuclear family could be the influential factor in
the body weight. Hence, this aspect was taken
into consideration. Table 10 indicates the
distribution of respondents based on their type of
family and BMI.
Table 10 Distribution of respondents based on family type and BMI

Family type
Under weight
(300)
Nuclear
N
264
Joint
36
%
26.0)
(88.0)
(19.3)
(12.0)

Normal
Over
(300)
weight
(300)
N
%
N
%
252
(24.9) 267
(26.4)
(84.0)
(89.0)
48
(25.7)
33
(17.6)
(16.0)
(11.0)
Total
(1200)
(%)
Obese
(300)
N
230
70
%
(22.7)
(76.7)
(37.4)
(23.3)
1013 (84.4)
187 (15.6)

105
From Table 10 it could be inferred that nearly
84.4 per cent respondents were nuclear family
and the remaining 15.6 per cent were from joint
family. Analyses of the data revealed that
majority of the respondents were working
women. Madurai being a city the concept of
nuclear family is on par with the global trend.
Since, majority of the respondents were from
nuclear family system, among the obese
respondents more than three fourth women are

from nuclear family.
2.10 Domicile and body weight
Agrawal (2002), observed that percentage of
obese and overweight women are comparatively
high in urban than in sub-urban area. Table 11
shows the distribution of respondents based on
their domicile into various grades of BMI.
Table 11 Distribution of respondents based on their domicile and BMI

Domicile
Under weight
(300)
N
Sub urban
Urban
291
%
(2.9)
(3.0)
(32.8)
(97.0)

Normal
Over
(300)
weight
(300)
N
%
N
%
260
(83.0) 10
(3.2)
(86.7)
(3.3)
40
(4.5)
(13.3)
290
(32.7)
(96.7)
Total
(1200)
(%)
Obese
(300)
N
34
266
%
(10.9)
(11.3)
(30.0)
(88.7)
313 (26.1)
887 (73.9)

Majority of respondents in the underweight
grade (97%) and overweight women (96.7%)
were from urban area of Madurai. Overall
distribution of the respondents in the overweight
and obese grade into sub-urban and urban
domicile indicated that the distribution was 3.3
and 96.7 (over weight) and 11.3 and 88.7
(obese) respectively. Data of the present study
also proved that the prevalence of obesity among
women in urban residents of Madurai is high.
The association of obesity with urban-dwelling
is consistent with previous reports and was
found to be the most important determinant of
obesity.
CONCLUSION
In the present study, aspects pertaining to the
socio economic profile of the respondents
revealed that a high prevalence of overweight

and obesity was seen among Hindu respondents,
married and those who were above 30yrs,
women with 1 or 2 children, women had college
education were likely to be obese. Besides,
housewives and other dependent ladies in the
family with sedentary nature of work, middle
and high income, nuclear families and urban
residing women were more obese than their
counterparts.
Therefore
the
selected
socioeconomic parameter can be regarded as
significant predictors of obesity.
REFERENCES
1. Agrawal PK. Emerging obesity in Northern
Indian States: A serious threat for health,
Paper presented at the IUSSP Regional
Conference, Bangkok, 2002, 10-13

106
2. Minna K, Salonen, Eero Kajantie, Clive
Osmond, et al., Role of Socioeconomic
Indicators on Development of Obesity from a
Life Course Perspective, Journal of
Environmental and Public Health 2009, 7:
2009.
3. Mishra V, Effect of obesity on asthma among
adult Indian women. Intern J Obesi 2004,
28:1048-1058
4. National Family Health Survey, Mumbai:
International
Institute for
Population
Sciences, 2006; Data is shown in the order of
percentage prevalence of obesity among
females in different states of India.
5. Koon PB. Prevalence of overweight and
obesity using various BMI for age sanders
among younger adolescents in kulalampur.
Asia Pacific J Clin Nutr 2002, 20: 574-579
6. Krishnaswamy K. Dietary guidelines for

Indians a manual, National Institute of
Nutrition, Indian Council of Medical
Research, Hyderabad, India 2003
7. Shah SM, Nanan D, Rahbar MH, Rahim M,
Nowshad G. Assessing obesity and
overweight in a high mountain Pakistani
population. Trop Med Int Health 2004, 9:
526-532.
8. Whitney EN, Rolfes SR. Understanding
nutrition. 9th Ed. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth
2002
9. World Health Organization (1997), Obesity:
Preventing and Managing the Global
Epidemic: report of a WHO Consultation on
Obesity, Geneva.

107
BASE PRESSURE STUDIES FROM

NOZZLE FOR AREA RATIO 2.56
OVER
EXPANDED
Maughal Ahmed Ali Baig1, 2, Sher Afghan Khan2, E. Rathakrishnan3
ijcrr
Vol 04 issue 11
Category: Research
Revised on:29/04/12
Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University, Hyderabad, A.P.

Department of Mechanical Engineering, P.A. College of Engineering, Mangalore,
Karnataka
3
Department of Aerospace Engineering, I.I.T, Kanpur, UP
2
E-mail of Corresponding Author: mabaig09@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
The present paper aims at study of variations in base pressure at different levels of over expansion of jet
in a suddenly expanded axi-symmetric duct. The results of an experimental investigation carried out at
two different fixed levels of Over Expansion namely 0.277 and 0.56 are compared. The area ratio of the
present study is 2.56. The jet Mach numbers at the entry to the suddenly expanded duct, studied are 2.2
and 2.58. The length-to-diameter ratio of the suddenly expanded duct is varied from 10 to 1. Active
control in the form of four micro jets of 1mm orifice diameter located at 90 0 intervals along a pitch circle
diameter of 1.3 times the nozzle exit diameter in the base region are employed. In addition to base
pressure, wall pressure field along the duct is also studied. From the present studies it is found that at a
high level of over expansion micro jets are marginally effective. It is also found from wall pressure
studies that the micro jets do not disturb the flow field in the enlarged duct.
Keywords: Axi Symmetric duct, Micro jets, Base Pressure, Mach number, L/D Ratio
____________________________________________________________________________________
INTRODUCTION
Flow separation at the base of aerodynamic
vehicles such as missiles, rockets, and
projectiles leads to the formation of a lowpressure recirculation region near the base. The
pressure in this region is generally significantly
lower than the free stream atmospheric pressure.
Base drag, caused by this difference in
pressures, can be up to two-thirds of the total
drag on a body of revolution at Transonic Mach
numbers. However, the base drag will decrease
at Supersonic speeds and is around one-third of
the total drag. Whereas, the base drag is 10 per
cent of the skin-friction drag in the sub-sonic
flow as the wave drag will not be there.
Techniques such as base burning and base bleed
have been used traditionally to reduce base drag.
However, very few studies have been carried

with active control.
Here an attempt has been made to study the
problem with an internal flow. The experimental
study of an internal flow apparatus has a number
of distinct advantages over usual ballistics test
procedures. Huge volume of air supply is
required for tunnels with test-section large
enough so that wall interference will not disturb
flow over the model. `Stings' and other support
mechanism required for external flow tests are
also eliminated in the internal flows. The most
important advantage of an internal flow
apparatus is that complete static pressure and
surface temperature measurements can be made
not only along the entrance section to the

108
expansion(analogous to a body
projectile) but also in the wake region.
of the
Fig 1 Expansion of over expanded flow

LITERATURE REVIEW
Anderson and Williams [1] worked on base
pressure and noise produced by the abrupt
expansion of air in a cylindrical duct. With an
attached flow the base pressure was having
minimum value which depends mainly on the
duct to nozzle area ratio and on the geometry of
the nozzle. The plot of overall noise showed a
minimum at a jet pressure approximately equal
to that required to produce minimum base
pressure. Srikanth and Rathakrishnan [2]
developed an empirical relation for base
pressure as a function of nozzle pressure ratio,
area ratio and length-to-diameter ratio of the
enlarged duct. Rathakrishnan et. al [3] studied
the influence of cavities on suddenly expanded
subsonic flow field. They concluded that the
smoothening effect by the cavities on the main
flow field in the enlarged duct was well
pronounced for large ducts and the cavity aspect
ratio had significant effect on the flow field as
well as on the base pressure. They studied air
flow through a convergent axi-symmetric nozzle
expanding suddenly into an annular parallel
shroud with annular cavities experimentally.
From their results it is seen that increase in
aspect ratio from 2 to 3 results in decrease in
base pressure but for increase in aspect ratio
from 3 to 4, the base pressure goes up.
Rathakrishnan [4] investigated the effect of Ribs
on suddenly expanded axi-symmetric flows
laying emphasis on the base pressure reduction

and enlarged duct pressure field. Annular ribs
with aspect ratio 3:1 was found to be the
optimum and they do not introduce any
oscillations to the wall pressure field of the
enlarged duct, at the same time the increase in
pressure loss compared to plain was also less
than six per cent. Even for the case with passive
control the duct L/D in the range 3 to 5
experiences the minimum base pressure, as in
the case of plain ducts.
Khan and Rathakrishnan [5] studied the control
of suddenly expanded flow from over expanded
nozzles with micro jets for high supersonic
Mach number. The aim of their study was to
access the effectiveness of the micro jets under
the influence of adverse pressure gradient. Khan
and Rathakrishnan [6] conducted the
experiments for under expanded case for Mach
numbers 1.25, 1.3, 1.48, 1.6, 1.8, 2.0. All the
experiments were conducted for a fixed value of
level of under expansion (Pe/Pa = 1.5). They
found from their studies that the micro jets are
very effective whenever nozzles are under
expanded. Khan and Rathakrishnan [7] studied
the control of suddenly expanded flows for
correctly expanded case. They found from their
studies that the micro jets are not very effective
for correctly expanded case for Mach numbers
1.25, 1.3, 1.48, 1.6, 1.8, 2.0. There is a marginal
change in the values of the base pressure.
Another important phenomenon observed was
that even for the correctly expanded flow case
the flow is dominated by the waves. Earlier it
was believed that the correctly expanded flow is
free from waves. The effect of level of
expansion in a suddenly expanded flow and the
control effectiveness has been reported by Khan
and Rathakrishnan [8]. In their study they
considered correct, under, and over expanded
nozzles for four area ratio for the Mach numbers
1.25, 1.3, 1.48, 1.6, 1.8, 2.0, 2.5, and 3.0. They
conducted the tests for the NPRs in the range 3

109
to 11. From their results it was found that for a
given Mach number, length-to-diameter ratio,
and the nozzle pressure ratio the value of base
pressure increases with the area ratio. This
increase in base pressure is attributed to the
relief available to the flow due to increase in the
area ratio. Pandey and Kumar [10] studied the
flow through nozzle in sudden expansion for
area ratio 2.89 at Mach 2.4 using fuzzy set
theory. From their analysis it was observed that
L/D = 4 is sufficient for smooth development of
flow keeping in view all the three parameters
like base pressure, wall static pressure and total
pressure loss. The above review reveals that
even though there is a large quantum of
literature available on the problem of sudden
expansion, vast majority of them are studies
without control. Even among the available
literature on investigation of base flows with
control, most of them, use only passive control
by means of grooves, cavities and ribs. Only
very few studies report base flow investigation
with active control. Therefore, a closer look at
the effectiveness of active control of base flows
with micro-jets, especially in the supersonic
flow regime will be of high value, since such
flow field finds application in many problems of
applied gas dynamics, such as the base drag
reduction for missiles and launch vehicles, base
heating control for launch vehicles, etc. With
this aim the present work investigates the base
pressure control with active control in the form
of micro jets.
EXPERIMENTAL SETUP
The experiments were carried out using the
experimental facility at the High Speed
Aerodynamics Laboratory (HSAL), IIT,
Kanpur. Fig. 2 shows the experimental setup
used for the present study. At the exit periphery
of the nozzle there are eight holes as shown in
the figure, four of which (marked c) were used
for blowing and the remaining four (marked m)
were used for base pressure (Pb) measurement.

Control of the base pressure was done, by
blowing through the control holes (c), using the
pressure from the blowing chamber by
employing a tube connecting the chamber and
the control holes (c). Pressure taps are provided
on the enlarged duct wall to measure wall
pressure distribution in the duct. First nine holes
are made at an interval of 4 mm each and
remaining is made at an interval of 8 mm each.
Fig 2 Experimental Set

The measured data consists of the base pressure
(Pb), wall static pressure (Pw) distribution along
the length of enlarged duct and nozzle pressure
ratio (NPR) defined as the ratio of stagnation
pressure (P0) to back pressure (Patm). All
measured pressures were non-dimensionalized
with the ambient atmospheric pressure (i.e. back
pressure). In addition to the above pressures,
other parameters of the present study are the jet
Mach number (M), area ratio and L/D ratio of
the enlarged duct and fixed level of over
expansions. Area ratio discussed in this paper is
2.56 and the control pressure ratio is same as the
main settling chamber pressure ratio. This
investigation focuses attention mainly on the
effect of level of over expansion of 0.277 and

110
0.56 (i.e. Pe/Pa=0.277 and 0.56) and the
effectiveness of active control in the form of
micro-jets, located at the base region of
suddenly expanded axi-symmetric ducts, to
modify the base pressure for Mach 2.2 and 2.58.
Figure 3 presents result for Mach No. 2.2. It is
seen that the base pressure is insensitive to L/D
and also assumes high values (i.e. low suction).
As the level of over expansion decreases the
base suction decreases and base pressure
continues to decrease with L/D and attains a
minimum at L/D = 6 for Pe/Pa =0.277 and it is
L/D= 3 for Pe/Pa =0.56. The base pressure
minimum at L/D = 6 is in agreement with the
results of Rathakrishnan and Sreekanth [2], for
subsonic and transonic flow. The control is only
of marginal influence on the base pressure for all
values of L/D for highest level of over
expansion. Further, it is seen that when the level
of over expansion decreases the trend is
different, control results in decrease of base
pressure. It becomes independent of L/D for L/D
> 3. It is seen that, when the micro jets are
activated the base pressure assumes considerably
lower values compared to the corresponding
cases without micro jets. It is evident from these
results that, for Pe/Pa = 0.277 the control
effectiveness is strongly influenced by the jet
Mach number. The effectiveness increases with
increase of Mach number. Also, the
effectiveness is significant for L/D ranging from
3 to 6 compared to L/D range 6 to 10.
Fig 3 Base pressure variation with L/D at

M=2.2
Fig 4 Base pressure variation with L/D at

M=2.58
Figure 4 presents results for Mach number =
2.58. It is seen from the figure that there is
slightly different behaviour compared to the
behaviour at M = 2.2. Even for the lowest level
of expansion the base pressure comes down with
increase of L/D, showing a minimum at L/D = 6
for Pe/Pa =0.277 and it is L/D= 4 for Pe/Pa =0.56.
The tendency of base pressure coming down
111
with L/D becomes significant as the level of
over expansion decreases. Here again the control
is of marginal effect on base pressure. Further,
like M = 2.2, for M = 2.58 also L/D more than 6
does not influence the base pressure
significantly. However, at Mach 2.58 the control
is more effective compare to at Mach 2.2.
It is seen that for same level of
overexpansion, for a given area ratio, the
reattachment length for higher Mach number
will be higher. This will dictate base vortex
strength. If the reattachment length is such that
the vortex can be strong, this will result in large
suction. From the above results it is found that
these conditions are satisfied for Mach 2.2 and
2.58 for all level of expansion. Further, it is
evident that, Pb/Pa is the lowest for Mach
number 2.58 at the expansion level of 0.277. It
decreases with decrease of level of expansion.
When the micro jets are on, they entrain the
mass from their vicinity. It should be noted that,
the level of pressure at the base region depends
on the shock strength at the nozzle exit for the
present case of over expanded jets. However, it
is the combined effect of jet Mach number, the
shock strength and the location of the micro-jets,
which will fix the base pressure level. In the
present study the location of the micro-jets are
fixed. Therefore, for low values of area ratio the
micro jets are close to the base corner and away
from the base corner for higher area ratios.
Hence, for lower area ratio the micro jets will
counter the shock effect which tends to increase
the base pressure more effectively than for
higher area ratio. Hence, the vortex at the base
will be in a position to create more suction at the
base for lower area ratio compared to higher
area ratio. This appears to be the cause for the
control to become more effective at Mach 2.58
than Mach 2.2.
Measurement of wall static pressure
along the enlarged duct can be one of the best
possible ways to understand one of the major
problems associated with base flows i.e.

Oscillatory nature of pressure field in the
enlarged duct just downstream of the base
region. To study this wall pressure distribution,
tests are conducted with and without controls.
Fig 5 and Fig 7 indicate the behaviour of wall
pressure at over expansion level of 0.56 for
Mach 2.58 and Mach 2.2 respectively and Fig 6
and Fig 8 indicate the behaviour of wall pressure
at high level of over expansion i.e. 0.277. It can
be observed that the control is more effective at
lower level of expansion, i.e. at Pe/Pa =0.56 than
at Pe/Pa=0.277.
Fig 5 Wall Pressure Distribution at Pe/Pa=

0.56

0.277

112
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
1.

0.56
2.
3.

0.277
4.
CONCLUSION
It is evident that, Mach 2.58 influences the base
pressure more than the lower Mach numbers.
Also, at Mach 2.58, the micro jets have a
powerful influence on base pressure, taking its
value to low levels compared to without control
case. It is also found that Microjets which are
used as active method of controlling; do not
augment the wall pressure field in expanded
duct. Further it is seen that for higher level of
over expansion the base pressure is on higher
side as compared to that of over expansion level
of 0.56 for same L/D.
5.
6.
7.
REFERENCES
J. S. Anderson and T. J. Williams, Base
pressure and noise produced by the abrupt
expansion of air in a cylindrical duct,
Journal of Mechanical Engineering
Science, Vol. 10, No. 3, pp. 262-268, 1968.
R. Srikanth and E. Rathakrishnan, Flow
through pipes with sudden enlargement,
Mechanics Research Communications, Vol.
18(4), pp. 199-206, 1991.
E. Rathakrishnan, O. V. Ramanaraju, and
K. Padmanabhan, Influence of cavities on
suddenly expanded flow field, Mechanics
Research Communications, Vol. 16(3), pp.
139-146, 1989.
E. Rathakrishnan, Effect of ribs on
suddenly expanded flows, AIAA Journal,
Vol. 39, No. 7, pp. 1402- 1404, July, 2001.
S. A. Khan and E. Rathakrishnan, Active
control of suddenly expanded flows from
over expanded nozzles, Int. Journal of
Turbo and Jet Engines, Vol. 19, Issue No.
1-2, pp. 119-126, 2002.
S. A. Khan and E. Rathakrishnan, Active
Control of Suddenly Expanded Flow from
Under Expanded Nozzles, Int. Journal of
Turbo and Jet Engines, (IJT), Vol. 21, No.
4, pp. 233-253, 2004.
S. A. Khan and E. Rathakrishnan, Control
of Suddenly Expanded Flow from
Correctly Expanded Nozzles, International
Journal of Turbo and Jet Engines (IJT),
Vol. 21, No. 4, pp. 255-278, 2004.

113
8.
9.
S. A. Khan and E. Rathakrishnan, Nozzle

Expansion Level Effect on a Suddenly
Expanded Flow, International Journal of
Turbo and Jet Engines (IJT), Vol. 23, No.
4, pp. 233-258, 2006.
R. Jagannath, N. G. Naresh and K. M.
Pandey, Studies on Pressure loss in sudden
expansion in flow through nozzles: A
Fuzzy Logic Approach, ARPN Journal of
Engineering and Applied Sciences, Vol. 2,

No. 2, pp. 50-61, April, 2007.
10. K. M. Pandey and Shushil Kumar, Flow
through Nozzle in Sudden Expansion in
Cylindrical Ducts with Area Ratio 2.89 at
Mach 2.4: A Fuzzy Logic Approach,
International Journal of Innovation,
Management and Technology, Vol. 1, No.
3, August, 2010.

114
CONTENT VALIDITY OF A QUESTIONNAIRE TO ASSESS

THE
ERGONOMIC
KNOWLEDGE
OF
COMPUTER
PROFESSIONALS
ijcrr
Vol 04 issue 11
Category: Research
Revised on:12/03/12
Mohamed Sherif Sirajudeen, Umama Nisar Shah, Nagarajan Mohan,

Padmakumar Somasekharan Pillai
Yenepoya Physiotherapy College, Yenepoya University, Mangalore, Karnataka
E-mail of Corresponding Author: padhupt@hotmail.com
ABSTRACT
Background: Ergonomics is the scientific study of human work. The objective of ergonomics is to
obtain an effective match between the user and work station to improve working efficiency, health, safety,
comfort and easiness to use. Neglect of ergonomic principles brings inefficiency and pain in the
workplace. Objectives: The purpose of this study is to establish the content validity of an instrument
(Questionnaire) to assess Ergonomic Knowledge of Computer professionals using a rigorous Judgmentquantification process. Methods and Measures: The Draft Questionnaire composed of 35 items related
to Knowledge about Musculoskeletal disorders and its risk factors, Working Postures, Seating,
Keyboard/Mouse, Monitor, Table and Accessories and finally Rest breaks and Exercises. A panel of 9
experts validated the Draft Ergonomic Knowledge Questionnaire. After all correspondence was received
regarding Content validity for each item, The Content Validity Index (CVI) is calculated by tallying the
results of the experts based on the degree to which the experts agree on the relevance and clarity of the
items. Finally, a Focus group was held to evaluate the instrument for overall comprehensiveness. Results:
Results from the panel of experts yielded a 0.98 overall Content validity index. Few experts suggested
minor revisions regarding the clarity or wording of the items, and those revisions were incorporated into
the instrument. Conclusion: The process used to determine Content validity proved to offer consistency
and structure to the instrument development. High CVI scores were generated for the items judged
relevant to the content domain as well as for the overall instrument. The results support the Content
validity of this Questionnaire as a tool to assess the Ergonomic Knowledge of Computer Professionals.
Keywords: Content Validity, Ergonomic Knowledge Questionnaire, Musculoskeletal Disorders,
Computer Professionals.
____________________________________________________________________________________
INTRODUCTION
This article describes the process undertaken to
develop and validate a Questionnaire to assess
the Ergonomic knowledge of computer
professionals. Why is it important? Ergonomics
is the scientific study of human work1. The
objective of Ergonomics is to obtain an effective
match between the user and work station to
improve working efficiency, health, safety,

comfort and easiness to use.
Neglect of
Ergonomic principles brings inefficiency and
pain in the workplace. An ergonomically
deficient workplace may not cause immediate
pain, because the human body has a great
capacity for adapting to a poorly designed
workplace or structured job. However, in time,

115
the compounding effect of job and/or workplace
deficiencies will surpass the bodys coping
mechanisms, causing the inevitable physical
symptoms, emotional stress, low productivity,
and poor quality of work 2,3. These problems if
ignored can prove debilitating and can cause
crippling injuries forcing one to change ones
profession. The purpose of this study is to
establish the Content validity of an instrument
(Questionnaire) to assess ergonomic knowledge
of Computer professionals using a rigorous
Judgment-quantification
process.
The
Knowledge Questionnaire developed and
validated herein will be used for future studies
comparing Computer professionals Ergonomic
Knowledge with their actual Ergonomic
Practice.
Overview
Content validity is a cardinal step in the
development of new experimental measuring
devices because it represents an initiating
mechanism for linking abstract concepts with
observable
and
measurable
indicators4.
According to Lynn Content validation is a twostep process beginning with the Development
stage and ending with the Judgmentquantification process5. The Development stage
requires an extensive review of the literature to
identify content for the instrument and constitute
relevant domains. In this study, the literature
review identified approximately 40 to 50 articles
on the subject of Computer Ergonomics and
Work-related Musculoskeletal disorders. After
the literature was reviewed the items were
constructed.
The entire instrument was
developed along with instructions and scoring
guidelines.
The Judgment-quantification stage requires a
Panel of experts, working independently, to
evaluate the instrument and rate items of
relevance according to the Content domain5. In
addition, item content and clarity, as well as

overall instrument comprehensiveness, are
evaluated in this stage. Berk recommends that
expert panel members should evaluate how
representative the items are of the Content
domain 6. As part of this process, expert panel
members should be requested to suggest
modifications for items that are not consistent
with conceptual definitions5. When estimating
Content validity, it is essential to utilize a
quantitative measure, the content validity index
(CVI)4,7,8. The CVI is calculated by tallying the
results of the experts based on the degree to
which the experts agree on the relevance and
clarity of the items.
Questionnaire
This research required drafting of an Ergonomic
Knowledge Questionnaire for use with
Computer Professionals. Approval was taken
from Yenepoya University Ethical Committee
prior to the commencement of the study.
Questionnaires and information from various
sources
were
reviewed9-11,
and
Draft
Questionnaire items were created. The Draft
Questionnaire composed of 35 items related to
Knowledge about Musculoskeletal disorders and
its risk factors, Working Postures, Seating,
Keyboard/Mouse,
Monitor,
Table
and
Accessories and finally Rest breaks and
Exercises.
The section related to Knowledge about
Musculoskeletal disorders and its risk factors
composed of 3 Multiple choice questions(MCQ)
and 2 True or False (T or F) questions related to
Definition of Ergonomics , Cumulative Trauma
Disorders, Goal of Ergonomics, Signs and
symptoms of Musculoskeletal disorders and its
risk factors. The Working Postures section
composed of 1 MCQ and 4 Tor F questions
related to Head, Neck and Trunk, Upper arm and
Elbow, Wrist and Hand, Thigh and finally Feet.
The Seating (Chair) section composed of 3

116
MCQs an 2 Tor F
questions related to
Adjustable back rest, Low back support, Seat
height, Seat pan and finally Base of the Chair.
The Key board/ Mouse section composed of 3
MCQs and 2 T or F questions related to Key
board level, Mouse Size, Mouse grip, Mouse
placement and finally Ideal Mouse pad.
The Monitor section composed of 3 MCQs and
2 T or F questions related to Monitors Position,
Level (Height), Tilt, Distance (From the User)
and finally presence of Glare. The Table and
Accessories section composed of 3 MCQs and 2
T or F questions related to Placement of
Telephone and Documents, Document holder,
Telephone Usage, Edge of Tables Top and
finally Leg room under the Table. The Rest
breaks and Exercises section composed of 3
MCQs and 2 Tor F questions related to
Periodically alternating Computer tasks, Micro
breaks, Mini breaks, Stretching and finally Eye
exercises.
Sample
A panel of experts was used to validate the Draft
Ergonomic Knowledge Questionnaire. The
Content validation process described by Lynn
was used5. The panel comprised of 9 experts
including
Orthopedic
Surgeons,
Physiotherapists, Research methodology expert,
Psychiatrist, Community health Physician and
Information technology expert. The panel of
experts was selected based on their knowledge
and experience in the area of Musculoskeletal
disorders and Computer Ergonomics.
Data Collection
A cover letter explaining the purpose of the
instrument along with Background, Aims and
Objectives of the study and instructions on how
to complete the criteria checklist were provided
to the panel of experts. The researcher verbally
explained the process to the panel of experts to
ensure understanding of the process. Informed
consent was obtained from the experts. The
panel was asked to review the items in the tool
and give their suggestions regarding accuracy,

relevance, and appropriateness of the content.
After all correspondence was received regarding
content validity for each item, a Focus group
was held to evaluate the instrument for overall
comprehensiveness. The objective of the Focus
group was to reach consensus on the overall
comprehensiveness of the instrument, that is, to
determine whether the experts felt the
instrument measured what it was intended to
measure.
RESULTS
The calculation or proportion that is sufficient
for determining content validity agreement was
searched in the literature. A CVI of 0.70
represents average agreement; 0.80, adequate
agreement; 0.90, good agreement and CVI of
1.00 indicates 100 percent agreement between
raters 4,5. According to Lynn, when there are six
or more judges, the CVI should be no lower than
0.78 for an item to be judged acceptable. CVI
was calculated for each item under 7 sections
(see Table 1-7) and for the overall instrument.
Results from the panel of experts yielded a 0.98
overall Content validity index. Few experts
suggested minor revisions regarding the clarity
or wording of the items, and those revisions
were incorporated into the instrument. Once all
items had been evaluated and all changes were
made, the revised instrument was sent to Focus
group to evaluate the overall instrument.
The focus group discussed the instrument for
overall comprehensiveness. None of the experts
suggested additional content or changes at this
time. Based on the CVI for each item as well as
that for the overall instrument, it is believed that
the instrument contains questions relevant to
Ergonomic
Knowledge
of
Computer
Professionals.

117
CONCLUSION
Content validity is a cardinal step in the
selection and administration of an instrument.
The two-step method used in this study,
consisted of a Developmental stage and a
Judgment-quantification stage, required a
comprehensive literature review, item creation,
and agreement from a specific number of experts
about the items and the entire instruments
validity. The panel of Experts was asked to
review the items in the tool and give their
suggestions regarding accuracy, relevance, and
appropriateness of the content. Finally a focus
group discussed the instrument for overall
comprehensiveness. The process used to
determine Content validity proved to offer
consistency and structure to the instrument
development. High CVI scores were generated
for the items judged relevant to the content
domain as well as for the overall instrument. The
results support the Content validity of this
Questionnaire as a tool to assess the Ergonomic
Knowledge of Computer Professionals.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Authors are grateful to the Panel of experts who
validated the Questionnaire. This project was
supported by Seed Grant for Research for
Faculty of Yenepoya University (YU/Seed
Grant/2011-012). Authors acknowledge the
immense help received from the scholars whose
articles are cited and included in references of
this manuscript. The authors are also grateful to
1.
2.
REFERENCES
Stubbs D.A. Ergonomics and occupational
medicine: future challenges. Occup Med.
2000; 50(4): 277- 282.
Murphy DC. Ergonomics and dentistry. N
Y state J. 1997; 63 (7): 30-34.
Palm N .Ergonomics OSHAS next

regulatory frontier? J Mich Dent
Assoc.1994; 76(5): 28-30.
4. Wynd CA, Schmidt B, Schaefer MA. Two
Quantitative Approaches for Estimating
Content Validity. Western Journal of
Nursing Research. 2003;25(5): 508-518.
5. Lynn M. Determination and Quantification
of
Content
Validity.
Nursing
Research.1986;35: 38285.
6. Berk R. Importance of Expert Judgment in
Content-Related
Validity
Evidence.
Western Journal of Nursing Research.1990;
12: 65971.
7. Anders RL, Tomai JS, Clute RM, Olson T.
Development of a Scientifically Valid
Coordinated Care Path. Journal of Nursing
Administration.1997; 27:45-52.
8. Summers S. Establishing the Reliability
and Validity of a New Instrument: Pilot
Testing. Journal of Post Anesthesia
Nursing.1993; 8:124-27.
9. Ocuupational
safety
and
health
administration OSHA VDT Work station
check list. United states Department of
labour (www.osha.gov).
10. Robertson MM, ONeill MJ. Reducing
Musculoskeletal Discomfort: Effect of an
Office Ergonomics Workplace and
Training Intervention. International of
Occupational
Safety
and
Ergonomics.2003;9(4):491-502.
11. Rizzo TH, Pelletier KR, Serxner S,
Chikamoto Y. Reducing Risk Factors for
Cumulative Trauma Disorders (CTDs): The
Impact of Preventive Ergonomic Training
on Knowledge, Intentions and Practices
related to Computer Use. Am J Health
Promot. 1997;11(4):250-253.
3.

118
TABLE 1: Content Validity Index (CVI) of Section - Knowledge about Musculoskeletal disorders
and its risk factors
ITEM
Definition of
Ergonomics
Cumulative Trauma
Disorders
Goal of Ergonomics
Signs & Symptoms
of MSDs
Risk factors for
MSDs
RATER
V
VI
1
1
I
1
II
1
III
1
IV
1
1
0
1
1
1
1
1
1
CVI
VII
1
VIII
1
IX
1
1
1
1
1
1
0
1
1
1
1
1
0.78
1 Agree, 0 Disagree or Need Modification

Table 2: Content Validity Index (CVI) of Section Working Postures
ITEM
Head, Neck and
Trunk
Upper arm and
Elbow
Wrist and Hand
Thigh
Feet
RATER
V
VI
1
1
I
1
II
1
III
1
IV
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
0
1
1
1
1
1
1
CVI
VII
1
VIII
1
IX
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
0.89

119
Table 3: Content Validity Index (CVI) of Section Seating (Chair)
ITEM
Adjustable
Back rest
Low Back support
Seat height
Seat pan
Base of the Chair
I
1
II
1
III
0
IV
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
RATER
V
VI
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
CVI
VII
1
VIII
1
IX
1
0.89
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
Table 4: Content Validity Index (CVI) of Section Key board/ Mouse

ITEM
Key board level
Mouse Size
Mouse grip
Mouse placement
Ideal Mouse pad
I
1
1
1
1
1
II
1
1
1
1
1
III
1
1
1
1
1
IV
1
1
1
1
1
RATER
V
1
1
1
1
1
CVI
VI
1
1
1
1
1
VII
1
1
1
1
1
VIII
1
1
1
1
1
IX
1
1
1
1
1

1
1
1
1
1
120
Table 5: Content Validity Index (CVI) of Section Monitor
ITEM
Monitors Position
Level of Monitor
Tilt of Monitor
Monitor distance
Presence of Glare
I
1
1
1
1
1
II
1
1
1
1
1
III
1
1
1
1
1
IV
1
1
1
1
1
RATER
V
1
1
1
1
1
CVI
VI
1
1
1
1
1
VII
1
0
1
1
1
VIII
1
1
1
1
1
IX
1
1
1
1
1
1
0.89
1
1
1

Table 6: Content Validity Index (CVI) of Section Table and Accessories
ITEM
Placement of
Telephone and
Documents
Document holder
Telephone Usage
Edge of Tables
Top
Leg room under
the Table
RATER
V
VI
1
1
I
1
II
1
III
1
IV
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
CVI
VII
1
VIII
1
IX
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1

121
Table 7: Content Validity Index (CVI) of Section Rest breaks and Exercises
ITEM
Periodically
alternating
Computer tasks
Micro breaks
Mini breaks
Stretching
Eye exercises
I
1
II
1
III
1
IV
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
RATER
V
VI
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
CVI
VII
1
VIII
1
IX
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1

122
OCCURRENCE OF GRAM POSITIVE BACTERIA AMONG
SAUDI CHILDREN WITH ATOPIC DERMATITIS
Mohammad Issa Ahmad1, Jalal Ali. Bilal2, Ahmad Al Robaee3, Abdullateef
A. Alzolibani3, Hani A. Al Shobaili3, Muhammad Shahzad 3, Ibrahim Hassan.
Babiker1
1
ijcrr
Vol 04 issue 11
Category: Research
Revised on:10/05/12
Department of Medical Laboratories, College of Applied Medical Sciences, Qassim

University, Buraydah- Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
2
Department of Pediatrics, College of Medicine, Qassim University, Buraydah, Saudi
Arabia
3
Department of Dermatology, College of Medicine, Qassim University, Buraydah,
Saudi Arabia
E-mail of Corresponding Author: mohdissa76@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
Objectives: to determine the occurrences of bacterial colonization of atopic dermatitis in children of
Qassim region in Saudi Arabian Methods. In a hospital-based study we collected 2 swabs, one from
lesional skin and the other from a healthy skin area as healthy control from 80 children with atopic
dermatitis. Isolation and identification were done by colony morphology, Gram stain and the automated
Vitek System. The majority of children were below 5 years of age. Results: The mean age was 1.4 with a
SD of 0.74. Bacterial colonies were grown from all patients in lesion and non-lesional skin with more
species in lesional skin. Gram positive cocci, bacilli and mixed colonies were grown. S. aureus, S.
hemolyticus, S. auricularis, S. warnerii, S. simulans, S. scurii, S. capitis, S. xylosus, S. cohnii and S.
hominis were more in the lesion whereas S. epidermidis was found to be more in nonlesional skin.
Enterococci, commonly Ent. Faecalis, Ent. Faecium and Ent. gallinarium were isolated mostly from
lesions. Other less common isolates were Corynebactericae as C. xerosis and C. minutissimum.
Conclusions: Bacterial colonization is more frequent in atopic dermatitis than in normal skin.
Staphylococcal species predominate. Streptococci, Corynebactericae and Enterococci are significant
inhabitant of atopic dermatitis.
Keyword: Skin lesion, Colonization, Atopic Dermatitis
____________________________________________________________________________________
INTRODUCTION
Atopic dermatitis is a chronic inflammatory
pruritic skin disease affecting children and
adults. The onset occurs in 45% of children
during the first 6 months of life, 60% during the
first year and before 5 years in about 85% of
affected individuals. The estimated prevalence
worldwide is ranging from 1% to 20% (1).
Treatment of atopic dermatitis accounts for a
significant amount of health service financial
resources, clinical time and place a burden on
the child, family and society (2). Atopic
dermatitis was found to be predominant in
children in Qassim region, Saudi Arabia (3). The

diagnostic criteria for atopic dermatitis had been
set by Hanifin and Rajka in 1980 (4). Bacterial
and viral infections often nonspecifically
aggravate
atopic
dermatitis
(5).
"Immunomodulatory pathways in atopic
dermatitis may have important implications from
a therapeutic point of view because patients with
atopic dermatitis may benefit from more than
just anti-inflammatory treatment in the future"
(6). Staphylococcus aureus infection was found
to be the leading cause of infection of atopic
dermatitis and that antibacterial treatment is

123
beneficial when children are clinically
impetiginized (7). Most studies focused on the
direct relationship between S. aureus and
severity of atopic dermatitis (7, 8, 9 and 10)
besides, the majority of the studies were
conducted in adult populations but literature on
whether other types of bacteria were involved is
not sufficient. Moreover, worldwide studies in
bacterial colonization especially gram positive,
apart from S. aureus, are scanty and particularly
no studies to determine colonizing bacteria in
AD young patients were done in Saudi Arabia.
The aim of this study is to determine the
bacterial colonization of atopic dermatitis
lesions in a group of children in compared with
control to healthy areas of the skin in the same
subjects.
heart infusion broth (Oxoid) and transported

immediately to the laboratory (11). These swabs
were then cultured on blood agar base (Oxoid),
Mc Conky agar, Nutrient agar, Mannitol salt
agar and incubated at 37 C for 24-48 hours.
The growth colonies were identified by Gram
stain, colonial morphology and biochemically by
Vitek system (BioMerieux 12) automated
machine with different incubation periods from
2 hours up to 24 hours according to the
manufacturers procedures (12). Records of
measurements were registered each hour starting
at hour zero to a maximum of 15 hours. Data
were entered and analyzed into SPSS statistical
software, version 16.0 (SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL,
U.S.A.). A P value of < 0.05 was defined as
statistically significant.

Patients and organisms
This cross-sectional descriptive controlled study
was conducted in different out-patient
dermatology clinics in Qassim University
affiliated hospitals during the period from March
2009 to February 2010. A total of 80 subjects,
all were children aged 6 months to 18 years with
AD were included after written informed
consent was obtained. The diagnosis of atopic
dermatitis which was made by consultant
dermatologists was based on the criteria of
Hanifin and Rajka (4). Children who had
concomitant immune system disease, severe
systemic infection, systemic heart and kidney or
liver diseases were excluded from the study.
Moreover, children on treatment by topical
steroids in the last two weeks or systemic
antibiotics in the last four weeks were also
excluded. Two skin swabs were taken from each
subject; one from the target skin lesion and the
other from the non-lesional skin which was
defined as healthy skin symmetrical to the target
skin lesion or at least 10 cm away from it as a
healthy control. Swabs were saturated by brain
RESULTS
The age ranged between 6 months and 14 years.
The majority of children were below 5 years of
age constituting 59 (73.75%) of the whole
sample. The mean age was 1.4 with a SD of
0.74. Males outnumber females comprising 61
(76.3%) (N=80) however, gender distribution
within different age groups was insignificant
(p=0.98).
Bacterial colonies were grown from all patients
of atopic dermatitis in both lesion and nonlesional skin. A total of 240 of different
bacterial colonies were grown from 80 subjects
with AD in contrast to 193 colonies from nonlesional or healthy areas of skin of the same
subjects. The lesion/non-lesion ratio of grown
bacterial colonies was 3/2.4. Bacterial species
were found to be more in the lesions than in the
non-lesional skin where 31 species were
recovered from lesions whereas non-lesional
areas yielded a count of 25 species. Out of 80
patients, gram positive cocci were found in 78
(97.5%) of the lesions and 77 (96.25%) of the
non-lesional healthy skin (p=0.001). Gram
positive bacilli and mixed colonies were also

124
isolated more from lesion than non-lesional
areas. Gram positive cocci were isolated from
both lesion and non-lesion in 77 (96.25%)
patients and in one patient (1.25%) in the lesion
alone, whereas 2(2.5%) patients did not grow
them in either lesion or non-lesional
areas of skin.
Staphylococci spp. was found in the lesions
more than in the controls. Those were S. aureus
(p=0.007), S. hemolyticus (p=0.004), S.
auricularis (p=0.003), S. warnerii (p=0.000) and
S. hominis (p=0.009). The following strains
were also grown more in the lesion than healthy
nonlesional skin: S. simulans, S. scurii, S.
capitis, S. xylosus and S. cohnii but this finding
is not statistically significant (table). The
exception was for S. epidermidis which was
found to be more in the nonlesional skin,
however this was also not significant (p=0.07).
Streptococci colonized 10% of both lesional and
non lesional skin. Isolated Streptococci were: S.
bovis in 3(3.8%) lesions and in 1(1.2%)
nonlesion (p=0.03); S. agalactiae was more in
nonlesional 3(3.8%) than in lesion 2(2.5%)
lesions (p=0.001) likewise S. viridians 2(2.5%)
in lesion and 1(1.2%) in nonlesion (p=0.02)
whereas, S. acidominimus and S. salivarius were
isolated only from nonlesions in 1(1.2%) and 2
(2.5%) respectively. Equal isolation for S.
pnemoniae was found in both lesion and
nonlesion areas but the finding is statistically
insignificant (p=1.0). ( Table1and figure1).
Enterococcus gallinarium were isolated only
in the lesion. Whereas Ent. Faecalis and Ent.
Faecium were isolated from both (table). Other
gram
positive
bacilli
isolates
were
Corynebacterium xerosis and Corynbacterium
minutissimum which were recovered from 10
(12.5%) and 3 (3.8%) lesions and 7(8.8%) and
1(1.2%) nonlesional skin respectively (p=0.002).
( Fig.1 and tab.1).
Discussion
Bacterial colonies in this study were grown from

all lesion and healthy skins of children with
atopic dermatitis. This was reported, in lesser
values, in a similar study which was done by
Alsaimaru et al 2006 the were found that 94.4%
and 86.36% grown of the positive culture in
lesion and healthy skin area from AD
respectively (9). However their study was
conducted in different age groups whereas ours
was primarily in children population. Moreover
Gong et al (8) was reported similar information
compared to our results by finding colonization
of bacteria from all lesions of patient with AD
but their results was not controlled by healthy
areas of skin as well as their patients was aged
group of 2 to 65 years. A lower positive culture
rate was shown by Farajzadeh et al (13) where
they detected a positive culture in 74% of the
lesion in children with AD. The reason for the
high colonization rate in all patients in this
study could be attributed to the chronic lesion of
atopic dermatitis despite sampling was taken
from exposed skin to the environment i.e. upper
limbs and face, which has a rate of occurrence of
the normal inhabitant of the skin (14). Moreover
no patient was receiving any antibiotic before
and during sampling.
Staphylococcal colonization of AD was reported
as common in many studies. Hill SE et al
isolated S. aureus from 68 patients out of
hundred who are all children (15). Gong J. Q et
al (8) reported more or less similar results in
adult population. Moreover earlier studies by
Leyden JJ et al and Ring J 1 yielded that S.
aureus is the most common skin infecting agent
in AD which was found in more than 90% of the
patients compared to 5% normal individual in
both lesional and non lesional AD skin (16).
Guzik TJ et al found, more or less, similar
results to ours concerning S. aureus but they also
studied colonization during exacerbation with
the finding of significant correlation between the
density of colonization and the severity of

125
dermatitis (17). S. aureus was isolated in
30(37.5%) lesional areas in contrast to 12(15%)
non-lesional in this study however, S. aureus is
not considered as normal skin resident (18). This
finding is in line with the above mentioned
reports but colonization of healthy skin is even
higher in our study. Variation of the occurrence
of S. aureus in uninvolved skin has been
reported in several studies (19). High
colonization of the healthy skin could be due to
contamination from lesional skin.
The most frequently isolated Staphylococci
species other than S. aureus in lesional AD skin
in our study were S. epidermidis 42.5%, S.
hemolyticus 37.5%, S. auricularis 23.8%, S.
warneri 21.2%, S. hominis 18.8%, S. scuri
11.2%, S. capitis 7.5%, S. saprophyticus 6.2%,
S. xylosus 6.2% and others. The isolation of
these species was lower in non-lesional skin,
with exception for certain species which were S.
epidermidis 58.8%; S. auricularis 23.8%, S.
hominis 18.8%, S. capitis 7.5%, S. aprophyticus
and S. xylosus; the later 2 species were isolated
each in the rate of 6.2% of the lesions. About 12
species of coagulase negative staphylocci are
commonly found on human skin and the most
abundant were S. epidermidis, S. haemolyticus
and S. hominis (20). We isolated 13 species in
this study. In contrast to Hoeger P. H. et al (21)
colonization was not equal in lesional and nonlesional areas but denser on the lesional skin of
our patients in most of the isolated species.
These species are known as part of the normal
flora which usually inhabits the perineum (22);
their isolation in the exposed areas of the body
may be due to matters of hygiene but whether
they are related to atopic dermatitis or not may
need further elucidation. Gong JQ et al results
(8) compared to ours was different in that S.
epidermidis was more in the lesional skin.
Hoeger H.P. et al (21) results, however, were
similar to ours regarding S. epidermidis which
they reported to be higher in the non-lesional

skin.
Streptococci are rarely seen on normal skin
especially -hemolytic streptococci (20). This is
attributed in part to the lethal effect of lipid on
them (14). The finding of almost 10%
colonization in both healthy and AD skin could
be attributed to atopic dermatitis. While we did
not specifically address the cause/effect factor,
our results do not support the rare existence of
streptococci in healthy or non-complicated AD
skin, nor did a previous report. However David
T.J. and Cambridge G.C. (23) reported recovery
of beta hemolytic streptococci in combination
with S. aureus in 62% of episodes of infection in
children with AD but not as colonizing agents.
Gram positive bacilli occurrence was not
significantly different between lesional and nonlesional areas of skin in this study. The
commonly isolated gram positive bacilli in this
study were C. xerosis and C. minutissimum
among others (tab.1). These strains are normally
colonizing areas of skin rich in lipids or sebum
such as the axilla (24) and in our study the
isolates were from exposed areas which are poor
in sebum. Some Corynbacterium species can
cause serious infection and may even cause
endocarditis (25).
In humans, Enterococci can be isolated from
almost 100% of faecal samples, with Ent.
faecalis being reported more commonly and in
higher numbers than Ent. faecium in most
studies (26). Enterococci species were isolated
from both lesional and non-lesional skin in this
study. However, no previous report of them
being as part of the normal microflora of the
human skin, they can be recovered from the
vagina and oral cavity and the carriage rate may
be increased in hospitalized patients (27).
Enterococci, especially Ent. Faecium can cause
epidemic of vancomycin resistant in clinical
settings (28) and multiple sites infection
resistant to multiple antibiotics (29). The

126
presence of enterococci species in atopic
dermatitis needs further verification.
CONCLUSION
Bacterial colonization rate is higher in diseased
as well as healthy skin of children with atopic
dermatitis but the colony count and colonization
with pathologic strains are more in atopic
dermatitis skin. Staphylococci, especially S.
aureus and S. epidremidis, predominate. There is
also high colonization rate with streptococci in
atopic dermatitis and equal colonization density
of gram positive bacilli. Enterococci and
Corynbacterium species were also isolated in
considerable proportion.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We thank the Deanship of Scientific Research,
Qassim University, KSA, for approving and
funding this study. Also Authors acknowledge
the immense help received from the scholars
whose articles are cited and included in
references of this manuscript. The authors are
also grateful to authors / editors /publishers of
all those articles, journals and books from where
the literature for this article has been reviewed
and discussed.
1.
2.
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128
Table1. Different bacterial species colonizing in lesional and non-lesional skin of children with
atopic dermatitis (N=80)
Bacterial species
% colonization of lesional skin
% colonization of non-lesional skin
P- value
Staphylococci
S. epidermidis
S. aureus
S. hemolyticus
S. auricularis
S. warneri
S. hominis
S. simulans
S. scurii
S. capitis
S. saprophyticus
S. xylosis
S. cohnii
S. lentus
42.5
37.5
37.5
23.8
21.2
18.8
15
11.2
7.5
6.2
6.2
3.8
2.5
S. bovis
S. agalactae
S. viridians
S. pneumonia
S. salivarius
S. acidominimus
3.8
2.5
2.5
1.2
0
0
Ent. faecalis
Ent. faecium
Ent.gallinarium
16.2
6.2
2.5
C. xerosis
C. minutissimum
12.5
3.8
58.8
15
21.2
17.5
13.8
20
0
6.2
12.5
7.5
10
6.2
0
0.07
0.007
0.004
0.003
0
0.009
0.281
0.095
0.161
0.33
0.76
0.178
-
1.2
6.2
1.2
1.2
2.5
1.2
0.03
0.001
0.02
1
-
17.5
7.5
0
0.001
0.002
-
8.8
1.2
0.21
0
Streptococci
Enterococci
Corynbacteriae

129

130
A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF COSMETIC REGULATIONS IN

DIFFERENT COUNTRIES OF THE WORLD WITH FOCUS ON
INDIA
ijcrr
Vol 04 issue 11
Category: Review
Revised on:26/04/12
Abdullah B J, Nasreen R, Ravichandran N

Department of Management, Jamia Hamdard, New Delhi
E-mail of Corresponding Author: abjs07sid@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
Cosmetics market is changing around the world dramatically. To do successful marketing one should
take care of different consideration such as the current market trends & demands, regulatory
framework & compliance requirements, efficacy, etc. Regulations of cosmetics and cosmeceutical
industry now a days more stringent. There are different regulatory bodies worldwide having their
own regulations to ensure safety of the cosmetic products. The major cosmetic market constitutes of
European Union (EU), United States of America (USA (RPA 2004)).The regulations in these
territories are used as a model for the developing world. India is quickly catching up the cosmetic
market globally and is following its own regulations. The body that governs the cosmetic market in
India is CDSCO (Central Drug Standard Control Organization) through the Drug and Cosmetic Act,
1940 and Rules 1945. The cosmetic definition, labeling, safety and stability studies and the legal
authority have their own impact on manufacture and sale of cosmetic products. In this research paper
we will discuss about the different rules and regulation that govern the cosmetic industry in different
countries throughout the world. A comparison has also been made on the basis of legal authority,
labeling, testing, safety and stability studies.
Key words: Cosmetic Regulations, Drug and Cosmetic Act, Current Amendments., Legal Authorities,
Labeling, Stability and safety.
__________________________________________________________________________________
INTRODUCTION
Cosmetic industry is one of the complex
industries. In this industry manufacturers and
distributors are facing new legislations more
than ever before. Today the cosmetic industry
makes use of new and advance technologies
that creates new cosmetics with more
properties. The increase demand of cosmetics
with more effectiveness has lead to increased
research in this particular area. The different
government bodies regulate the sales and
manufacture of cosmetics all over the globe.
Though there are many regulatory bodies
separately for each country but the aim of all
these regulatory bodies is same and it is to
ensure that the cosmetics should be properly
labeled and safe enough to use. In the United

States and the European countries the cosmetic
regulations are extensive since these are the
two largest markets in the world for cosmetic
products. In India also the cosmetic market is
growing with a growth rate of 15 percent to 20
percent annually which is two times as that of
the United States and European market
(source). Indian cosmetic industry is matured
enough and responsible to ensure the quality
and safety of its products. The Indian cosmetic
regulations are time consuming and much
complex. It is very important for importers to
take pre market approval before entry in India.
It is very important to understand the cosmetic

131
regulations of India since they are different
from USA and EU.
Directive vs. Regulation
A directive, by definition, is a legislative act
that serves to direct, indicate or guide. A
directive in the EU represents a guide that
every member country has to transpose into its
national legislation. However, because some
countries are stricter than others about
adoption of laws, sometimes rules are not
equally applied everywhere as intended,
resulting in the need to draft multiple versions
of the directive specific to each country. A
regulation is a legislative act that imposes clear
and detailed rules. A regulation is not required
to be incorporated into the national laws, but is
immediately enforceable in all member states.
Keep in mind, a regulation only needs to be
translated into the national language of the 27
EU member states. The EU Cosmetic
Directive (76/768/EEC) was originally issued
on July 27, 1976, as an initial means of
ensuring the safe sale and distribution of
cosmetic products within the EU Community
market. With a primary goal of protecting
overall consumer health, the Directive
included rules on the composition, labelling
and packaging of cosmetic products. But as the
cosmetic industry advanced, utilizing new,
groundbreaking technologies and innovations,
the legislation supporting it needed to
change/evolve, too.
On 30th November 2009 the Cosmetic
Regulation 1223/2009 was adopted, so as to
replace the EU Cosmetic Directive. The aim of
creating regulations is to implement a much
better approach to ensure the product safety
and faster enforcement, and only translation
into the languages of the EU member countries
is required. To further break it down, several
differences exist regarding notification
procedures, the level of standards addressed, as
well as labelling protocols for implementation
of the 76/768/EEC Cosmetic Directive.
Cosmetic products are subject to legislative
regulatory requirements in almost every
industrialized country, included Asian

countries. A cosmetic can generally be defined
as any substance or preparation for human use
for the purpose of cleansing, beautifying or
altering the appearance commonly to include
personal toiletry products (such as shampoos
and lotion), beauty products and fragrances),
certain cosmetics products (e.g. anti-dandruff
shampoo) classified as cosmetics in some
countries (e.g. as in the EU, China), in other
countries may be regulated as Over-TheCounter drugs (as for instance in the USA) or
Quasi-drugs (as in Japan).
Regulations applying to drugs are not
specifically adapted to the needs of cosmetics,
as they have been developed for products with
therapeutic properties. They can be more timeconsuming and expensive for manufacturers to
meet, and less flexible, but there is no evidence
that drug regulations lead to greater safety of
non-therapeutic products than cosmetics
regulations. In practice, similar key safety tests
are carried out on similar products, regardless
of their categorisation. Under drug regulations,
though, the form of information to be provided
and, in some cases, the way tests are carried
out, can be less focused on the needs of
cosmetics.
Full responsibility of the manufacturer for the
safety of products;
In-market
surveillance
by
regulatory
authorities;
No requirements for pre-market registration;
No restrictions on sales channels;
Good Manufacturing Practice guidelines
(non-legislative, and which may differ between
countries)
specifically
developed
for
cosmetics; and
Regulatory focus on product safety (rather
than efficacy).
Differences in Regulatory Frameworks
Differences in regulatory frameworks for
cosmetics have implications for stakeholders
because of the global nature of the cosmetics
industry. Global trade in cosmetics is
significant, and international companies

132
account for over 80% of cosmetics production
in the EU, (RPA 2004). Companies often seek
economies of scale by producing international
products that can be sold in all markets.
Differences in regulatory frameworks can
hinder this process, resulting in:
Reduced ranges of products available for
consumers;
Enforcement problems for regulators,
because products imported into their country
may not comply with local regulatory
frameworks; and
Increased costs, marketing delays and loss of
sales for manufacturers and importers.
Some of the most significant impacts arise
from the requirements applicable to products
categorised as over-the-counter (OTC), nonprescription or quasi-drugs. Constraints on
making changes to the ingredients used, and
the difficulty of obtaining approval for new
ingredients, limit the extent to which a single
product can be sold across markets. For
example, sun products and products with a Sun
Protection Factor (SPF) are categorised as
cosmetics (subject to positive lists of
ingredients) in the EU and Japan, as OTC or
non-prescription drugs in the USA, Canada
and (if they have an SPF over 4) in Australia,
and as functional cosmetics in Korea. In each
market, UV filters have to be approved on the
basis of safety before they can be used.
However, the nature and efficiency of approval
processes varies; file preparation and approval
takes a few months in Australia, 3-4 years in
the EU and 6-8 years in the USA. There are
also differences in labelling requirements and
permitted claims and different methods for
assessing SPF. The result is that only nine UV
filters, all older ones, are permitted in all
markets. This compares with a list of 26 UV
filters approved for use in the EU after
stringent safety testing. In the USA, only two
new UV filters have been accepted for use
since 1978; certain filters have been refused
approval in the past, despite US assessments
indicating that they are safe, because they have
not been used previously in the USA. These

differences act as a barrier to trade, as products
must be tailor-made for specific markets on the
basis of the regulatory process, rather than
safety concerns or consumer preference.
COSMETIC REGULATIONS IN
DIFFERENT COUNTRIES
Cosmetic Regulations in the European
Union
Introduction
The category cosmetic product, as defined in
the EU Cosmetics Directive (76/768/EEC) has
borders with a range of product categories,
including medicinal products, biocides and
medical devices. For example, skin creams
designed to moisturise the skin and protect it
from UV radiation are defined as cosmetics,
whilst anti-acne creams are defined as
medicinal products. Unlike the situation in the
USA, case law of the European Court of
Justice clearly states that a product cannot fall
within the definition of two product categories
at the same time. Case law1 also specifies that,
in classifying a product within one category or
another, account must be taken not only of the
definitions within the relevant legislation but
also of the characteristics of the products
themselves. The competent authorities and
legal systems within Member States have some
discretion in considering the classification of
products on a case-by-case basis. This has
resulted in some differences in the treatment of
products between Member States, but in
general the classifications appear similar for
most products. The Council of Europe (CoE,
2001) has also prepared an inventory of the
situation in various Member States with regard
to the classification of individual products.
Guidance is provided at national level, for
example, the UK Medicine and Healthcare
Products
Agencys
regularly
updated
guidelines set out criteria to help competent
authorities and legal authorities to determine
the appropriate category for a product. EU
cosmetic legislations are based on Council
Directive 76/768/EEC of 27 July 1976 on the

133
approximation of the laws of the Member
States relating to cosmetic products
(Cosmetics Directive). As in the U.S.,
manufacturers are responsible for ensuring that
cosmetic products comply with the law before
they are marketed. The manufacturer or
importer of cosmetics is responsible for
demonstrating that the product is safe for its
intended use. Regulations are enforced at the
national level, and each country in the EU has
an authoritative body that is responsible for
upholding compliance.
Definition of Cosmetic Products
The EU Cosmetics Directive defines a
cosmetic product as: Any substance or
preparation intended to be placed in contact
with the various external parts of the human
body (epidermis, hair system, nails, lips and
external genital organs) or with the teeth and
the mucous membranes of the oral cavity with
a view exclusively or mainly to cleaning them,
perfuming them, changing their appearance
and or/correcting body odours and/or
protecting them or keeping them in good
condition.
Pre-market Requirements
There is currently no requirement under the
EU Cosmetics Directive for registration of
cosmetic manufacturers or importers, or for
pre-market approval for cosmetic products
imported into or manufactured within the EU.
Article 7 of the Directive requires a simple
notification to the relevant Member State
authority of the place of manufacture or of
initial importation into the EU of cosmetic
products. Some Member States (for example
Belgium and Spain) also request notification of
products prior to marketing.
Labelling and Warnings
General labelling requirements are listed in
Article 6 of the Directive. Information that
must appear on the cosmetic product includes:
The name and address of the manufacturer or
person placing the product on the market;
The batch number;
Nominal net content;
The function of the product;

The date of minimum durability (if up to 30
months) or period after opening within which
the product can be used safely;
A list of ingredients in descending order
(including any of a list of 26 fragrance
allergens);
Usage precautions; and
Warnings for regulated ingredients.
The requirements of cosmetic labeling under
76/768/EEC directive are:
It should carry the name or trade name and
address or registered office of the
manufacturer or of the person responsible for
marketing the cosmetic product within the
Community and weight or volume of product
and any precautions and a distinctive
identification of the batch number or product
reference number. And the expression of
expiry date is divided to two types:
1) For products with a minimum durability of
less than 30 months: the date of minimum
durability indicated by Best used before the
end of ...;
2) For products with a minimum durability of
more than 30 months: the period of time after
opening for which the product can be used
without any harm to the consumer (this
information is indicated by a special symbol
representing an open cream jar);
Testing and Safety
The safety of cosmetic products placed on the
EU market is the responsibility of the person
who places the product on the market, assured
through in-market surveillance. In market
surveillance is the responsibility of competent
authorities designated by each Member State.
Producers or importers of cosmetics must
ensure that cosmetic products do not cause
damage to human health when applied under
normal or reasonably foreseeable conditions of
use. The 7th Amendment to the Cosmetics
Directive introduced a ban on animal testing of
cosmetic products from 11 September 2004
and a ban on animal testing of ingredients not
later than 11 March 2009 within the EU. It also

134
introduced a ban on the marketing of cosmetic
products tested on animals and products
containing ingredients tested on animals,
within the EU or elsewhere, not later than 11
March 2009. The Directive does not require
information on the safety of cosmetic products
to be submitted to Member State competent
authorities before a product is placed on the
market. However, manufacturers/importers
must retain information, accessible on request
to Member State competent authorities at all
times, on:
The qualitative and quantitative composition
of the product;
Physico-chemical or microbial specifications
of ingredients and finished product;
Manufacturing method;
Safety assessment by qualified person;
Existing data on any undesirable effects; and
Proof for certain claims made.
Cosmetic Regulations in the United States of
America
Introduction
The Food, Drugs and Cosmetics Act (FD&C
Act) defines two main categories of products:
Cosmetics; and
Drugs, including the specific sub-category of
over-the-counter (OTC) drugs, which can be
sold without prescription.
The definition of products as cosmetics or
drugs depends on their intended use, which is
established on the basis of claims made about
the product, consumer perception (which may
be established through a products reputation,
or the presence of ingredients with a wellknown therapeutic use. According to the
FD&C Act, a product may be regarded solely
as a drug, solely as a cosmetic or (in contrast
to the position in the EU) as both a drug and a
cosmetic. The latter are products that meet the
definitions of both cosmetics and drugs. This
may happen when a product has two intended
uses. For example:
An anti-dandruff shampoo is a cosmetic
because its claims indicate that the products
intended use is to clean the hair; but
It is also considered to be a drug because it

contains recognised anti-dandruff ingredients
and its claims indicate that it is intended to be
used to treat dandruff.
Products classified as both cosmetics and
drugs must meet the requirements of
regulations for both categories of products.
Definition of Cosmetics
The FD&C Act defines cosmetics as: Articles
(other than soaps consisting of an alkali salt of
a fatty acid and making no claims other than
cleansing) intended to be rubbed, poured,
sprinkled, or sprayed on, introduced into, or
otherwise applied to the human body or any
part thereof for cleansing, beautifying,
promoting attractiveness, or altering the
appearance.
In the USA, cosmetic products are not subject
to pre-market approval and companies are not
required to submit information on their
products or to register cosmetic manufacturing
establishments. Manufacturers or distributors
of cosmetics may, however, submit
information on their products voluntarily
through the Food and Drug Administration's
(FDA) Voluntary Cosmetic Registration
Program (VCRP). If a cosmetic manufacturer
files a product formulation with the VCRP, the
FDA can advise the company if it is
inadvertently using prohibited or restricted
ingredients. Manufacturers can thus correct
their formulations before attempting to market
them in the USA, thereby avoiding the risk of
having their products detained and/or denied
entry into the USA because of a prohibited
ingredient. Manufacturers may also report any
adverse reactions.
Cosmetic labelling is regulated under the
FD&C Act as well as the FPLA. According to
the regulations, cosmetics produced or
distributed for retail sale are required to carry
an ingredient declaration on their outer
package, while those not distributed for retail
sale (e.g. preparations used by professionals on

135
customers at their place of work) are exempt
from these requirements. Country of origin
labelling for imported cosmetic products is
required by the US Department of Commerce.
Cosmetic ingredients must be listed by their
established name (INCI names) as laid out in
the Cosmetics, Toiletries and Fragrances
Association (CTFA) International Cosmetic
Ingredient Dictionary. The regulations for
labeling of cosmetics in United States are
controlled by FDA under the authority of the
Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (FD&C
Act) and the Fair Packaging and Labeling Act
(FP&L Act). The label statements required
under the authority of the FD&C Act must
appear on the inside as well as any outside
container or wrapper.
Testing and Safety
The safety of cosmetic products in the US is
the responsibility of the manufacturer,
supported by an in-market surveillance system.
The FD&C Act prohibits the distribution of
adulterated and misbranded cosmetics and
requires that cosmetics must be safe for their
intended use before being placed on the
market. The Act authorises the FDA to
conduct inspections of cosmetic firms (on the
basis of complaints or suspicion of violation of
law) without prior notice in order to assure
compliance with the regulations. Although
there is no statutory process for reviewing the
safety of cosmetics ingredients, a voluntary
process, the Cosmetics Ingredients Review
(CIR), was established in 1976. The CIR is
funded by the CTFA, with support from the
FDA and the Consumer Federation of
America. It reviews and assesses the safety of
ingredients used in cosmetics and publishes the
results in the scientific literature. Ingredients
are selected for review on the basis of their
potential biological activity, frequency of use
in cosmetics and extent of skin penetration,
amongst other factors. The outputs of the CIR
have no legal authority, however, and the FDA
is not obliged to act on its findings. There are
no mandatory GMP requirements for
cosmetics; companies follow GMP guidelines

issued by the FDA as well as quality assurance
guidelines published by the CTFA. The FD&C
Act does not require that cosmetic
manufacturers or marketers test their products
for safety, the FDA strongly urges cosmetic
manufacturers
to
conduct
whatever
toxicological or other tests are appropriate to
substantiate the safety of their cosmetics. If the
safety of a cosmetic is not adequately
substantiated, the product may be considered
misbranded and may be subject to regulatory
action unless the label bears the following
statement: Warning--The safety of this product
has not been determined.
Current Amendments
On 2010 July 7 Human Resources (HR) 5786
seeks to amend Chapter VI of the Food, Drug
and Cosmetic Act, which concerns adulterated
and misbranded cosmetics, by adding a
subchapter on the regulation of cosmetics. It
introduced the Safe Cosmetics Act of 2010 for
amends the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic
Act to expand the regulation of cosmetics,
including requiring:
Annual
registration
of
any
establishment engaged in manufacturing,
packaging, or distributing cosmetics for use in
the United States;
New fees to provide for oversight and
enforcement of cosmetics regulations;
Ingredient labeling and disclosure of
information on ingredients; and
Adverse event reporting.
Cosmetic Regulations in Japan
Introduction
The Act specifies that, as in the EU, products
can only fall within the definition of one
category and thus have to comply with the
requirements specific to this category.
Cosmetics regulation in Japan is based on
different laws and ministerial ordinances
consisting mainly of the Pharmaceutical
Affairs Law (PAL). Ministry of Health and
Welfare Notification N.331 of 2000, which
states the standard for cosmetics; but also on

136
Notification N.1339 from the Director- General
of the Pharmaceutical Affairs Bureau, Ministry
of Health and Welfare, October 9, 1980 for the
Standards for Fair Advertising Practices of
Drugs, Quasi-drugs, Cosmetics and Medical
Devices. In Japan, for legal purposes,
cosmetics are divided into quasi drugs and
cosmetics. In the PAL quasi-drugs are defined
as items that have a middle action in the body,
and include those stipulated by legislation and
those designated be them MHLW. Quasi-drugs
stipulated by law are for example products
intended to prevent bad breath, body odour or
heat rush; to promote hair growth, prevent hair
loss, remove hair, or for the extermination of
mosquitoes or fleas. Quasi-drugs that are
designated by MHLW include for instance
sanitary cotton, permanent wave solution, bath
agents, products for improving chapped skin,
dry skin, and itching, medicated cosmetics,
therapeutic dentifrices, products for wound
disinfection or protection, disinfection for soft
contact lenses, etc. Cosmetics are intended to
use on the body, for cleansing, beautifying, or
increasing the attractiveness of the body, for
changing the appearance, and their actions on
the body are mild.
Under PAL, the term cosmetic applies to:
Products (other than quasi-drugs) designated
to be applied to the body by rubbing, spraying
or other similar applications with the aim of
cleansing, beautifying or making it more
attractive or modifying its appearance and of
maintaining the skin and hair in good
condition, to the extent that the action of the
product on the human body remains
moderate.
Prior to the deregulation in 2001, pre-market
approval was required for each cosmetic
product to be marketed in Japan. This
requirement has now been abolished and
cosmetic products are no longer subject to premarket approval. Under the new regulations,
companies are required only to provide
notification of the products brand name prior

to manufacturing or importing. Manufacturers
or importers of cosmetics are also expected to
have a licence granted by the authorities upon
inspection of the manufacturing site. This
licence must be renewed every five years.
Cosmetics must be labelled with the product
name, name and address of manufacturer or
importer, content volume, product number or
code and a list of ingredients.
Safety and Testing
Responsibility for cosmetic safety rests
primarily
with
the
manufacturer.
Manufacturers or importers are required to
check the safety of their products thoroughly
before they are placed on the market and to
maintain records of this. The health authorities
may require a manufacturer to substantiate
product safety. There are no official or
mandatory good manufacturing practices
(GMP) in Japan, although the Japanese
Cosmetic Industry Association (JCIA) has
published voluntary technical guidelines for
manufacturing
and
quality
control.
Furthermore
must
been
taken
into
consideration the Standards for Fair
Advertising Practices of Drugs, Quasi-drugs,
Cosmetics and Medical Devices. Notification
from the Director General of the
Pharmaceutical Affairs Bureau, Ministry of
Health and Welfare, October 9, 1980 set a
bunch of rules that aims at rationalizing the
advertisements
of
drugs,
quasi-drugs,
cosmetics and medical devices, while
preventing them from becoming falsified or
exaggerated.
A
person
who
puts
advertisements
of
drugs,
quasi-drugs,
cosmetics and medical devices, shall make
efforts to relay accurate information so that
users can use the product concerned properly,
and there are specific advertisement rules
related to names, to the manufacturing method,
to the effect or efficacy, performance and
safety, with the aim of protecting the customer
and the fair competition practice.

137
Cosmetic Regulations in Canada
Introduction
Legislation in Canada identifies two main
categories of products:
Cosmetics; and
Drugs (a specific sub-category of which is
non-prescription (or OTC) drugs).
Third category is also there which includes
health products from natural origin. Unlike in
the USA, a product can only be included
within a single category. The classification of a
product as a drug rather than a cosmetic
depends upon the claims made, as well as
whether it uses ingredients or combinations of
ingredients listed in Category IV monographs
(which recognise ingredients as being safe and
effective for non-prescription drugs).
Cosmetics are defined as: Any substance or
mixture of substances, manufactured, sold or
represented for use in cleansing, improving or
altering the complexion, skin, hair or teeth and
includes deodorants and perfumes.
This definition includes toothpaste (nonfluoride), skin lotions, cleansers, shampoos,
conditioners, hair dyes, personal care products
and soaps.
There is no requirement for pre-market
approval or registration for cosmetics. The
Cosmetic Regulations, however, require every
manufacturer to submit a completed Cosmetic
Notification form to the competent authorities
within 10 days from the day on which the
product is placed on the market. The
notification must include:
The name and address of the person or entity
identified on the product label;
The name of the Canadian distributor;
The product name;
The purpose of the product; and
A list of ingredients with the exact
concentration or range.
The list of ingredients is compared to the
Cosmetic Ingredients Hotlist, to ensure that the
product does not contain prohibited or
restricted ingredients (except in line with the

prescribed restrictions) or ingredients that
would classify the product as a drug. If there
are problems with ingredients, the company
can be required to reformulate the product, relabel it or register it as a drug. Cosmetic
notification does not, however, constitute a
product evaluation or approval procedure, and
does not indicate that the cosmetic meets the
requirements of the Food and Drugs Act and
Cosmetics Regulations.
The inner and outer label of a cosmetic product
is required to show:
The product identity in English and French;
The name and address of the manufacturer or
distributor; and
A statement of net quantity and any
necessary warnings or directions in English
and French.
Safety and Testing
Responsibility for cosmetic safety rests
primarily with the manufacturer. There are no
requirements for specific testing to be carried
out for cosmetics. Manufacturers may be
required to submit safety data on any
ingredient in response to concern arising from
its structural relationship to other substances
posing potential health risks, complaints or
other sources. The Consumer Products Safety
Bureau has the power to inspect any sites
where cosmetics are manufactured, packaged
or stored. There are no specific GMP
requirements for cosmetics manufacture;
however, the Canadian Cosmetics, Toiletries,
and Fragrances Association (CCTFA) have
published voluntary industry GMP guidelines.
Cosmetic Regulations in China
Introduction
Cosmetics legislation in China is currently
under review, and may be subject to
considerable change in the near future.
Because plans for future changes have not yet
been finalised or published, this Section
describes the current regulatory framework.

138
Legislation in China identifies two main
categories of products:
Cosmetics (including the specific subcategory special use cosmetics); and
Drugs.
China has a quite complicated system for
registration of cosmetic products. Any
importer shall in the first place apply for
registration of its cosmetic products to get a
certificate for marketing which can be of two
types depending on importing non special
purpose cosmetics or special purpose
cosmetics. Since September 1, 2008 the
certificate must be granted by the State Food
and Drugs Administration (SFDA) which,
before the products can be lawfully distributed
in Chinese market, will be responsible for the
acceptance of the application for hygiene
license of imported cosmetics, China-made
special cosmetics and new ingredients of
cosmetics. After the registration process,
certification of labelling for manufactured and
also for imported cosmetic products shall be
applied from PRCs Administration for
Quality Supervision and Inspection and
Quarantine (AQSIQ) before they are imported
into China. Therefore, the approved certificate
and number registered by SFDA and
certification of labelling plus stickers attached
to imported cosmetic products are necessary
documents that cosmetic exporter shall obtain
when exporting any of its cosmetic products
into China. Besides this two main
governmental agencies in charge of
registration of imported cosmetics (SFDA and
AQSIQ),
other
non-governmental
organizations are also required to be involved
in the registration process, including cosmetic
sanitation inspection institution in national
level appointed by the Ministry of Health
(MOH) and the agent representative of an
importer.
Cosmetic Products
Current regulations define cosmetics as:
Those daily used chemical products applied
on the surface of any part of the human body
(such as skin, hair, nails and lips) by way of

smearing, spraying or other similar methods to
keep the body clean, to get rid of undesirable
smell, to protect the skin, to make up the face
and to increase the beauty of the appearance.
Cosmetic manufacturers in China must be
registered and all manufacturing sites must
have a Hygiene Licence as well as a
Production Licence. The Hygiene Licence is
issued by the Bureau of Public Health (BOPH)
and takes between six and twelve months to
obtain. It is valid for four years and must be
submitted for review one year before its
expiry.
Product registration requirements differ
between ordinary and special use cosmetics
and between domestic and imported cosmetics:
Domestic ordinary cosmetics do not require
pre-market
registration.
Instead,
local
authorities must be notified within two months
after the product is first marketed;
Domestic special cosmetics are subject to a
pre-market registration process. A safety
assessment is required that should include
acute toxicity, animal skin and mucous tests,
mutagenic and short-term biological screening
tests for carcinogenesis and chronic toxicity,
etc. There are specific requirements for each
product type. The safety assessment is
undertaken by an Expert Group and other
relevant bodies with the actual approval
granted by the MoH;
Imported ordinary cosmetics require a
Hygiene Permit of Imported Cosmetics. When
a cosmetic is imported for the first time,
foreign manufacturers and their agents are
required to submit a Cosmetic Import Health
License to the Ministry of Health (MoH). The
cosmetic must undergo an extensive
conformity assessment and registration
process. Upon approval of the cosmetic, the
manufacturer is awarded a production licence
(for each product category manufactured at the
site and valid for a period of five years) and an
approval number. This process could take up

139
to a year. In addition, all imported cosmetics
must be registered with the GAQSIQ. This is
also a complex process, and can take four to
five months; and
Imported special cosmetics must follow the
same procedures as imported ordinary
cosmetics, as well as the pre-market
registration process applied to domestic special
cosmetics.
Labels must provide the name and address of
the manufacturer or person placing the product
on the market; the batch number; nominal net
content; country of origin; date of
manufacture; usage instructions and warnings
and the expiry date. All required information
must be in Chinese. The Chinese HSC
regulations (1990) also state that No
indications, curative effect and medical terms
are allowed to be written on the label, on the
inner packing or on the specification sheet of
cosmetic products.
Testing and Safety
Article 9 of the Chinese HSC regulations
(1990) requires an application to be made to
the health administrative department under the
State Council for approval before a new kind
of material is used to make cosmetics. The
term new kind of material refers to natural or
synthetic ingredients that are used in cosmetics
for the first time in China. All new ingredients,
as well as new approved uses of ingredients,
are thus required to undergo a safety
evaluation based on specified procedures and
methods. The MoH does not accept foreign
data and all cosmetic products must undergo
testing within China. Article 31 of the same
regulations makes producers responsible for
the safety of their products. It states that:
Cosmetic Regulations in the Mercosur
Countries
Regulation of Cosmetics
Mercosur was created by Argentina, Brazil,
Paraguay and Uruguay in 1991, with
association agreements signed with Chile and
Bolivia in 1996. Each of these countries has its
own regulations governing cosmetic products,

although there exists an agreed framework
among the four full members of Mercosur for
regulating cosmetics.
Cosmetics regulations in the Mercosur share a
number of key features:
Harmonised definition of cosmetics;
Harmonised negative and positive lists;
Harmonised labelling requirements (with
certain exceptions);
Manufacturers responsibility for safety of
cosmetic products, but with registration of
products prior to marketing;
. Pre-market registration and/or licensing of
cosmetic manufacturing establishments is
generally required, except in Argentina where
compliance with the relevant regulations
results in automatic approval and registration;
and
Adoption of good manufacturing practice
(GMP).
Definition of cosmetic products: Mercosur
adopted a harmonised definition of cosmetics
in Resolution No. 31, 1995. It is essentially the
same as the EU definition of cosmetics with
minor differences between the various
countries: any substance or preparation
intended to be placed in contact with the
various external parts of the human body
(epidermis, hair system, nails, lips and
external genital organs) or with the teeth and
the mucous membranes of the oral cavity with
a view exclusively or mainly to cleaning them,
perfuming them, changing their appearance
and/or correcting body odours and/or
protecting them or keeping them in good
condition;
Controls over ingredients: lists of
prohibited and restricted ingredients, approved
preservatives, UV filters and colouring agents
are modelled on the EU lists. When updating
or amending the lists, Mercosur countries take
account of lists from a range of other
countries, including the EU and the USA;

140
Labelling: labelling requirements are similar
to those in the EU Directive (excluding those
introduced by the 7th Amendment), including
the use of INCI names11; and
Safety and testing: responsibility for
cosmetics safety lies with manufacturers, who
are expected to adopt GMP, similar to the EU
position.
Cosmetic Regulation in India
In India the Drugs and Cosmetic Act (1940)
operates the regulations of cosmetics. For the
manufacture of cosmetics for sale or
distribution the manufacturer should build the
factory premises according to the Schedule MII and application for license in the form 31
and along with license fee of Rs. 2500/- and an
inspection fee of Rs.1000/- for every
inspection to the licensing authority of the
state government where in the manufacturing
unit is located. And the information is
reviewed by (local state) licensing authority
and shall be granted in the form 32.
Labeling Aspects
According to D&C act in India the labeling
requirements for cosmetics are:
Name of cosmetics and name and
manufacturing address should carry on the
both inner and outer labels. For small size
containers on the label instead of mfg address
the principle place of mfg and pin code are
sufficient. The outer label should contain the
amount of net contents of ingredients used in
the manufacturing. The inner label addresses
the direction of safe use and any warning
indication or names and quantities of the
ingredients those are hazardous or poisonous
in nature. The label should carry a distinctive
batch number and it indicated by the letter B
and for soaps the month and year of the
manufacturing shall be given instead of B
and this is not apply to cosmetics which are
having 10grams or less for solids or semisolids
and 25ml or less for liquid state products. On

the label the letter M is indicate the
manufacturing license number.
Current Amendments
Some amendments have been notified in the
labeling clause of D&C act, which are
I.
The ingredients should be declared in
the descending order of their concentrations
down to 1% and in any order below 1%.
II. Use before date instead of best use before
date which was earlier declared as xx
months/year from the date of packaging.
Recently CDSCO published the Gazette
Notification regarding Import & Registration
of Cosmetics. It is further to amend the D&C
act about the rules for import of cosmetics.
Previously there was no legislation for the
registration of cosmetics in India. Now this
rule says no cosmetic shall be imported into
India unless the product is registered under
these rules by the licensing authority appointed
by Central government. The amendment
comes into force with the effect from 1st day
of April 2011.
Main Similarities in Cosmetics Regulation
The main features of regulations for products
categorised as cosmetics in the four main
markets. Features common to cosmetics
regulation in all four markets include:
Full responsibility of the manufacturer for the
safety of products;
In-market surveillance by regulatory
authorities; and
No restrictions on sales channels.
Main Differences in Cosmetics Regulation
The main differences between regulatory
regimes for cosmetics in the four main markets
concern:
Controls over ingredients through positive
and negative lists; and
Requirements for maintaining data on
product safety and efficacy.

141
Figure 1: A comparison of cosmetic regulations between USA, EU and India.

(Srikanth.T, et al, 2011)
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144
IN-VITRO STUDIES OF VITEX NEGUNDO L. AN IMPORTANT

MEDICINAL PLANT
Firdous Dar1, Kirti Jain2, Madhuri Modak1
ijcrr
Vol 04 issue 11
Category: Research
Revised on:21/04/12
1
2
Dept. of Botany Govt. M.V.M. Bhopal M.P

Dept. of Botany science and commerce college Benazir, Bhopal
E-mail of Corresponding Author: firdouzdar@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
A rapid and efficient protocol was developed for shoot induction and multiple shoot formation from
apical and nodal explants of Vitex negundo L. an important endangered medicinal plant species. The
explants were cultured on Murashige and Skoogs (MS) medium supplemented with various
concentrations of auxins, cytokinins and sucrose. Highest percentage (97%) of shoot induction were
observed from axillary meristem, developed 10-20 shoots when cultured in the medium containing the
combination of 6 -Benzyl amino purine (BAP) (0.5 mg/l) and Naphthalene acetic acid (NAA) (0.2mg/l)
supplemented with 3% Sucrose within 25 days.
Key words: In-vitro studies, Benzyl amino purine, Naphthalene acetic acid, Vitex negundo L.
____________________________________________________________________________________
INTRODUCTION
Verbenaceae is a large family of herbs, shrubs
and trees comprising of about 75 genera and
nearly 2500 species (Nasir and Ali 1974., Sastri
1950). V. negundo L. is distributed in East Asia,
South West China, throughout the greater part of
India at warmer zones and ascending to an
altitude of about 1500m in outer, western
Himalayas. It is also cultivated in Pakistan.
(Usman
Ghani
Khan, 2007., Khare, 2007., Cook, 1903). V.
negundo L. is a large woody aromatic and
multipurpose medicinal shrub belonging to the
family verbinaceae (Wealth of India 1976). It is
one of the common plants used in Indian system
of medicine. Various parts of the plant are used
in the treatment of Arthritis, joint pains and
sciatica. It is also used in the treatment of
chronic bronchitis, asthma and gastric troubles.
In dispersing swellings of the joints from acute

rheumatism and also of the testes from
suppressed gonorrhea. The methanolic root
extracts of V.negundo significantly antagonized
the Vipera russellii and Naja kauthea venom
induced lethal activity both in-vitro and in-vivo
studies (Alam and Gomes, 2003). The stem
decoction is used in the treatment of burns and
scalds. The fresh berries are pounded to a pulp
and are used in the form of a tincture for the
relief of paralysis, pains in the limbs, weakness
etc. The leaves of the plant are astringent,
febrifuge, sedative tonic and vermifuge
(Horowitz, 1996). The plant also shows
antibacterial,
antifungal,
larvicidal,
antihelmentic,
antioxidant,
and
insectsidal/pestcidal activities. The plant also
shows anticancerous activity against Daltons
Asiatic lymphoma. It also shows gastro

145
protective and hepato-protective activities.
Despite its economic importance the production
of V.negundo is threatened by population
growth, desertification, industrial development
and attack by numerous parasites. The
biotechnological approach such as plant tissue
culture initiated from medicinal plants is a
variable method for the large scale production of
economically and medicinally important plants.
The present study was undertaken to standardize
a protocol for high frequency induction of
multiple shoots from different explants and to
regenerate plants of V.negundo to meet its
demand in medicine and agriculture.
Actively growing and healthy shoot material of
V.negundo with dominant auxiliary buds were
collected from an adult plant growing in the
medicinal plant garden of Govt. Motilal Vigyan
Mahavidyalaya Bhopal, M.P. After removing
leaves, the shoots were cut into small pieces 0.51.0 cm each containing a single node auxiliary
bud. The explants were then washed under
running tap water for 30 minutes, followed by a
wash with a solution of detergent for 10 min.
followed by washing with surface sterilizing
agent mercuric chloride (0.1%HgCl2) solution
for 3-6 min. In sterilized autoclaved beakers and
finally washed three times with autoclaved
water. Since the use of sodium hypo chloride
and bromine water did not prevent
contamination. Mercuric chloride was used as
sterilizing agent throughout the experiment. The
explants were then inoculated in basal medium
consisting of Murashige and Skoogs salts,
vitamins 30g/L. Sucrose 30g/L. Agar (qualigens
India) supplemented with various growth
hormones. After adjusting the PH (5.4-5.9) the
medium was autoclaved at 121oC for 15-20
minutes at the pressure of 1.06 kgcm-2. The
cultures were then incubated at 25+3oC under

14/10 hours (light/dark) period with light
supplied by white fluorescent tubes at 3500 lux.
After 20 days of inoculation, the explants were
transferred to a fresh medium. And after 40 days
of inoculation data were recorded on shoot
induction and number of shoot formation per
explant. For multiplication of cultures in-vitro
raised shoots were taken in a sterilized Petri dish
and were cut into small pieces containing a
single node along with dormant auxiliary buds.
Then the explants were transferred to culture
tubes containing MS medium supplemented
with BAP (2mg/L.) and NAA (0.5mg/L.). For
the induction of multiple shoots, subsequently
subcultures were raised after 20 days interval to
study the effect of culture passages on the
explants response for shoot induction and
multiple shoot formation. All the treatments
were repeated at least three times with 10
replicates and data were subjected to statistical
analysis.
In the present study both apical and explants
were used. But the nodal explants were found to
be more effective for shoot induction and
multiple shoot formation when culture on MS
medium
supplemented
with
various
phytohormones as compared to other explants.
The nodal explants of V.negundo L. were
cultured on MS medium supplemented with
various concentrations of BAP or KN
individually or in combination with NAA or
IAA resulted in induction of healthy shoots.
When the explants were cultured on MS medium
supplemented with cytokinins alone lesser
number of shoots were induced in comparison to
the MS medium supplemented with combination
treatment of auxin and cytokinin.

146
Table1.Effect of different concentration of BAP on shoot induction from axillary and apical nodes
of V. negundo L. in MS medium
Growth regulator
Percentage explants
shoot induction
Number of shoots
produced/explants SE
Mean length of shoots

in (cms) SE
BAP (0.5 mg/l)
80%
2.000.15
0.750.06
BAP (1.0mg/l)
57%
1.470.12
1.380.06
BAP (1.5 mg/l)
50%
1.150.11
1.90.11
BAP (2.0 mg/l)
45%
1.40.12
1.7 0.03
Each value represents mean SE calculated from three separate experiments each with 10 replicates per
treatment.
Table 2. Effect of different concentration of BAP and NAA on shoot multiplication of

V. negundo L. in MS medium.
Growth regulators
Percentage explants showing

shoot multiplication
BAP (1 mg/l) + NAA (0.1mg/l)
Number of shoots
Mean length of shoots
produced/explant SE
in ( cms) SE
43%
1.38 0.13
1.85 0.02
BAP (1 mg/l) + NAA(0.5mg/l)
50%
3.4 0.14
2.2 0.06
BAP (2 mg/l) + NAA (0.5mg/l)
46%
4.2 0.10
1.3 0.06
BAP (3 mg/l) + NAA(0.5mg/l)
56%
6.000.16
2.01 0.01
BAP (0.5 mg/l) + NAA (1.0mg/l)
76%
6.80 0.20
1.67 0.08
BAP (0.5 mg/l) + NAA (2.0mg/l)
90%
9.400.11
1.8 0.04
Each value represents mean SE calculated from three separate experiments each with 10 replicates per
treatment.
The explants were cultured on MS medium
supplemented with sucrose (30gm/L.) along
with optimal concentrations of BAP (0.5mg/L.)
and NAA (2mg/L.) which was found to be the
most effective in the induction of shoots
compared to other concentrations. In-vitro raised
shoots (20-30days old) were sub cultured on MS
medium supplemented with BAP (0.5mg/L.) and
NAA (2mg/L.). The highest response of nodal
explants (90%) with a maximum average

number of shoots (3.400.11) per explant was
observed. There have been several reports of
micro propagation with nodal segment and shoot
tips of tropical medicinal plants in the juvenile
phase of development (Kukreja et al., 1988).
Here the protocol is described for rapid and
large scale propagation of the woody aromatic
and medicinal shrub V.negundo by in-vitro

147
culture of nodal segments from mature healthy
plants. Here different concentrations of
cytokinins were used as supplements to the MS
medium. Among the cytokinins tested BAP was
found to be most effective than other cytokinins
for the induction of shoots. The bud breaking
and shoot induction in cultures of nodal explants
indicate the function of cytokinins (Sahoo and
Chand 1998). In the present investigation bud
breaking and multiple shoot induction was
increased in treatments of BAP up to 0.5mg/L.
However there was decline in shoot induction
beyond this dosage. In each explant 4-6 axillary
buds were formed within 15-20 days after
inoculation. The number of shoot formation per
explants was increased when the cultures were
transferred to a fresh medium. The enhancing
effect of MS medium supplemented with auxins
and cytokinins in shoot multiplication was also
studied on Gomphrena officinalis (Mereker et
al., 1992) and on Rauvolfia serpentina. Similar
observations were made by Sahoo and Chand
(1998) in the shoot multiplication of V.negundo
when sub cultured on MS medium supplemented

with BA (4.40um/L.) and GA3 (1.15um/L) up to
two subcultures and then there was a gradual
decline. Similar results were found on shoot
induction and multiple shoot formation from
nodal explants of V.negundo in the combination
treatment of BA (16.80um/L.) and IBA
(2.25um/L.) supplemented with 100mg/L. silver
nitrate. Noman et al., (2010) observed the high
frequency bud initiation and shoot proliferation
from callus by using BAP (0.3mg/L) and IAA
(0.3mg/L). In the present study MS medium
along with NAA and BAP has been used which
has also been reported the best shoot
proliferating combination in Heracleum
candicans (Wakhlu and Sharma, 1999) Centella
asiatica (Shashikala et al., 2005) and
Cardiospermum halicacabum (Jawahar et
al.,2008). In contrast Fraternale et al., (2002)
reported that high concentration of auxin with
cytokinin was stable for shoot multiplication in
Bupleurum fruiticosum.
Fig.A. Shoot initiation of Vitex negundo L. from apical and nodal explant
148
Fig.B Shoot multiplication of Vitex negundo L.

149
CONCLUSION
A simple and efficient method has been
developed for shoot induction and multiple
shoot formation and thus increasing the
production of V. negundo. This is suitable for
conservation of germplasm of this multipurpose
medicinal plant species. Despite its economic
importance the production of V. negundo is
threatened by population growth, desertification,
industrial development and attack by numerous
parasites. The classical conservation techniques
such as crossing over, Sexual and somatic
hybridization and breeding give a genetically
blind mixture. Propagation through vegetative
cuttings is very slow and a large number of
cuttings do not survive during transportation. It
can also be propagated through seeds or root
suckers. Poor viability of the seeds and the
production of root sucker is strictly age
dependent. The biotechnological approach such
as plant tissue culture initiated from medicinal
plants is a variable method for the large scale
production of economically and medicinally
important plants. The present study was
undertaken to standardize a protocol for high
frequency induction of multiple shoots from
different explants and to regenerate plants of
V.negundo to meet its demand in medicine and
agriculture.
1.
2.
3.
REFRENCES
Abu
Shadat
Mohammod
Noman,
Mohammod Sayeedul Islam, Nurul Alam
Siddique and Khaled Hossain, 2008. High
frequency induction of multiple shoots
from nodal explants of Vitex negundo using
Silver nitrate.Int.J.Agri.Biol. 10: 633-7.
Achari, B., Chowdhury, U.S., Dutta, P. K
and Pakrashi, S. C, 1984. Two isomeric
flavonones from Vitex negundo Linn.
Phytochemistry, 23: 703.
Adnaik, R.S., Pai, P.T., Mule, S.N.,
Naikwade, S.N. and Magdum, C.S. 2008.
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Laxative Activity of leaves of Vitex

negundo. Asian J. Exp. Sci.22: 159-160.
Alam, M.I and A.Gomes, 2003.Snake
venom neutralization by Indian medicinal
plants (Vitex negundo and Emblica
officinalis) root extracts.j. Ethnopharmacol.
86; 75-80.
Anonymous. Directory of Indian medicinal
plants (1992). Lucknow, CIMAP .49.
Asaka, Y. and Rana, A.C., 1973. Arch.
Pharm. Res.14 (1):96-98.
Avadhoot, Y. and Rana, A.C. Abu (1991)
worked on hepatoprotective effect of Vitex
negundo against carbon tetra chloride
induced liver damage.
Azahar-ul-Haq. Malik. A., Anis, I., Khan,
S.B., et al. 2004. Enzyme inhibiting lignans
from Vitex negundo. Chem. Pharm. Bull.
52: 1269-1272.
Babu, T.D., Kuttan, G., Paddikkala, J.
1995. Cytotoxic and antitumour activity of
certain taxa of umbeliferae with special
refrence to Centella asiatica (L.) Urban
journal of ethno pharmacology. 48: 53-57.
Baral, S.R. and Kurmi, P.P.2006. A
compendium of Medicinal plants in Nepal.
FraternaleD, GiamperiL, RicciD, and
RocchiMBL (2002).Micropropagation of B.
fruticosum: The effect of triacontanol, plant
cell tiss. Org. Cult.69: 135-140.
Kukreja AK., AK, Mathur. PS, Ahuja and
RS, Thakur, (1988). Tissue culture and
Biotechnology of Medicinal and Aromatic
plants, pp: 7-11. CIMAP ,Lucknow,India
Shashikala CM, Shashidhara S and
Rajeshkharan
PE
(2005).
In-vitro
regeneration of Centella asiatica L. Plant
cell Biotech and Mol. Biol.6:53-56.
Wakhlu AK and Sharma RK (1999).
Micropropagation of Heracleum candicans
wall. A rare medicinal herb. Soc. In vitro
Biol. 98: 1071-1074.

150
STUDY OF DEFAULTERS OF REVISED NATIONAL
TUBERCULOSIS CONTROL PROGRAMME IN THE THREE
PRIMARY HEALTH CENTRES OF BELGAUM DISTRICT
Shivappa Hatnoor1, Hemagiri K2, Sangolli H N3, Mallapur M.D2,
VinodKumar C.S4
ijcrr
Vol 04 issue 11
Category: Research
Revised on:16/04/12
Dept of Community Medicine, RIMS, Raichur

Dept of Community Medicine, JNMC, Belgaum
3
Dept of Community Medicine, VIMS, Bellary
4
Department of Microbiology, S. S. Institute of Medical Sciences and Research
Centre, Davangere
2
E-mail of Corresponding Author: vinodmicro@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT
The Revised National Tuberculosis Control Programme introduced in 1993 lays more emphasis on good
quality diagnosis by direct sputum smear microscopy and quality drugs, through standardized short
course chemotherapy regimens administered under direct observation along with systematic monitoring
and evaluation. The goal of the Revised National Tuberculosis Control Programme is to cure at least 85%
of new sputum smear positive patients detected and to detect at least 70% of all such patients after the
goal for cure rate has been met. No studies have been done on evaluation of Revised National
Tuberculosis Control Programme and reasons for default in these areas.
Objective of this study to know the reasons for default of the patients put under Revised National
Tuberculosis Control Programme. Materials and method: This study carried over for one year one
month (November 1st 2004 to 31st December 2005). The data collected by using pre-designed and pretested proforma. The first visit was done when the patient was registered in the Primary Health Centre and
started on the treatment. Second visit i.e. First follow-up visit was done at the end of Intensive Phase and
the data was collected regarding the scheduled intake of drugs, result of 1st follow-up sputum examination
and about defaulters if any. Second follow-up visit was done in the middle of continuation phase and the
data was collected regarding the scheduled intake of drugs, result of 2nd follow-up sputum examination
and defaulters if any. Fourth visit i.e. third follow-up visit was done at the end of Continuation Phase and
the data was collected regarding the scheduled intake of drugs, result of sputum examination at the end of
the treatment, about defaulters if any and outcome of the treatment. Results: Out of 69 defaulter cases
majority 63% of them were males, the main reason for treatment failure were illiteracy (42%), marital
status (79%), Class V family (58%), complaining of acidity and vomiting (63%). habit of smoking (31%)
& smokeless tobacco(15%). These are the significant reasons for treatment failure.
Keywords: RNTCP, tuberculosis, defaulters
____________________________________________________________________________________
INTRODUCTION
Tuberculosis continues to be one of the most
important public health problems worldwide. It
infects one third of the worlds population at any
point of time. There are approximately 9 million
new cases of all form of tuberculosis occurring
annually and 3 million people die from it each

year. Out of these 95% tuberculosis cases and
98% tuberculosis deaths are contributed by
developing countries1.
India accounts for nearly one third of the global
burden of tuberculosis. Around 2.0 million

151
people are diagnosed to be suffering from
tuberculosis every year.1 Tuberculosis kills more
adults in India than any other infectious
diseases. More than 1000 people a day i.e one
every minutes die of tuberculosis2.
Despite the National Tuberculosis Programme
since 1992, the desired control of tuberculosis
could not be achieved. Moreover, there has been
an increase in the absolute number of
tuberculosis patients because of the increase in
population.
The
impending
threat
of
Tuberculosis- HIV co- infection and the
emergence of Multi Drug Resistance
Tuberculosis have made the situation worse3.
In 1992, an expert committee reviewed the
National Tuberculosis Programme and found
that less than 30% treatment completion rate,
undue emphasis on radiological diagnosis, poor
quality of sputum microscopy, multiplicity of
treatment regimens, emphasis on case detection
rather than on treatment completion, inadequate
budgets and shortages of drugs3.
The Revised National Tuberculosis Control
Programme introduced in 1993 lays more
emphasis on good quality diagnosis by direct
sputum smear microscopy and quality drugs,
through standardized short course chemotherapy
regimens administered under direct observation
along with systematic monitoring and
evaluation3. The goal of the Revised National
Tuberculosis Control Programme is to cure at
least 85% of new sputum smear positive patients
detected and to detect at least 70% of all such
patients after the goal for cure rate has been
met2.
Belgaum district started implementing Revised
National Tuberculosis Control Programme from
15th July 2003. K.L.E. Societys J.N. Medical
College adopted three Primary Health Centres
namely Kinaye, Vantmuri and Handignur on 7th
April 2004 as such no studies have been done on
evaluation of Revised National Tuberculosis
Control Programme in these areas. So, this
study was taken to evaluate the implementation

of Revised National Tuberculosis Control
Programme in these areas and also to know the
reasons for default of the patients put under
Revised
National
Tuberculosis
Control
Programme.
Ethical clearance:
Ethical clearance was obtained from JN Medical
College, Belgaum, Karnataka
Design:
This was a longitudinal study undertaken to
evaluate the Revised National Tuberculosis
Control Programme in three Primary Health
Centres, attached to JN Medical College,
Belgaum, Karnataka
Source of Data:
Total population of three Primary Health
Centres were; Kinaye 47,159, Vantamuri 30,756
and Handiganoor 23,452 population.
Inclusion Criteria:
All cases diagnosed for tuberculosis by the
Medical Officers of three Primary Health
Centers from November 1st 2004 to April 30th
2005.
Study Period:
From November 1st 2004 to 31st December 2005
(One year One month)
Methods of Data Collection:
Using pre-designed and pre-tested proforma the
data is collected. The first visit was done when
the patient was registered in the Primary Health
Centre and started on the treatment. The
following data was collected in the first visit
Name, Age, Sex, Religion, Occupation, Address,
Educational Status, Marital Status, Type of
Family, Socio-economic status, DOT provider,
Category of Treatment, Disease Classification,
Type of patient, result of 1st sputum (at the start
of the treatment) examination and if there are
any reasons for initial default.

152
Second visit i.e. First follow-up visit was done at
the end of Intensive Phase and the following
data was collected regarding the scheduled
intake of drugs, result of 1st follow-up sputum
examination and about defaulters if any.
Third visit i.e. second follow-up visit was done
in the middle of Continuation Phase and the
following data was collected regarding the
scheduled intake of drugs, result of 2nd follow-up

sputum examination and defaulters if any.
Fourth visit i.e. third follow-up visit was done at
the end of Continuation Phase and the data was
collected regarding the scheduled intake of
drugs, result of sputum examination at the end of
the treatment, about defaulters if any and
outcome of the treatment.

Table 1: Socio - demographic profile of the study subjects
PHC Handiganur (11)
Age
0-9
10-19
20-29
30-39
40-49
50-59
60-69
Sex
Male
Female
Religion
Hindu
Muslim
Christian
Occupation
Farmers
House wife
Labours
Business
Drivers
Students
Mechanics
Tailor
Educational Status
Illiterate
Primary
Secondary
PUC/Diploma
Graduate/ Post Graduate
PHC Vantamuri (25)
0
0
3
4
1
2
1
0
1
8
7
6
3
0
1
4
8
5
4
6
1
7
4
15
10
11
22
10
1
24
1
0
4
2
1
0
5
13
3
2
1
0
0
0
3
4
9
6
2
24
8
0
6
0
0
7
9
4
0
0
PHC Kinaye (33)
1
3
10
13
7
2
0
6
2
0

153
Children under Seven years
Marital Status
Married
10
Un-Married
Type of Family
Nuclear
2
Joint
Three Generation
2
Problem
1
Socio-economic status
I ( 2600)
II (1300-2599)
III (780-1299)
IV (390-799)
V < 390
5
Habits
Use of Tobacco
4
Use of alcohol
Both
None
Category of treatment
I
II
III
Type of disease
Pulmonary
Extra Pulmonary
1
Type of Patients
New
Relapse
0
Treatment after Default 1
Failure
Others
DOTS Provider
Anganwadi workers
Health Workers
3
Medical Officer
0
Private Practitioner
Warden of Hostel
0
0
24
2
23
1
4
10
5
18
3
0
0
0
2
4
22
6
0
0
1
3
9
0
2
5
12
12
14
0
4
3
0
8
8
0
6
19
7
1
3
10
8
7
13
4
16
10
19
6
10
26
7
17
1
2
29
0
2
0
0
2
3
1
1
13
21
11
0
0
10
1
1
0
1

154
Table: 2 Showing Default cases and related demographic factors
Default Cases
Reasons for Default
Acidity & Vomiting
Drinking Alcohol
Out of Place
Previously Taken Treatment
Identity will be disclosed
Sex wise distribution
Male
Female
Occupation
Farmers
House Wife
Labours
Business
Drivers
C U 7 yr
Educational Status
Illiterate
Primary
Secondary
PUC/Diploma
Graduate/ Post Graduate
C U 7 Yr
Marital Status
Married
Un Married
Divorced
Widower
Widow
Type of Family
Nuclear
Joint
Three Generation
Broken
Problem
Socio-economic status
I (2600)
II (1300-2599)
III (780-1299)
IV (390-799)
V (<390)
PHC Handiganur PHC Vantamuri PHC Kinaye

4
8
1
2
7
1
1
0
0
0
0
4
0
1
1
1
4
4
2
0
2
1
4
0
4
3
2
4
1
0
2
2
0
0
2
4
4
4
1
2
0
0
0
0
0
0
3
0
0
7
1
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
4
3
0
0
0
0
1
1
2
2
0
0
0
0
1
5
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
3
5
0
1
1
1
4

155
Habits
Tobacco
Alcohol
Both
None
Category
I
II
III
DOTS Provider
Anganwadi Worker
Health worker
Medical Officer
Private Practitioner
Warden of Hostel
0
0
2
0
3
0
4
0
3
3
2
2
3
1
0
5
2
1
3
3
1
3
1
5
3
5
2
0
0
0
0
Table 3: Showing Association between the Defaulters and socio-demographic factors

Defaulted Non-Defaulted Chi-square value p-value
Sex
Male
Female
Education status
Illiterates
Literates
10
S-E status
I
II & III
IV
V
Category of Treatment
I
II
III
DOTS Providers
Anganwadi Workers
Health Worker & Others 6
12
7
21
29
2.47
0.116
12
37
2.50
0
3
5
11
0
10
20
20
11
6
2
19
7
24
13
0.114
1.82
0.402
8.64
0.013
29
21
The present study was a longitudinal study

undertaken to evaluate the Revised National
Tuberculosis Control Programme in three
Primary Health Centers of Belgaum which are
adopted by K.L.E. Societys J.N. Medical
College under Public Private Partnership. The
0.62
0.428
total study population covered was Kinaye47,159, Vantmuri-30,756 and

Handignur23,452 out of this 69 patients were put on antitubercular treatment under Revised National
Tuberculosis Programme, by Medical Officers
of respective Primary Health Centers from

156
November 1st 2004 to April 30th 2005 were
included in the study. All the three Primary
Health Centers are located within the radius of
25 kilometers from J.N. Medical College.
Our study showed that among defaulters 63% of
patients had acidity and vomiting, 16% patients
were alcoholics, 10.5% left the place, 5.3% had
taken treatment previously and 5.3% not willing
to disclose the identity. A study done in
Bangalore city showed that alcoholics were
more among the defaulted i.e. in category I
56.7% and in category II 68.7%.4 In another
study done at Tiruvallur, District in Tamil Nadu
showed that 17.1% of defaulters were
alcoholics5. In a similar study conducted in West
Bengal, Jharkand and Arunachal Pradesh
showed that intolerance to drugs among
defaulters ranged from 5.6 % to 20%.6
In our study maximum defaulted cased were in
Primary Health Center Handignur i.e. 36.4%,
followed by 32% in Primary Health Center
Vantamuri and 21% in Primary Health Center
Kinaye. Overall in all Primary Health Centers
defaulted cases were 27.5%. In a similar study
conducted in West Bengal, Jharkand and
Arunachal Pradesh showed that defaulted
patients ranged from 10.78% to 38.13% in four
centers where the study was conducted.6
In our study majority of defaulted patients were
males i.e. 63% and 37% were females. In a
study done in Bangalore city among category I
89.6% of defaulter were males and 90.9% males
in category II.4
In our study maximum number of defaulters
were seen among housewives i.e. 31.6%,
followed by 26.3% each among farmers and
labours, 5.3% each among business persons,
drivers and children under seven years of age.
In our study maximum number of defaulted
patients were illiterates i.e 42%, followed by
37% Primary level education, 16% Secondary
level education and 5.3% children under seven
years of age. In a study conducted in Tiruvallur
District in Tamil Nadu revealed that among all

defaults 12.7% were illiterates6. In a similar
study conducted in the states of West Bengal,
Jharkand and Arunachal Pradesh showed that
48% to 64.9% of defaulters were illiterates,
Primary school level raged from 19.1% to 40%,
High school level ranged from 15.9% to 40%
and college level ranged from 5.6 % to 20%.7
In our study maximum numbers of defaulted
patients were married i.e 79% and 21% were
unmarried. In a similar study conducted in
Bangalore city revealed that 73% in category I
and 69.7% in category II were married.5
In our study majority of defaulted patients were
from Joint family i.e 47.3%, followed by 37%
three generation family, 10.5% nuclear family
and 5.3% problem family.
In our study maximum percentage of defaulted
cases were in class V i.e 58%, 26.3% were in
class IV, 10.5% were in class III and 5.3% were
in class II. In a similar study conducted in states
of West Bengal, Jharkand and Arunachal
Pradesh revealed that in class V & IV the
defaulted patient ranged from 24.5% to 63%, in
class III & II it ranged from 24.5% to 45.5% and
in class I it ranged from 12.5% to 30%.7
In our study maximum number of defaulted
cases were having the habit of smoking and
alcohol i.e. 31.6%, 15.9% were having the habit
of using smokeless tobacco, 15.9% were having
the habit of smoking, alcohol and use of
smokeless tobacco, 5.3% were having the habit
of smoking and 5.3% were having the habit of
smoking and use of smokeless tobacco. 26.3%
of the defaulted cases were not having any
habits. In another study conducted at Tiruvallur
district in Tamil Nadu showed that in overall
defaulted cases 14.6% were smokers and 17.1%
were alcoholics.6
In our study majority of the defaulted cases were
in category I i.e. 55%, 35% were in category II
and 10% were in category III. In a study
conducted in Bangalore city showed that the

157
defaulted cases in category I were 25.4% and in
category II were 45.2%. 4
In our study maximum percentage of defaulted
cases i.e. 68% had Anganwadi workers as DOTS
providers and 32% had Health workers as DOTS
providers.
In our study the defaulters among males were
36% and non defaulters were 64%. Among
Females 19% were defaulters and 81% were non
defaulters. Which did not show any statistical
significance where P = 0.116.
In the study the defaulters among illiterates were
40% and non defaulters were 60%. Among
literates 21% were defaulters and 79% were non
defaulters. We found that their is no statistical
significance between illiterate and literate
defaulters. Where P=0.114. In a similar study
conducted in the states of West Bengal,
Jharkand and Arunachal Pradesh showed that
48% to 64.9% of defaulters were illiterates. 7
In our study defaulters among class II and III
were 23% and non-defaulters were 77%.
Defaulters among class IV were 20% and nondefaulters were 80%. Defaulters among class V
were 35% and non-defaulters were 65%. It did
not show any statistical significance where
P=0.402. In a study done in West Bengal,
Jharkand and Arunachal Pradesh the defaulted
patients among class II and III ranged from
24.5% to 45.5% and in class IV and V it ranged
from 24.5% to 63%. 7
In our study among category I 37% were
defaulters and 63% were non-defaulters, among
category II 21% were defaulters and 79% were
non-defaulters and in category III 27% were
defaulters and 73% were non-defaulters. It
showed a statistical significance where P=
0.013. In a study done at Bangalore revealed that
defaulters among category I were 25.4% and in
category II were 45.2%. 4
In our study among Anganwadi workers 31%
were defaulters and 69% were non-defaulters.
Among Health workers and others 22.2% were
defaulters and 77.8% were non- defaulters. It

showed no statistical significance where P=
0.428.
Reasons for default during the course of
treatment being 12(63% ) due to toxicity of
drugs (Acidity and Vomiting), 31(16%) due to
addiction to Alcohol and 2(10.5%) left the place.
Numbers of defaulters in category I were
11(37%), Category II were 6(46%) and category
III were 2(8%).
Which was statistically
significant.
RECOMMENDATION
Training newly recruited staff of Primary
Health Centers.
Regular re-orientation of all the staff and
also DOTs providers.
Sputum examination should be made
mandatory for all the patients (Pulmonary
as well as extra pulmonary).
IEC activities for the public regarding
Tuberculosis and its treatment and also to
increase the cure rate, decrease the default
and failure rate amongst the patients.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
this article has been reviewed and discussed
REFERENCES
1. A. Jaiswal, V. Singh, J. A. Ogden, J. D.
H. Porter, P. P. Sharma, R. Sarin, V. K.
Arora, R. C. Jain. Adherence to
tuberculosis treatment: lessons from the
urban setting of Delhi, India. Tropical
Medicine & International Health.
2003;8:625-633
2. Sengupta S, Pungrassami P, Balthip Q,

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Strauss R, Kasetjaroen Y. Social impact
of tuberculosis in southern Thailand:
views from patients, care providers and
the community .Int. J. Tuberc. Lung. Dis.
2006; 10(9):1008-12.
3. Srivastava S.K., Ratan R.K. Srivastava P,
and Prasad R: report on Revised National
Tuberculosis Control Programme: urban
pilot project in Lucknow, Ind J. Tub,
2000;47:159-162.
4. Sophia Vijay, Balasangameshwara .V.H,
Jagannatha. P.S, Saroja V.N and Kumar P;
Defaults among tuberculosis patients treated
under DOTs in Bangalore city: A search for
solution: Ind. J.Tub, 2003,50,185-195
5. Chandrasekaran V, Gopi P.G, Subramani R,
Thomas A, Jaggarajamma K, and
Narayanan. P.R; Default during the
Intensive phase of Treatment under DOTs

Programme. Ind. J. Tub, 2005, 52,197-202.
6. Chatterjee P, Brutoti Banerjee, Debashis
Dutt,Rama Ranjan Pati and Ashok kumar
Mullick. A comparative evaluation of
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7. Revised National Tuberculosis Control
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International Journal of Current Research and Review

Vol 04 / Issue 11 / June 2012

Vol 4 / Issue 11 / June 2012

Deputy Vice Chancellor, Research & Innovation

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Vol 4 / Issue 11 / June 2012

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