SRM

19 November 2014
21:42

CHAPTER I
Research is a careful study of a subject especially to discover new facts or information about it .

Commonsense observes and relates variables in an unsystematic i.e. unorganized & unplanned
way.
It often generalizes behavior of phenomena in an uncontrolled way.
It tests hypotheses in a selective way i.e. it selects evidences and gives explanation simply
because it is consistent with his hypothesis.
Scientific approach is a systematically built theoretical structure (with a structured design and
a plan of investigation).
It tests beliefs/theories empirically and in a controlled condition, where ever necessary.
A scientist knowing the selection tendency of human being to be a common psychological
phenomenon, carefully guards his research against his own preconception and predilections
(liking).

SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH IS DEFINED AS A SYSTEMATIC, CONTROLLED, EMPIRICAL AND CRITICAL

INVESTIGATION OF HYPOTHETICAL PROPOSITIONS ABOUT PRESUMED RELATIONS AMONGST
OBSERVED PHENOMENA.

STEPS IN SOCIAL SCIENCE RESEARCH 1. Observation and Measurement to seek regularity and order in social behavior.
2. Logical Reasoning - Deductive and Inductive.
3. Determinism
All events have antecedent causes or a priori reasons
There is a probabilistic determinism in the behavior of socio-economic phenomena.
This refers to the Theory of Causation in the philosophy of science.
4. Generalization
Hypothesis are tested with F, t, Chi-square and other statistical measures to arrive at
generalization.
5. PARSIMONY
Multiple causation suggests that social/economic phenomena are explained using multivariate
models where several variables are used.
Additional variables increase explanatory power of a model (in a dependency relationship), but
it also complicates the relationship (model) and makes estimation difficult.
Use of more variables decreases generalizability since different variables may have different
impact on different population sub-set.

One has to identify the more or less relevant variables with a priori reasoning.
A judicious decision is warranted in explaining socio-economic behavior.

Parsimony in social science refers to more understanding from least variables.

6. Specificity: It refers to the specification of methods of measurement of variables.
7. Empirical Verification
8. Inter-subjectivity refers to situations in which different social scientists will arrive at different
conclusions using their own ideas and perceptions on variables and their relationships. But
when the study is replicated using a reported design and methodology the ideas may
converge. If it is not, then there is a paradigm shift or change in the theory.
9. Modifications/Restatement of Theories
Therefore, subjective beliefs are checked against objective reality in social science but the process
and outcome are less exact as compared to the physical sciences.

CHAPTER II
TYPES OF RESEARCH
1. Fundamental Research (Also known as Theoretical, Pure Research, Disciplinary Research)
Fundamental research develops a theory in any discipline. Objective of this type of research is
to extend the existing knowledge or the paradigm of knowledge.
It need not be application oriented.
2. Applied Research
This type of research is problem-and-issue-based.
The thrust is the application of the existing theories in a piece of research for some practical
application.
3. Exploratory (Causal research)
Exploratory Research is primarily a type of research where a researcher tries to explore the
behavior of the variable and their relationship in the physical and social sciences.
Exploratory Research is used also to explore the cause effect relationship and identification of
problem.
Thus exploration could be about the behavior of the variables or the causes responsible for a
problem.
4. Qualitative & Quantitative Research
For observation of the behavior of the variables and/or to establish relationship between them
we may use quantitative or qualitative information on the variables.
We may measure the variables using a particular method and transform them into
quantitative numbers in quantitative research.
But in qualitative research one articulates the behavior or relationship without using any
quantification.
5. Diagnostic Research
The Diagnostic Study is a type of research study which can be said to be exploratory,
descriptive and causal.

In this type of research aspects from all the above three are found.
This study starts with exploring the facts in a realistic situation on a particular aspect,
describes the relationship, identifies the causes of the phenomena and makes
recommendation for the possible solutions.

6. Action Research
It refers to the type of research where the researcher intervenes in the system or manipulates
the variables.
It is usually done to study a particular problem and to address the problem or try to solve the
problem with concrete action or intervention.
Often Action Research is conducted to solve problem faced by the people in an area, may be a
geographical or political. This type of research is usually conducted by a team or one or more
organizations or institutions and is largely relates to social action.
7. Multi- Disciplinary Research
In this type of research the researcher uses the theories and application of different disciplines
to address an issue or a problem. For example, a theory in physics may help in explaining the
behavior of some variables in chemistry or engineering science.
This type of research has relevance particularly in solving a problem(s) faced by the society in
general, a group of people, an industry, a firm, an organization, a country etc.

The modes of operation of these research categories could broadly be divided into four categories 1. Laboratory Experiments
Complete control or control to a great extent of extraneous variables not pertinent to the
immediate issue of research.
Absolute precision and replicability are possible.
Such experiments are not possible in social sciences (with exception such as in psychology or
educational research).
2. Field experiments
These are studies in the realistic situation.
They are known as research studies with a holistic approach. ( No Ceteris paribus
assumption )
Unlike Laboratory Experiment, these studies are conducted in natural condition with no
control or little control over other variables, but the researcher intervenes in one or more
variables.
Action research is a form of field experiments.
3. Field studies
Field studies are post facto study aimed at discovering existing behavior/ relations amongst
variables.
The researcher does not intervene in any variable(s). E.g. Behavior and relationship between
various socio-political and socio-economic and market related variables. Social and
Anthropological studies.
Decisions are taken on the basis of the observed relationships for explanation and prediction.
4. Survey Research (A type of Field Study)
Survey could be
a) Census Survey and b) Sample survey.

Depends on factors like population size, time available, feasibility etc.

Sample surveys are considered to be an important branch of social scientific enquiry to arrive
at conclusions about the population using statistical techniques.

Sample Survey maybe done through

a. Personal interviews with group(s) of individuals.
b. Questionnaire canvassing personally or through mail/e-mail ,web sites
c. Telephonic interviews (In short time and for small sample)
d. Panel techniques- Delphi Method
Necessary condition is to have a representative sample.
The basic objective is to have inference about the population (generalization)

Observation, Theorizing and Mathematical Model building necessitates knowledge on 1. Concept, construct and variables
Each statement consists of two concepts joined by a relational word/phrases like "associated
with "results in", "increases", "reduces", "leads to" .
Whenever such relational statements are made the researcher is operating on hypotheses
relating to two concepts (or more in case of multiple relationships)
A 'concept' expresses an abstraction formed in the human mind with several observation on
phenomena.
'Construct' is a concept which is invented or adopted for a specific purpose to use in a
scheme or functional form and capable of being measured.
2. Measurement or quantification of variables
3. Reliability and validity relating to the measurement of variables and specification of
relationships between them

Types of Variables
1. Quantitative and Qualitative Variables.
Income, expenditure, weight etc & Economic Status, Brand Preference, Brand Loyalty etc are
quantitative & qualitative variables respectively.
2. Dichotomous and Polytomous variables.
Variable taking two or more values. E.g. gender &income.
3. Dependent and independent variables.
This distinction depends on the uses
4. Manifest and Latent Variables
5. Dummy variables. They are binary in nature.

CHAPTER III

Measurement is assigning numbers to observations in such a way that the numbers are amenable
for analysis. The number represents the property being studied. All the variables cannot be
measured in one scale.
There are four scale of measurement - Nominal, Ordinal, Interval and Ratio scale of measurement.
1. Nominal Scale
The operation is partitioning the objects, persons or characteristics in to mutually exclusive
sub classes and the relation between the members of the class is equivalence (=).
Classifying a group of persons into male and female and assigning numbers as 0 and 1.
Automobile license plate numbers are other examples.
Numbers only denote do not connote.
2. Ordinal Scale
Objects of one category are not different( as measured in nominal scale) but they stand in
some kind of relation amongst them such as <, >, =
We rank objects/ statements by giving counting numbers.
These numbers are not isomorphic to the system of arithmetic. The successive difference are
not same. E.g. Ranking of individuals with respect to levels of income, Exam results: passed in
1st,2nd or 3rd class etc.
Linkert Scale - 5 most important to 1 least important types
3. Interval Scale
An interval scale is characterized by a common and constant unit of measurement, but with an
arbitrary zero.
Consider the measurement of temperature in two scales e.g. F & C. The two scale conform to
the linear transformation such as
F = 9/5 C + 32
4. Ratio Scale
A Ratio Scale of Measurement has all the characteristics of interval scale with true zero point
at its origin.
This scale is isomorphic to the system of arithmetic (with a true zero).
It has known ratio of any two interval and known ratio of any scale value

Reliability
Reliability in the context of measurement is based on the probability of errors.
It implies: If the same object or property is measured again and again with the same
measuring instrument we get similar result.
To the extent that the errors are present in a measuring instrument, to that extent the
instrument is unreliable.
Thus, reliability is the relative absence of error of measurement in a measuring instrument.

A Measure of reliability is the proportion of the "true" variance to the total obtained variance
of the data yielded by a measuring instrument.
Alternatively it is the proportion of the error variance to the total obtained variance yielded
by a measuring instrument subtracted from the index of "One".
E.g. 1. R square = ESS/TSS or 1- RSS/TSS

Cronbach's Alpha - Measures dimension.

Validity
Validity concerns an enquiry in to the reality of a variable and theoretical consistency.
Consider the following two sets of variables
a. Gender, Domicile, Length, Weight, income etc.
b. Personality, Brand preference, loyalty, awareness
For the former there are specific measures, but for the later there are indirect ways to
measure.
A measurement may be reliable but may not have validity.

Researchers refer to three types of validity viz. Content, Criterion & Construct validity.
a. Content Validity
It is the extent to which a measuring instrument provides adequate coverage of the
concept/topic/entities. E.g . A proxy variable representing a qualitative variable.
b. Criterion Validity
i. It relates to efficiency of a model in estimation and prediction.
ii. These could be achieved with the use of different specification with respect to
variables or the use of different statistical models or relationships.
iii. The model having least error is supposed to have criterion validity.
c. Construct Validity
i. It is more complex, subjective & abstract and unites psychometric notions with
theoretical notions.
ii. It is not only validating the relationship, but one must try to validate the theory
behind it e.g. in a dependency relationship Y and a few Xi s are related and the
researcher asks why such a relationship may exist?
iii. A Priori Reasoning has to be given which concerns theory, logical judgment &
researchers articulation.

CHAPTER IV
Operationalization is the development of specific research procedures (operations) that will result in
empirical observation representing behavior and their relationships in the realistic situations.
1. Read the Literature in the area of Research : Reflect and Identify gaps. (Concept &
Methodology
2. Generate a list of potential Research Questions.
3. Check the Literature again & examine as to whether the questions have been answered.
yes/ No
4. If Yes, Go to 1 and reexamine. If No, Test the feasibility of answering the questions and
eliminate impractical questions
5. The questions can focus or indicate the research Problem.
6. State the Research Problem(s) objectively.
7. Research Objectives could be set with respect to the Research Problem(s)

Hypothesis is a conjectural statement on the behavior of a variable or relationship or

interrelationship between variables. A Priori Reasoning precedes the formulation of Hypothesis.
Research Design is a Plan, Structure and Strategy of investigation conceived so as to obtain answers
to research questions and to control variance.
Plan: The plan refers to the overall scheme or program of research.
Structure refers to the outline of the operation of variables.
Strategy refers to the logic inherent in gathering and analyzing the data.

Methodology of a study incorporates

1. Data requirement to test the hypotheses.
2. Sources of data.
3. Requirement of a sample in case of a survey.
4. The rationale of a sampling type to use.
5. Instrument for collection of data.
6. Specification of Statistical Techniques to use for data analysis and their rationale.

SAMPLING
Element: Unit of population
Sampling units: Elements considered for sampling in the sample.
Universe: Aggregation of all elements.
Parameter & Statistics
Parameter: Summary description of a variable with respect to the population.
Statistics: Summary description of a variable with respect to a sample.
Probability Sampling
1. Simple Random Sampling o Each element in the population has an equal chance of being selected.
o A required size of sample is drawn by using a lottery method, a generator, a random
number table or a computer package.
o Useful for small and homogeneous population.
2. Systematic Sampling
o In this process a sample of a required size is selected by selecting the elements of the
population at the beginning at a random start and following the sampling fraction
selecting every kth element.
o Used when the elements are homogeneous in the population (with respect to the
objectives).
3. Stratified Sampling
o In this process the population is divided in to sub-populations with the stratification
variables.
o Stratification variables have to be identified with respect to the objectives of the study.
o These could be income ,education, occupation etc.
o The SRS is used in each stratum and a sample is drawn.
4. Multistage Cluster Sampling (Sequential multiphase sampling)

o
o

This process divides the population into different sub-population (clusters) with respect
to geographical, agro-ecological and socio-economic variables and the process is
repeated more than once.
In each stage SRS is applied.
This is adopted when the population is very large.

Non-Probability Sampling
1. Convenience sampling or Accidental Sampling.
o Selecting sample units and interviewing people whom we happen to meet.
o This sampling also means selecting whatever sampling units are conveniently available.
2. Purposive (or Judgmental) sampling
o In this process the chance that a particular element be selected for the sample depends
on the subjective judgment of the researcher. For example, a researcher may
deliberately choose industrial undertakings in which quality circles are believed to be
functioning successfully and undertakings in which quality circles are believed to be a
total failure.
3. Quota sampling
o It is a method of stratified sampling in which selection within strata is non-random.
o The researcher decides on his own depending on his judgment.
o Quota sampling is used in studies like marketing surveys, opinion polls and leadership
surveys
4. Snow-ball sampling
o A technique of building up a list or a sample of a special population by using an initial set
of its members as informants.
Instruments
1. Questionnaire or schedules
2. Focus group discussion (Thematic)
3. Individual/ group observation (behavior)
4. Projective techniques (Indirect and unstructured methods of investigation )
4. Pantry audits ( through the sales persons)
5. Warranty Cards etc.
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Questions and Statements.

Open ended and close ended.
Clarity of items / questions.
Relevant questions and competent respondents.
Short items.
Avoid negative.
Avoid bias.
Avoid jargons.