British Journal

of Visual Impairment
http://jvi.sagepub.com/

Including visually impaired students in physical education lessons: a case study of

teacher and pupil experiences
Frank Herold and Jack Dandolo
British Journal of Visual Impairment 2009 27: 75
DOI: 10.1177/0264619608097744
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Including visually impaired students

in physical education lessons:
a case study of teacher and
pupil experiences

BJVI

THE BRITISH
JOURNAL OF
VISUAL
IMPAIRMENT

Copyright 2009 SAGE Publications

(Los Angeles, London, New Delhi,
Singapore and Washington DC)
Vol 27(1): 7584
DOI:10.1177/0264619608097744
RESEARCH REPORT

F R A N K H E R O L D A N D JAC K DA N D O L O
University of Birmingham, UK

A B S T R AC T Following recent education policy and curriculum

changes in England, the notion of inclusion of children with special educational needs in physical education has increasingly
become a topic of research interest and concern. It was the aim
of this study to explore personal experiences and perspectives of
inclusion in physical education. To this end this study used a
series of interviews and observations with a visually impaired
(blind) pupil, a physical education teacher and a learning support assistant at a school for children with moderate learning difficulties. The findings highlighted four significant areas of
impact: the role of teacher training and development; the role of
learning support assistants; resources; and the limitations of the
National Curriculum in Physical Education as a framework for
inclusion. Recommendations on how to address these issues in
order to improve the standards of inclusion for visually impaired
pupils in physical education are made.

Every Child Matters, inclusion, national

curriculum, physical education, teacher training, visual
impairment

K E Y WO R D S

INTRODUCTION
The publication of the Green Paper Every Child Matters marked the
beginning of a significant new Government agenda aimed at improving
the well-being of children and young people in the United Kingdom
(DfES, 2003). The Governments expressed aim is for every child, whatever their background or their circumstances, to have the support they
need to achieve the Every Child Matters core outcomes: be healthy;
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stay safe; enjoy and achieve; make a positive contribution; and achieve
economic well-being. Its core outcomes were the guiding principles of
the latest curriculum revision of the National Curriculum in Physical
Education (DfES, 2007). As a result, schools are requested to facilitate
an increased personalization of learning for every pupil, taking into
account their personal and educational needs.
However, research in physical education would suggest that there is a
discrepancy between inclusive curriculum aspirations and school-day
reality (Fitzgerald, 2005; Hodge et al., 2004; Morley et al., 2005).
Whilst expressed curriculum intentions for physical education are
inclusive, pupils with specific learning needs and disabilities continue
to encounter numerous barriers to equitable participation and learning
(Block and Obrusnikova, 2007; Fitzgerald, 2006; Smith and Thomas,
2006). A similar picture emerges in recent research related to visually
impaired pupils in physical education (Grenier, 2006; Lieberman and
Houston-Wilson, 2002; OConnell et al., 2006; Stuart et al., 2006).
Given the apparent discrepancy between curriculum aspirations and
practice, this research project set out to consider the contentious issue
of inclusion in physical education by exploring the personal stories
and experiences of a visually impaired (totally blind) pupil, his physical
education teacher and his learning support assistant.

BARRIERS TO INCLUSION IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION

The prevalent research view of inclusion in physical education suggests
that pupils with disabilities and/or special educational needs are disadvantaged in physical education and sport (Block and Obrusnikova, 2007;
Fitzgerald et al., 2003, 2004; Hodge et al., 2004; Morley et al., 2005;
Smith and Thomas, 2006). Whilst positive attitudes towards inclusion are
prevalent, research consistently points out that many physical education
teachers feel ill prepared to teach pupils with special educational needs
and/or disabilities, highlighting deficiencies in initial teacher education
and continuous professional development as a concern (Fitzgerald et al.,
2004, 2005; Hodge et al., 2004; Morley et al., 2005).
Fitzgerald et al. (2004) and Golder et al. (2005) point out that the general area of special educational needs and inclusion is often overlooked
in initial teacher training and development, with other issues such as
gender, social situations or ethnicity given preference. Hodge et al.
(2004) also identified lack of training and knowledge to be a significant
factor in physical educators struggles to achieve inclusion in their teaching.
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They concluded that, despite mostly positive attitudes towards inclusion,

teachers frequently failed to modify and adapt their instruction to fully
meet the needs, interests and abilities of students with disabilities.
A comprehensive study by Morley et al. (2005), conducting in-depth
interviews with physical education teachers in schools throughout the
north-east of England, supports these findings, identifying a range of
short-comings in initial teacher education and continuous professional
development. They conclude that, in order to successfully promote
inclusion of pupils with special educational needs in physical education, teachers require a deeper knowledge and understanding of inclusion issues and strategies.

UNHEARD VOICES: PUPILS AND LEARNING

SUPPORT ASSISTANTS
Historically, the majority of the research into special educational needs
and disability in physical education has centred on teachers views and
beliefs. Fitzgerald (2005) and Smith and Thomas (2006) highlight the
lack of research into the experiences of pupils themselves, insisting that
more research needs to take into account pupils views. In addition to
this, several studies identify the importance of the role of learning support assistants in physical education lessons (Hodge et al., 2004;
Morley et al., 2005; Smith and Green, 2004; Smith and Thomas, 2006).
Commonly, teachers emphasize that, without learning support assistants, teaching classes that include pupils with a range of special educational needs is very challenging, due to the time and attention these
pupils require (Morley et al., 2005).
Taking into account the relative paucity of studies that include the views
of disabled pupils and those of learning support assistants, this research
project was designed to allow for the voices of all parties to be heard.
The individual experiences and perspectives of the visually impaired
pupil, as well as the learning support assistant and the physical education teacher would be explored to gain an understanding of inclusion
aspects relevant to their respective situations.

METHOD
A case study method was adopted for this research project as it aimed
to understand the feelings and beliefs of individuals involved in realworld settings. The participating pupil was a 13-year-old (Year 9/Key
Stage 3) male pupil who attended a school for children with moderate
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learning difficulties with 260 pupils. This pupil was totally blind and
also had moderate learning difficulties. The pupils one-to-one learning
support assistant was present during all relevant stages of the investigation. The learning support assistant was an experienced, level 2 qualified female, with 7 years of experience in this role. She also had been
working with this pupil for three years on a one-to-one basis. The physical education teacher was a male full-time teacher with 11 years of
teaching experience, six of which had been at mainstream schools. He
also was the Head of Physical Education at the school.
Semi-structured interviews were conducted with all parties. The areas to
be reviewed during interviews were previewed during initial discussions with the physical education teacher and the learning support
assistant to ensure the relevance, completeness and appropriateness of
the questions.
Field observations stretched over a period of 30 hours.

LIMITATIONS
It is clear that there are several limitations to this case study. First, the
small number of participants negates any attempts to generalize the
findings of this study. Second, the selection of a moderate learning difficulty school limits the relevance that the findings may have for mainstream schools. However, the tight focus on the nucleus of participants
in this study is also considered to be the main strength of this investigation, since it allowed the researcher to explore the experiences of the
participants and gain a meaningful understanding of the nature of the
learning experience they shared.

FINDINGS
Training, development and support
The perceived importance of training, development and support in relation to including visually impaired pupils in physical education lessons
was highlighted by the physical education teacher and the pupils oneto-one learning support assistant. However, it was more the absence
rather than the presence of such training that appeared to be of significance. Whilst both had received generic training related to pupils with
special educational needs while at the school, the physical education
teacher stated that, until most recently, he had received no dedicated
training in the field of teaching visual impaired pupils. In addition to
this he had received no professional development in teaching pupils
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H E R O L D & DA N D O L O : I N C L U D I N G V I S U A L LY I M PA I R E D S T U D E N T S

with special educational needs during his six years at mainstream

schools.
Whilst he valued the opportunity to access this generic training, he was
not convinced that the level and quality of this had been high enough
to enhance his practice. Some of these training opportunities were conducted alongside mainstream colleagues, and he was critical of their
understanding of inclusion issues.
The things I see people doing on these inclusion courses were
already doing here... Im not blowing our own trumpet and things,
but we do a lot of stuff to include kids here. I think there are a lot of
people who dont know whats going on in the inclusion field and
they [pause] they look at inclusion and they see integration as inclusion. They think just because you get a kid in a lesson that is inclusion. Inclusion is actually looking at the individuals needs and then
addressing those within your lesson and I dont think that is happening. (Physical education teacher)
Having sought some help from the local authoritys SEN advisory service, his only support in teaching visually impaired pupils comprised a
visit from one of the authoritys advisory staff. Whilst the teacher
enjoyed the opportunity to discuss the needs of his visually impaired
pupils, this appeared to have no significant impact on his practice. This
may have been due to the fact that the support had a generic focus, and
was not specific to physical education. The most positive effect the
physical education teacher identified following this visit was to be left
with some useful resource cards, which gave him some practical ideas
for his teaching. He was aware that aspects of his practice related to
working with his visually impaired pupil were isolated and often relied
on idea generation from within, building his teaching on his own ideas
and experiences. Whilst he was clearly proud of the achievements that
he, the learning support assistant and the pupil shared, the limitations
of their practice, for instance in generating ideas for inclusion in invasion games, were evident in some of his reflections.
The learning support assistant also stressed that she had not received
sufficiently specific training in relation to working so closely with a
blind pupil in physical education. Although members of the authoritys
advisory service came into school to work with the pupil on a regular
basis during main curriculum sessions, there appeared to be limited
guidance for the learning support assistant as far as physical education
was concerned. The help provided by the local authority, whilst
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supportive in nature, thus did not have a significant impact on developing pedagogical approaches and practical strategies related to teaching visually impaired pupils in physical education.
The physical education teacher also regarded the curricular guidance
and exemplification materials about the National Curriculum in
Physical Education to be limited as far as teaching visually impaired
pupils in physical education is concerned.
I dont think the National Curriculum is supported as much as it
could be. I dont see stuff coming out from the DfES [Department for
Education] thats specifically talking about visual impairment and
how I can address that in PE. I get stuff about ICT and how I can
address that in PE. I get stuff about literacy strategy and how I can
address that within my PE. I have never received anything regarding
visual impairment. We have had stuff on learning difficulties but its
been very, very low level... Weve not actually even used that.
(Physical education teacher)
The physical education teacher also considered the assessment arrangements as outlined in the National Curriculum for Physical Education to
be problematic for his visually impaired pupil, as he felt that they did
not allow the pupil to fully demonstrate his abilities and be rewarded
for the progress he had made. This, however, did not seem to affect his
personal motivation and enthusiasm about his teaching and he strongly
valued the inclusive ethos at his current school.
The views and experiences of both the physical education teacher and
the learning support assistant concurred with the body of literature
(Fitzgerald et al., 2004; Morley et al., 2005) in highlighting the importance of training, development and support in enabling PE teachers to
fully meet the needs and requirements of visually impaired pupils.

Learning support assistants

The presence of the learning support assistant in the lessons was central
to the pupils learning, as well as his emotional well-being. This was
emphasized in all interviews, as well as in the observations during his
physical education lessons. In gymnastics, for example, whenever the
pupil did not fully understand the verbal instructions of the teacher, the
learning support assistant would verbally explain them again, in more
detail. If required, she would physically model the activity, helping the
pupil into the desired positions. The learning support assistant herself
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clearly took pride in her contributions to the pupils learning and also
felt a positive emotional bond towards him.
The teacher also regarded the learning support assistant as central to the
learning of the pupil. During observations it became clear that the permanent presence of the learning support assistant constituted the most valuable resource for the pupil, clarifying and adapting activities and helping
to facilitate physical engagement, while monitoring health and safety
issues. Interestingly, on asking the pupil who his physical education
teacher was, he named the learning support assistant (!) rather than the
actual physical education teacher. This would indicate that, from his experience, the specialist learning support assistant was the most influential
person in his physical education lesson. Indeed, one would be hard
pressed to find a more pertinent example to underline the importance of
learning support assistants for pupils with similar specific education needs.

Resources, facilities and equipment

The teacher and the learning support assistant felt that the practical
resource base to cater for the visually impaired pupils needs could be
further developed. However, financial constraints, and to some extent
his own limited awareness about the availability of effective inclusion
resources, appeared to be the most significant barriers to achieving this.
The teacher felt that more exemplification guidance and advanced
resources to support the learning of visually impaired pupils should be
provided centrally. During the observation of a gymnastics lesson, for
instance, the teacher made clear his frustration that there were no suitable, centrally devised resources, such as specialist worksheets for gymnastics in braille or any other suitable formats that the visually impaired
pupil could understand and use independently.
Wherever adapted equipment was available this was used purposefully to
include the pupil in the lesson. During one softball lesson, for instance, it
was the use of a stand-base that allowed the pupil to become included in
batting, and audible balls were used to include the pupil in many other
games activities. However, the standard of these resources was not always
as high as it should have been and this sometimes caused frustration for
the pupil. When asked what he thought about a deflating jingle ball he
used for one of the activities, he plainly described this as rubbish, a clear
indication that his enjoyment of the lesson was compromised. Whilst the
teacher used and adapted general inclusion materials, it was clear that
with respect to high quality learning resources, the visually impaired pupil
was sometimes experiencing inequitable learning situations.
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CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE IMPLICATIONS

The findings of this study have highlighted several relevant aspects of
inclusion. It was evident that, in line with Hodge et al. (2004), the
teacher and the learning support assistant had positive attitudes towards
inclusion and were aspiring towards achieving this for their pupil. In particular, the role of the one-to-one learning support assistant was central
to the participation and learning experiences of the visually impaired
pupil, giving him both instructional and emotional support. On the
whole, the pupil appeared to feel very comfortable, safe and at ease
when participating in his lessons. The pupils appreciation of the help
provided by his learning support assistant provided the most outstanding
feature of his physical education experience. It might be worth noting
here that over-reliance on this support can also disenfranchise pupils.
However, whilst it was clear that both staff aspired to achieve a positive
learning experience for their pupil, and in many ways succeeded in
doing so, it was also apparent that lack of specific training and guidance
made them feel unsure about aspects of their practice. At times their
reliance on personal ingenuity appeared to develop well-intentioned
outcomes, rather than best practice. In particular, the lack of strategies
and resources to promote the pupils independent learning skills resulted
in the adoption of a limited range of learning styles, reducing the variety
of the pupils learning experiences. This concurs with aforementioned
research (Fitzgerald et al., 2004; Morley et al., 2005; Smith and Thomas,
2006), sensing a gap between inclusive curriculum intentions and the
school-day reality for visually impaired pupils in physical education.
Given the general commitment of physical educators to fulfil the inclusion
agenda, several steps can be taken to support them in their quest to ensure
consistently high-quality physical education experiences for visually
impaired pupils. The specific continuous professional development needs
and support needs for practitioners working with visually impaired pupils
both need to be met effectively. This should crucially extend to learning
support assistants, who play a pivotal role for pupils. Resource needs for
visually impaired pupils should be audited systematically and further
development of central and accessible learning resource bases, including
more advanced learning resources, should be considered. A process of
national auditing, signposting and publicizing such materials more visibly
might help to further support schools in developing best practice.
Opportunities are now increasingly available to physical education
teachers to develop such practice. Actively seeking support and advice
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from organizations such as the English Federation for Disability Sport,

British Blind Sport and the Youth Sport Trust can provide many opportunities and ideas for access to resources that were previously not available to physical educators. The Royal National Institute for Blind People
(RNIB) has also started to provide advice for curriculum planning in
physical education and specific staff development courses in order to
develop and promote best practice in physical education. In its Fit for
All Including Children with Sight Problems in Sport publication the
RNIB (2005) also provides some detailed and useful advice for practitioners who are seeking to develop their practice further. This provision
coincides with a growing range of extra-curricular opportunities and
sporting offers for visually impaired and blind participants in sport.
In addition to this, the substantial funding for physical education that is
currently provided through the Physical Education, School Sport and
Club Links Strategy (DfES, 2003), has resulted in a national network of
local schoolsport partnerships, which increasingly offer opportunities to
access specialist advice, receive support and share good practice. Given
the realization that physical education and sport are so important in
todays couch potato society, it would appear that this is a good time to
seize the Every Child Matters agenda in order to strive for consistently
high-quality physical education experiences for visually impaired pupils.

References
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I. (2007) Inclusion in Physical Education: A Review of

the Literature from 19952005, Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly 24(2):
10322.
DEPARTMENT FOR EDUCATION AND EMPLOYMENT (1999) Physical Education: The
National Curriculum for England. London: HMSO.
DEPARTMENT FOR EDUCATION AND SKILLS (2003) Every Child Matters. Online:
http://www.everychildmatters.gov.uk/aims/ [accessed June 2007].
DEPARTMENT FOR EDUCATION AND SKILLS (2007) Programmes of Study Physical
Education (Draft for consultation 5 February 2007). Online:
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FITZGERALD, H., STEVENSON, P. & BOTTERILL, M.

(2004) Including Disabled Pupils in

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GRENIER, M. (2006) A Social Constructionist Perspective of Teaching and
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Views, British Journal of Sociology of Education 25(5): 593607.
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and Disabilities in National Curriculum Physical Education: A Brief Review,
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STUART, M. E., LIEBERMAN, L. & HAND, K. E. (2006) Beliefs about Physical Activity
among Children Who Are Visually Impaired and Their Parents, The Journal
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FRANK HEROLD

School of Education
University of Birmingham
Edgbaston
Birmingham
B15 2TT, UK
Email: f.a.herold@bham.ac.uk

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