Lesson 1: History of Computers

Introduction to Computers
History of Computers
Throughout time, humans have invented ingenious calculating machines. One of the earliest was the
abacus. It's about 5,000 years old. Mechanical calculators that could add and multiply (but not subtract!)
were invented in the 1600s. In 1820, Charles Xavier Thomas de Colman invented the arithmometer, a
machine that could add, subtract, multiply and divide. It was Charles Babbage though, in the early 1800s,
who designed mechanical calculating machines that were the true ancestor of today's computers. Ada
Byron King (Countess of Lovelace) was his programmer and today is considered the mother of computer
programming.
Babbage's design for his ultimate calculator, the Analytical Engine, was never produced. It did anticipate
the four components essential to modern computing. These components are input, storage, processing and
output.
The problem with Babbage's and other mechanical calculators was just thatthey were mechanical. The
moving parts they relied on were slow and subject to breakdown.
What made modern computers possible was the invention of something that could do calculations and
other information processing with no moving parts and do it very fast. That something was electronic
components. With electronic components, a fast and efficient machine such as Babbage proposed could
be built with all four components essential to modern computing.

Want to Learn More About Inventions?

Visit Visual Ranking and use the interactive thinking tool to arrange a list of inventions in order of
significance. Compare your list with other students' results, and explore the ways in which technological
inventions have shaped the world throughout human history.

computer
What is a Computer?
A computer is a programmable machine. The two principal characteristics of a computer are: it responds
to a specific set of instructions in a well-defined manner and it can execute a prerecorded list of
instructions (a program).

Modern Computers Defined

Modern computers are electronic and digital. The actual machinery -- wires, transistors, and circuits -- is
called hardware; the instructions and data are called software.
All general-purpose computers require the following hardware components:
memory: enables a computer to store, at least temporarily, data and programs.
mass storage device: allows a computer to permanently retain large amounts of data. Common
mass storage devices include disk drives and tape drives.
input device: usually a keyboard and mouse, the input device is the conduit through which
data and instructions enter a computer.
output device: a display screen, printer, or other device that lets you see what the computer
has accomplished.
central processing unit (CPU): the heart of the computer, this is the component that actually
executes instructions.
In addition to these components, many others make it possible for the basic components to work together
efficiently. For example, every computer requires a bus that transmits data from one part of the computer
to another.

Computer Classification, By Size and Power

Computers can be generally classified by size and power as follows, though there is considerable overlap:
personal computer: a small, single-user computer based on a microprocessor. In addition to
the microprocessor, a personal computer has a keyboard for entering data, a monitor for
displaying information, and a storage device for saving data.
workstation: a powerful, single-user computer. A workstation is like a personal computer, but
it has a more powerful microprocessor and a higher-quality monitor.
minicomputer: a multi-user computer capable of supporting from 10 to hundreds of users
simultaneously.
mainframe: a powerful multi-user computer capable of supporting many hundreds or
thousands of users simultaneously.
supercomputer: an extremely fast computer that can perform hundreds of millions of
instructions per second.

Characteristic of a Computer
Category: Introduction to Computer

Basic characteristics about computer are:

1. Speed: - As you know computer can work very fast. It takes only few seconds for calculations
that we take hours to complete. You will be surprised to know that computer can perform
millions (1,000,000) of instructions and even more per second.
Therefore, we determine the speed of computer in terms of microsecond (10-6 part of a second)
or nanosecond (10 to the power -9 part of a second). From this you can imagine how fast your
computer performs work.
2. Accuracy: - The degree of accuracy of computer is very high and every calculation is
performed with the same accuracy. The accuracy level is 7 determined on the basis of design of
computer. The errors in computer are due to human and inaccurate data.
3. Diligence: - A computer is free from tiredness, lack of concentration, fatigue, etc. It can
work for hours without creating any error. If millions of calculations are to be performed, a
computer will perform every calculation with the same accuracy. Due to this capability it
overpowers human being in routine type of work.

4. Versatility: - It means the capacity to perform completely different type of work. You may
use your computer to prepare payroll slips. Next moment you may use it for inventory
management or to prepare electric bills.
5. Power of Remembering: - Computer has the power of storing any amount of information
or data. Any information can be stored and recalled as long as you require it, for any numbers of
years. It depends entirely upon you how much data you want to store in a computer and when to
lose or retrieve these data.
6. No IQ: - Computer is a dumb machine and it cannot do any work without instruction from
the user. It performs the instructions at tremendous speed and with accuracy. It is you to decide
what you want to do and in what sequence. So a computer cannot take its own decision as you
can.
7. No Feeling: - It does not have feelings or emotion, taste, knowledge and experience. Thus it
does not get tired even after long hours of work. It does not distinguish between users.
8. Storage: - The Computer has an in-built memory where it can store a large amount of data.
You can also store data in secondary storage devices such as floppies, which can be kept outside
your computer and can be carried to other computers.

What Are the Basic Functions of a Computer?

Computers have four basic functions: they take in information (input), they store data (storage), they
manipulate data (processing), and they provide the user with information (output).

Software
Software means computer instructions or data. Anything that can be stored electronically is
software, in contrast to storage devices and display devices which are called hardware.

The terms software and hardware are used as both nouns and adjectives. For example, you can
say: "The problem lies in the software," meaning that there is a problem with the program or
data, not with the computer itself. You can also say: "It's a software problem."
The distinction between software and hardware is sometimes confusing because they are so
integrally linked. Clearly, when you purchase a program, you are buying software. But to buy the
software, you need to buy the disk (hardware) on which the software is recorded.

Categories of Software
Software is often divided into two categories. Systems software includes the operating system
and all the utilities that enable the computer to function. Applications software includes

programs that do real work for users. For example, word processors, spreadsheets, and database
management systems fall under the category of applications software.

Hardware
Refers to objects that you can actually touch, like disks, disk drives, display screens, keyboards,
printers, boards, and chips. In contrast, software is untouchable. Software exists as ideas,
concepts, and symbols, but it has no substance.
Books provide a useful analogy. The pages and the ink are the hardware, while the words,
sentences, paragraphs, and the overall meaning are the software. A computer without software is
like a book full of blank pages -- you need software to make the computer useful just as you need
words to make a book meaningful.

Types of Hardware?
A computer has numerous types of hardware. A mouse, keyboard, computer screen, central processing
unit, hard drive, motherboard and your speakers are all types of hardware!

List of Input Devices, Output Devices and Both Input Output

devices related to computer.
Here I am going to share you about list of basic Input Devices, Output devices and Both input-output
devices related to computer.
Input Devices:
a)

Graphics Tablets

b)

Cameras

c)

Video Capture Hardware

d)

Trackballs

e)

Barcode reader

f)

Digital camera

g)

Gamepad

h)

Joystick

i)

Keyboard

j)

Microphone

k)

MIDI keyboard

l)

Mouse (pointing device)

m)

Scanner

n)

Webcam

o)

Touchpads

p)

Pen Input

q)

Microphone

r)

Electronic Whiteboard

OUTPUT DEVICES:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Monitor
Printers (all types)
Plotters
Projector
LCD Projection Panels
Computer Output Microfilm (COM)
Speaker(s)

Both Input-Output Devices:

1. Modems
2. Network cards
3. Touch Screen
4. Headsets (Headset consists of Speakers and Microphone.
Speaker act Output Device and

Microphone act as Input Device)

5. Facsimile (FAX) (It has scanner to scan the document and also have printer to print the document)
6. Audio Cards / Sound Card.

System Unit
The system unit, also known as a "tower" or "chassis," is the main part of a desktop computer. It includes
the motherboard, CPU, RAM, and other components. The system unit also includes the case that houses
the internal components of the computer.
The term "system unit" is often used to differentiate between the computer and peripheral devices, such as
the monitor, keyboard, and mouse. For example, if a repair shop asks you to bring in your computer, it
may be unclear whether you need to bring your monitor and peripheral devices as well. If you are told to
just bring your system unit, it is clear you only need to bring the computer itself.
Some modern computers, such as the iMac, combine the system unit and monitor into a single device. In
this case, the monitor is part of the system unit. While laptops also have built-in displays, they are not
called system units, since the term only refers to desktop computers.

lesson 2

The Shapes of Computers Today

This lesson includes the following sections:
Supercomputers
Mainframe Computers
Minicomputers
Workstations
Microcomputers, or Personal Computers

The Shapes of Computers Today- Supercomputers

Supercomputers are the most powerful computers. They are used for problems requiring
complex calculations.

Because of their size and expense, supercomputers are relatively rare.

Supercomputers are used by universities, government agencies, and large businesses.

The Shapes of Computers Today- Mainframe Computers

Mainframe computers can support hundreds or

massive amounts of input, output, and storage.

Mainframe computers are used in large organizations where many users need access to
shared data and programs.

Mainframes are also used as e-commerce servers,

Internet.

thousands of users, handling

handling transactions over the

The Shapes of Computers Today - Minicomputers

Minicomputers are smaller than mainframes but larger than microcomputers.

Minicomputers usually have multiple terminals.

Minicomputers may be used as network servers and Internet servers.

The Shapes of Computers Today Workstations

Workstations are powerful single-user computers.

Workstations are used for tasks that require a great deal of number-crunching power, such
as product design and computer animation.

Workstations are often used as network and Internet servers.

The Shapes of Computers Today Microcomputers, or Personal

Computers

Microcomputers are more commonly known as personal

applied to IBM-PCs or compatible computers.

computers. The term "PC" is

Full-size desktop computers are the most common type

of PC.

Notebook (laptop) computers are used by people who

system, but also portability.

need the power of a desktop

Handheld PCs (such as PDAs) lack the power of a

desktop or notebook PC, but offer
features for users
who need limited functions and small size.

lesson 2 Review

List the five most common types of computer systems.

Identify two unique features of supercomputers.

Describe a typical use for mainframe computers

Differentiate workstations from personal computers.

Identify four types of personal computers.

lesson 3
Standard Methods of Input
This lesson includes the following sections:

The Keyboard

The Mouse

Variants of the Mouse

The Keyboard

The Standard Keyboard Layout

Ergonomic Keyboards

How a Keyboard Works

The Keyboard - Standard Keyboard Layout

A standard computer keyboard has about 100 keys.

Most keyboards use the QWERTY layout, named for

letters.

the first six keys in the top row of

The Keyboard - Standard Keyboard Layout

Most keyboards have keys arranged in five groups:
1. Alphanumeric keys
2. Numeric keypad
3. Function keys
4. Modifier keys
5. Cursor-movement keys

The Keyboard - Ergonomic Keyboards

Long periods of keyboard use can cause injuries.

An ergonomically correct keyboard can help you avoid

You also can avoid injuries by adopting correct keyboarding practices.

injuries.

The Keyboard - How a Keyboard Works

When you press a key:

The keyboard controller detects the keystroke.

The controller places a scan code in the keyboard buffer,

The keyboard sends the computer an interrupt request, telling the CPU to accept the keystroke.

The Mouse

What is a Mouse?

indicating which key was pressed.

Mouse Techniques

The Mouse - What is a Mouse?

The mouse is a pointing device. You use it to move a

graphical pointer on the screen.

The mouse can be used to issue commands, draw, and

perform other types of input tasks.

The Mouse - Mouse Techniques

Using the mouse involves five techniques:
1. Pointing; Move the mouse to move the on-screen pointer.
2. Clicking; Press and release the left mouse button
once.
3. Double-clicking; Press and release the left mouse
button twice.
4. Dragging; Hold down the left mouse button as you
move the pointer.
5. Right-clicking; Press and release the right mouse button.

Variants of the Mouse

Trackballs

Trackpads

Integrated Pointed Devices

Variants of the Mouse - Trackballs

A trackball is like a mouse turned upside-down.

Use your thumb to move the exposed ball and your fingers to press the buttons.

Variants of the Mouse - Trackpads

A trackpad is a touch-sensitive pad that provides the same functionality as a mouse.

To use a trackpad, you glide your finger across its

Trackpads provide a set of buttons that function like mouse buttons.

surface.

Variants of the Mouse- Integrated Pointing Devices

An integrated pointing device is a small joystick built into the keyboard.

To use an integrated pointing device, you move the joystick.

These devices provide a set of buttons that function like mouse buttons.

lesson 3 Review

Identify the five key groups on a standard computer keyboard.

Describe the purpose of a mouse and the role it plays in computing.

Identify the five essential techniques for using a mouse.

Identify three common variants of the mouse.

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lesson 4
Alternative Methods Of Input
This lesson includes the following sections:

Devices for the Hand

Optical Input Devices

Audio-Visual (Multimedia) Input Devices

Alternative Input Devices Devices for the Hand

Pens

Touch Screens

Game Controllers

Devices for the Hand - Pens

With a pen-based system, you use an electronic pen to write on the screen and choose commands.

Pens are common input devices for handheld computers, like personal digital assistants (PDAs).

Pens are handy for making notes or selecting commands, not for inputting a lot of text.

Devices for the Hand - Touch Screens

Touch-screen systems accept input directly through the monitor.

Touch screens use sensors to detect the touch of a finger. They are useful where environmental
conditions prohibit the use of a keyboard or mouse.

Touch-screen systems are useful for selecting options from menus.

Devices for the Hand - Game Controllers

The two primary types of game controllers are joysticks and game pads.

Game pads usually provide controls for each hand.

Joysticks are popular for flight simulator and driving games.

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Alternative Input Devices Optical Input Devices

Bar Code Readers

Image Scanners and OCR

Optical Input Devices - Bar Code Readers

Bar code readers can read bar codespatterns of printed bars.

The reader emits light, which reflects off the bar code and into a detector in the reader. The
detector translates the code into numbers.

Flatbed bar code readers are commonly found in supermarkets. Courier services often use
handheld readers.

Optical Input Devices Image Scanners and OCR

Image scanners digitize printed images for storage and manipulation in a computer.

A scanner shines light onto the image and interprets the reflection.

Optical character recognition (OCR) software translates scanned text into editable electronic
documents.

Alternative Input Devices Audio-Visual (Multimedia) Input

Devices

Microphones and Speech Recognition

Video Input

Audio-Visual (Multimedia) Input Devices - Microphones and

Speech Recognition

Microphones can accept auditory input. A microphone requires a sound card in the PC.

A sound card can digitize analog sound signals, and convert digital sound signals to analog form.

With speech recognition software, you can use your microphone to dictate text, navigate programs,
and choose commands.
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Audio-Visual (Multimedia) Input Devices Video Input

PC video cameras digitize full-motion images.

Digital cameras capture still images.

These cameras break images into pixels and store data about each pixel.

Video images may be compressed to use less memory and storage space.

lesson 4 Review

List two reasons why some computer users prefer alternative methods of input over a standard
keyboard or mouse.

List three categories of alternative input devices.

List two type of optical input devices and describe their uses.

Describe the uses for speech-recognition systems.

Identify two types of video input devices and their uses.

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lesson 5
Monitors and Sound Systems
This lesson includes the following sections:

Monitors

PC Projectors

Sound Systems

Monitors

Categories of Monitors

CRT Monitors

Flat-Panel Monitors

Comparing Monitors

Video Controllers

Monitors - Categories of Monitors

Monitors are categorized by the technology they use:

Cathode ray tube (CRT) monitors

Flat-panel displays

And by the way they display colors:

Monochrome One color on a black background

Grayscale Shades of gray on a white or off-white background

Color From 16 to 16 million unique colors

Monitors - CRT Monitors

In CRT monitors, electrons are fired at phosphor dots on the screen.

The dots are grouped into pixels, which glow when struck by electrons.

In color CRTs, each pixel contains a red, green, and blue dot. These glow at varying intensities to
produce color images.

Monitors - Flat-Panel Monitors

Most flat-panel monitors use liquid crystal display (LCD) technology.

Passive matrix LCD uses a transistor for each row and column of pixels.

Active matrix LCD uses a transistor for each pixel on the screen.

Thin-film transistor displays use multiple

transistors for each pixel.

Monitors - Comparing Monitors

When comparing monitors, consider four features:

Size

Resolution

Refresh rate

Dot pitch

Comparing Monitors - Size

A monitor's size is the diagonal

For years, 15" monitors (13"viewing

Today, 17" monitors (15" viewing area) are common.

Larger monitors are available, but can be expensive.

measurement of its face, in inches.

area) were standard.

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Comparing Monitors - Resolution

Resolution is the number of pixels on the screen,

A 17" monitor offers resolutions from 640x480 up to 1280x1024.

The Video Graphics Array (VGA) standard is 640x480. Super VGA (SVGA) monitors provide
resolutions of 800x600, 1024x768 or higher.

expressed as a matrix (such as 600x800).

Comparing Monitors - Refresh Rate

Refresh rate is the number of times each second that the electron guns scan the screen's pixels.

Refresh rate is measured in Hertz (Hz), or cycles per second.

Look for a refresh rate of 72 Hz or higher. A slower rate may cause eyestrain.

Comparing Monitors - Dot Pitch

Dot pitch is the distance between the phosphor dots that make up a single pixel.

In color monitors, three dots (red, green, and blue) comprise each pixel.

Look for a dot pitch no greater than .28 millimeter.

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Monitors - Video Controllers

The video controller is an interface between the monitor and the CPU.

The video controller determines many aspects of a monitor's performance, such as resolution or
the number of colors displayed.

The video controller contains its own on-board

(VRAM).

processor and memory, called video RAM

PC Projectors

A PC projector connects to a PC and is used to project images on a large screen.

Many PC projectors provide the same resolutions and color levels as high-quality monitors.

Digital light processing (DLP) projectors use a microchip containing tiny mirrors to produce very
sharp, bright images.

Sound Systems

Multimedia PCs come with a sound card, speakers, and a CD-ROM or DVD drive.

A sound card translates digital signals into analog ones that drive the speakers.

With the right software, you can use your PC to edit sounds and create special sound effects.

lesson 5 - Review

List the two most commonly used types of computer monitors.

Explain how a CRT monitor displays images.

Identify two types of flat-panel monitors and explain their differences.

List four characteristics you should consider when comparing monitors.

Explain how a computer outputs sound.

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lesson 6
Devices that Output Hard Copy
This lesson includes the following sections:

Overview of Printers

Dot Matrix Printers

Ink Jet Printers

Laser Printers

Snapshot Printers

Other High-Quality Printers

Overview of Printers

Categorizing Printers

Evaluating Printers

Overview of Printers - Categorizing Printers

Printers fall into two categories:

Impact printers use a device to strike an inked ribbon, pressing ink from the ribbon onto the paper.

Non-impact printers use different methods to place ink (or another substance) on the page.

Overview of Printers - Evaluating Printers

When evaluating printers, consider four criteria:

Image quality Measured in dots per inch (dpi). Most printers produce 300 600 dpi.

Speed Measured in pages per minute (ppm) or characters per second (cps).

Initial cost Consumer printers cost $250 or less, but professional printers can cost thousands of
dollars.

Cost of operation This refers to the cost of supplies used by the printer.

Dot Matrix Printers

How Do Dot Matrix Printers Work?

Performance

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Dot Matrix Printers -How Do Dot Matrix Printers Work?

Dot matrix printers are a common type of impact

A dot matrix printer's print head contains a cluster of pins. The printer can push the pins out to
form patterns in rapid sequence.

The pins press an inked ribbon against the paper, creating an image.

printer.

Dot Matrix Printers - Performance

Lower-resolution dot matrix printers use nine pins. Higher-resolution models have 24 pins.

Speed is measured in characters per second (cps). Some dot matrix printers print 500 cps.

Ink Jet Printers

How Do Ink Jet Printers Work?

Performance

Ink Jet Printers How Do Ink Jet Printers Work?

Ink jet printers are an example of non-impact printers.

The printer sprays tiny droplets of ink onto the paper.

Ink jet printers are available for color and black-and-white printing.

Ink Jet Printers - Performance

Ink jet printers offer speeds of (2 4 pages per minute ppm) and resolution (300 600 dots per
inch dpi), comparable to low-end laser printers.

Ink jet printers are inexpensive and have low operating costs.

Laser Printers

How Do Laser Printers Work?

Performance

Laser Printers How Do Laser Printers Work?

Laser printers are non-impact printers.

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They use heat and pressure to bond particles of toner to paper.

Laser printers are available for color and black-and-white printing.

Laser Printers - Performance

Laser printers provide resolutions from 300 1200 dpi and higher.

Black-and-white laser printers usually produce 4 16 ppm.

Laser printers produce higher-quality print than ink jet printers, but are more expensive.

Snapshot Printers

Snapshot printers are specialized, small-format printers that print digital photographs.

Snapshot printers are fairly slow, and can be more expensive to operate.

Other High-Quality Printers

Print shops and publishers use these printers to create high-quality color images:

Thermal-wax

Dye-sublimation

Fiery

IRIS

Plotters

lesson 6 Review

List the three most commonly used types of printers.

List the four criteria you should consider when evaluating printers.

Describe how a dot matrix printer creates an

Explain the process by which a laser printer operates.

List five types of high-quality printing devices commonly used in business.

image on a page.

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lesson 7
Transforming Data into Information
This lesson includes the following sections:

How Computers Represent Data

How Computers Process Data

Factors Affecting Processing Speed

Extending the Processor's Power to

Other Devices

How Computers Represent Data

Binary Numbers

The Binary Number System

Bits and Bytes

Text Codes

How Computers Represent Data Binary Numbers

Computer processing is performed by transistors, which are switches with only two possible states:
on and off.

All computer data is converted to a series of binary numbers 1 and 0. For example, you see a
sentence as a collection of letters, but the computer sees each letter as a collection of 1s and 0s.

If a transistor is assigned a value of 1, it is on. If it has a value of 0, it is off. A computer's transistors

can be switched on and off millions of times each second

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The Binary Number System

To convert data into strings of numbers, computers use the binary number system.

Humans use the decimal system (decistands for ten).

The binary number system works the same way as the decimal system, but has only two available
symbols (0 and 1) rather than ten (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9).

Base 10 Base 2
0

10

11

100

101

110

111

1000

1001

10

1010

How Computers Represent Data - Bits and Bytes

A single unit of data is called a bit, having a value of 1 or 0.

Computers work with collections of bits, grouping them to represent larger pieces of data, such as
letters of the alphabet.

Eight bits make up one byte. A byte is the amount of memory

alphanumeric character.

With one byte, the computer can represent one of 256 different symbols or characters.

needed to store one

How Computers Represent Data - Text Codes

A text code is a system that uses binary numbers (1s and 0s) to represent characters understood by
humans (letters and numerals).

An early text code system, called EBCDIC, uses eight-bit codes, but is used primarily in older
mainframe systems.

In the most common text-code set, ASCII, each character consists of eight bits (one byte) of data.
ASCII is used in nearly all personal computers.

In the Unicode text-code set, each character consists of 16 bits (two bytes) of data.

Examples from the ASCII Text Code

Code

Character

00110001

00110010

00110011

00110100

00110101

01000001

01000010

01000011

01000100

01000101

How Computers Process Data

Where Processing Occurs:

The Control Unit

The Arithmetic Logic Unit

Machine Cycles

The Role of Memory in Processing

Types of RAM

How Computers Process Data Where Processing Occurs

Processing takes place in the PC's central processing unit (CPU).

The system's memory also plays a crucial role in processing data.

Both the CPU and memory are attached to the system's motherboard, which connects all the
computer's devices together, enabling them to communicate.

How Computers Process Data The Control Unit

The two main parts of a CPU are the control unit and the arithmetic logic unit (ALU)

The control unit directs the flow of data through the CPU, and to and from other devices.

The control unit stores the CPU's microcode, which contains the instructions for all the tasks the
CPU can perform.
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How Computers Process Data The Arithmetic Logic Unit

The actual manipulation of data takes place in the ALU.

The ALU can perform arithmetic and logic operations.

The ALU is connected to a set of registerssmall memory areas in the CPU, which hold data and
program instructions while they are being processed.

ALU Operations List

Arithmetic Operations
+ Add

Logical Operations
=, =

- Subtract

>, > greater than, not greater than

x Multiply

<, < less than, not less than

Divide
not greater than or equal to
^ Raise by a power

than or equal to,

not less than or equal to

How Computers Process Data Machine Cycles

The CPU follows a set of steps-called a machine cycle-for each instruction it carries out.

By using a technique called pipelining, many CPUs can process more than one instruction at a time.

The machine cycle includes two smaller cycles:

During the instruction cycle, the CPU "fetches" a command or data from memory and "decodes" it
for the CPU.

During the execution cycle, the CPU carries out the instruction, and may store the instruction's
result in memory.

How Computers Process Data The Role of Memory

RAM stores data and program code needed by the CPU. The contents of RAM change rapidly and
often.

Read-only memory (ROM) is nonvolatile (or permanent). It holds instructions that run the
computer when the power is first turned on.
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The CPU accesses each location in memory by using a unique number, called the memory address.

How Computers Process Data - Types of RAM

There are two basic types of RAM: static and dynamic.

Dynamic RAM (DRAM) chips must be recharged with electricity very frequently, or they will lose
their contents.

Static RAM (SRAM) does not need to be recharged as often as DRAM, and can hold its contents
longer.

Another type of RAM, called flash memory, can store its contents after power is turned off. Flash
memory is used in digital cameras to store pictures.

Factors Affecting Processing Speed

Registers

RAM

The System Clock

The Bus

Cache Memory

Factors Affecting Processing Speed Registers

The CPU contains a number of small memory areas, called registers, which store data and
instructions while the CPU processes them.

The size of the registers (also called word size) determines the amount of data with which the
computer can work at a one time.

Today, most PCs have 32-bit registers, mean the CPU can process four bytes of data at one time.
Register sizes are rapidly growing to 64 bits.

Factors Affecting Processing Speed RAM

The amount of RAM in a PC has a direct affect on the system's speed.

The more RAM a PC has, the more program instructions and data can be held in memory, which is
faster than storage on
disk.

If a PC does not have enough memory to run a program, it must move data between RAM and the
hard disk frequently. This process, called swapping, can greatly slow a PC's performance.
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Factors Affecting Processing Speed The System Clock

The computer's system clock sets the pace for the CPU by using a vibrating quartz crystal.

A single "tick" of the clock is the time required to turn a

a clock cycle.

Clock cycles are measured in Hertz (Hz), a measure of cycles per second. If a computer has a clock
speed of 300 MHz, then its system clock "ticks" 300 million times every second.

The faster a PC's clock runs, the more instructions the PC can execute each second.

transistor off and back on. This is called

Factors Affecting Processing Speed The Bus

A bus is a path between the components of a computer. Data and instructions travel along these
paths.

The data bus' width determines how many bits can be transmitted between the CPU and other
devices.

The address bus runs only between the CPU and RAM, and carries nothing but memory addresses
for the CPU to use.

Peripheral devices are connected to the CPU by an expansion bus.

Factors Affecting Processing Speed

Cache Memory

Cache memory is high-speed memory that holds the most recent data and instructions that have
been loaded by the CPU.

Cache is located directly on the CPU or between the CPU and RAM, making it faster than normal
RAM.

CPU-resident cache is called Level-1 (L1) cache. External cache is called Level-2 (L2) cache.

The amount of cache memory has a tremendous impact on the computer's speed.

Extending the Processor's Power to Other Devices

Ports

Expansion Slots and Boards

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Extending the Processor's Power to Other Devices Ports

External devicessuch as those used for input and outputare connected to the system by ports
on the back of the computer.

PCs feature a number of built-in ports, which are ready to accept devices such as a printer, mouse,
keyboard, phone line, microphone and speakers, and others.

Most computers come with a serial port and a parallel port. A serial port transmits one bit of data
at a time; a parallel port transmits data one byte at a time.

Adding Other Devices Expansion Slots and Boards

If the PC does not have a port for an external device, you can install an expansion board into one of
the empty expansion slots.

A board provides the correct port for the new device, and connects the
way of the computer's expansion bus.

Newer bus technologies such as Universal Serial Bus (USB) and IEEE 1394 enable many devices to be
connected to one port.

Small Computer System Interface (SCSI) is an older standard for extending the bus to multiple
devices through a single port.

lesson 7 Review

device to the CPU by

List two reasons why computers use the binary number system.

List the two main parts of the CPU and explain how they work together.

Explain the difference between RAM and ROM.

Identify two RAM technologies used in PCs.

List three hardware factors that affect processing speed.

Identify four connections used to attach devices to a PC.

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