Professional Documents
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Animal Powered
Machine Powered
Transitional
(improved vehicle)
Advanced
(the 'way' improved)
Chronologically transport development started with basic land and water transport where
motive power was provided by the human. Land transport developed to using other
animals as beasts of burden - horses, camels, etc. Further development occured with the
invention of devices to attach to the animal - sleds, carts, etc. A major step forward
occurred with the invention of the wheel, although the development of wheeled vehicles
was fairly slow.Water transport developed with the use of devices to carry the person canoe type structures, where the power was still provided by the human. The
development of the sail allowed the use of an external power - the wind. The use of sail
transport was limited by navigation restrictions (the necessity to be in sight of land) and
the inability to sail against the wind. The technique of sailing against the wind developed
in the mid 1400's with the development of multi-masted vessels.
A major impetus to the development of transport occur with the industrial revolution and
particularly the harnessing of steam power. This led to the development of the railway in
the early 1800's and a worldwide boom in railway construction occurred between about
1830 and 1900. Steam power also led to the development of steam ships and a move
away from sailing ships. The development of the motor vehicle in the late 1800's and
early 1900's started the decline in railway building and rail transport. However, at the turn
of the century it was by no means clear as to which way road transport would develop
with steam, electric and internal combustion engine powered vehicles all being used. The
internal combustion engine was to win out for road transport, and its relative compactness
and lightness also led to its use in the development of aircraft.
LINK TO THE PICTURE GALLERY
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1900
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4000
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6250
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2. Transport Planning
2.1 Transport Planning
Transport planning is a methodical process of planning for future transport needs. It is a
combination of art (creativity required) and science (solution of highly technical
problems).
It needs to be coordinated with other aspects of community planning, particularly land
use planning.
Data may be cross-sectional (ie establishing characteristics across the area at one point in
time- the usual case) or time series (establishing the change of characteristics with time).
Census data often provides cross-sectional data on characteristics such as population
distribution and age characteristics. Home interview surveys will also frequently be used
in transport studies to supplement census data and to obtain specific data on travel
characteristics. Home interview surveys generally sample about 5 to 20 % of households
and obtain data on general household characteristics (eg number of motor vehicles in the
household), characteristics of individual household members (eg age, drivers licence
holding or not, etc) and/or particulars of individual trips.
Home-based (any trip having either the origin or the destination of the trip as the
home), and
Non-home based (any trip having neither the trip origin nor the trip destination as
the home).
Trip Generation is the sub-model of the transport planning model which predicts the total
number of trips generated and attracted to each zone in the study area.
The two methods which are commonly used to build trip generation sub-models are:
The trip distribution sub-model is the second sub-model used in the transport planning
model. It uses the data produced by the trip generation sub-model to predict the number
of trips which will occur between one zone and another.
In mathematical terms, the trip generation sub-model will give a prediction of the total
trips generated from zone i (Pi), and the total trips attracted to zone j (Aj). The trip
distribution sub-model then allows the prediction of the interzonal trips between zones i
and j (Tij).
The methods used for trip distribution fall into two groups:
Various mathematical models are used for mode choice modelling, with the most
commonly used being disutility curves, and probit and logit modelling techniques.
The basis of assignment is usually travel time, and as future trips are assigned to the
network travel times can be expected to vary.
In the traffic assignment process it is not unusual to find that the proposed road network
becomes overloaded and that some car trips may need to be restrained.
There are four common methods of traffic assignment:
all-or-nothing assignment;
assignment by the use of diversion curves;
capacity restrained assignment; and
multipath proportional assignment.
2.10 Evaluation
Once results from a transport model have been produced they need to be evaluated. Four
different forms of evaluation should take place:
Numerical evaluation. This is to confirm the computational validity of the results.
Two main sources of error which occur are programming errors (i.e. errors in the
computational algorithms used) and input information errors.
Operational evaluation. This is to confirm that the predictions made, and solutions
adapted, are physically achievable in the real world. Types of problems which
occur include the fact that modelling is usually done with 24 hour flows but the
network needs to be able to cope with peak period flows, and traffic assignment
may tend to leave some links very heavily loaded while other alternate links have
light flows predicted.
Environmental evaluation. Any proposed transport change must be perceived by
the community as being acceptable, or at least more acceptable than any
alternative.
Economic evaluation.The final stage of the evaluation process is commonly
known as cost-benefit analysis or economic evaluation. The basic approach to
economic evaluation is to compare the expected benefits with the cost of making
and operating any change.
unresponsive to policy needs or changes, and the process tended to rely too much on
historical data rather than being based on a true understanding of travel behaviour.
In the late 1960's researchers started to model transport demand based on behavioural
factors. This required consideration of individual travellers, or a "disaggregate" approach.
In the 1970's research into travel behaviour increased substantially. In the late 1970's
papers on 'activity analysis' appeared. Activity analysis sees travel as but one type of
human activity.
In the 1980's research tended to focus on dynamic analysis of travel behaviour which
focuses on looking at changes in travel behaviour (which requires longitudinal time series
data rather than the more common cross-sectional data).
The rapid increase in the power of microcomputers has meant that transport modelling
has tended to shift away from main-frame computers to microcomputers.
The EMME/2 package is marketed by INRO , a Canadian firm, and a description of the
product is available by accessing their site and proceeding through 'Products' and then
EMME/2. The software comes in different sizes with the smallest size handling a
maximum of 250 zones, and the largest size handling a maximum of 4000 zones.
The SIDRA (Signalised Intersection Design Research Aid) was developed under the
guidance of Dr Rahmi Akcelik when he was at the Australian Road Research Board in
Victoria. The product has been further developed and is now serviced By Akelik and
Associates whose Web site gives a good description of the product.
safe
convenient
effective, and
efficient
transfer of goods and people.
Each level of government is responsible for some of the nation's road network. The
Federal Government is responsible for direct funding of the National Highway System,
which are the major routes covering the whole country. The State Governments are
responsible for the major road network within their individual states. This is usually
known as the "declared" road system (the roads are declared as important under a state
Act of Parliament). Responsibility for the remainder of the public road systemfalls to
Local Governments (Cities, Towns, Municipalities or Shires).
Each State has a State Road Authority, although the name differs between States
e.g.Queensland has a "Department of Main Roads", New South Wales has a "Road and
Traffic Authority", and Victoria has "VICROADS".
In the state of Queensland their are six types of declared roads:
Urban Arterial
Urban Sub-arterial
State Highway
Developmental Road
Main Road
Secondary Road
The Queensland road network consists of about 165,000 km. of road, of which 39,800
km. is declared road. The remaining 125,200 km. is under the control of the 134 local
authorities.
bituminous materials
unbound granular materials (gravels or loams)
cemented materials, and
cement concrete
the position in the pavement (different materials are used for areas just under the
surface and those areas lower down in the pavement structure),
the climatic conditions (specification regarding material plasticity may be more
demanding in wetter areas),
traffic (generally better quality materials are required for more heavily trafficked
roads), and
availability.
durability
The classification of bitumen is based on its viscosity at 60 degrees C. For example Class
170 bitumen has a viscosity in the range 140 to 200 Pa.s. (170 being the mid-point of the
range) at 60 degrees C.
The classes of bitumen generally used for road making purposes in Australia are 170 and
320.
The range of tests used for determining the characteristics of bitumen is as follows:
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Precoating, Priming
27, 21, 16
11, 7, 3
Sealing
different types of aggregateand it is necessary for them to be tested for effectiveness with
the particular aggregate to be used. They are generally used in the proportion of about 0.5
to 1% of the volume of the bitumen.
Plant mix surfaces are used where higher traffic volumes prevail, and the change from the
use of sprayed surfacing to plant mix surfacing occurs when traffic volumes exceed 5000
to 7000 vehicles per day.
Primes
Preliminary applications
Short life
Typical application 0.8 litres per square metre (0.5 to 1.4, depending on
surface porosity)
Primerseals
o Life of a few months
o Typical application 1 litre per square metre + fine aggregate
Seals
o Application of binder + aggregate
o Life 7 to 15 years
o Types:
One binder + one aggregate (single/single)
One binder + two aggregates (single/double)
Two binder + two aggregates (double/double)
o Where two aggregates are used, the size of the second aggregate is approx.
1/2 size of first aggregate
Reseals
o Applied over existing bituminous surface to prolong life of pavement
surface.
Surface enrichment
o Application of new binder to existing seal where aggregate still okay, but
binder deteriorating.
o Also known as enrichment seal or fog coat.
o Binder is usually cutback bitumen or bitumen emulsion.
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4.1.2 Asphalt
Also known as hot mix, plant mix, asphaltic concrete or bituminous concrete.
Used for new pavement surfaces, strengthening existing pavements or correcting
surface irregularities.
Types:
o Dense graded (normal asphalt)
o Open graded, and
o Gap graded
Mixes may be hot mixed and hot laid, or warm mixed and cold laid, or cold mixed
and cold laid.
The nominal size of a mix is the nominal size of the largest aggregate in the mix,
e.g. 20mm mix.
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to minimise the effects of dust which may remain on the surface after
sweeping;
to strengthen the pavement near the surface by increasing cohesion; and
to provide a short term running surface prior to sealing.
The type of primer and application rate should be such that the primer penetrates
the surface up to a depth of 10mm, and leaves a continuous film of binder at the
surface. Selection of primer type is usually influenced by availability, cost, and
previous experience as to suitability.
The condition of the surface to be primed is assessed as to its 'tightness'
(resistance to penetration by the primer) and this assessment is largely based on
experience.
Typical primes would be cutback bitumens (AMC00 to AMC1) with application
rates from 0.5 to 1.3 litres per square metre, depending on conditions.
type of treatment;
nature and volume of traffic;
traffic noise levels;
condition of the pavment; and
horizontal and vertical alignment.
Where two applications of aggregate are used, the nominal size of the aggregate
in the second application should be approximately one half of that used in the first
application.
Step 3. Select Aggregate Type.
Step 4. Select Aggregate Application Rate .
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bitumen;
fluxed bitumen;
cutback bitumen; and
bitumen emulsion.
The design aim is for the binder level to be between one half and two
thirds of the ALD of the aggregate. this provides a good compromise
between the levels required to hold the aggregate in place, waterproof the
pavement, and provide adequate surface texture and durability.
The basic application rate is found using the formula:
Application rate (l/sq.m.) = ALD x Void Factor
The following table relates Void Factor and traffic volume (expressed in
terms of the Annual Average Daily Traffic, or AADT)
Void Factor
< 35
0.20 - 0.24
35 - 100
0.18 - 0.21
100-150
0.16 - 0.19
150 - 300
0.15 - 0.17
300 - 625
0.14 - 0.16
625 - 1250
0.13 - 0.15
> 1250
0.12 - 0.14
aggregate shape;
aggregate wear;
surface texture of the existing surface;
absorption of binder into the base;
absorption of binder by aggregate particles; and
embedment of aggregate in the base layer.
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largely on the stiffness of the mixture for stability. Good durability may be
obtained by the use of high binder contents and low air voids.
A number of design procedures are used in Australia and around the world. The
most widely used procedure is the Marshall Testing Procedure and this will be the
only method described in these notes.
Step 1. Selection of Mix Type.
Selection depends on the expected use of the mix, the type of road to be paved,
existing pavement conditions, climatic conditions, and available materials.
Step 2. Combination of Aggregates.
The available aggregates, including the mineral filler, are combined in such
proportions that their combined grading approximates that of a proven target
grading. There are several methods available for aggregate grading determination,
and these are the same techniques used in the blending of aggregates for Portland
cement concrete.
Step 3. Binder Content Estimation.
The binder content is determined by the preparation and testing of trial mixes at a
range of binder contents. Estimation of binder content for trial mixes is ususally
based on previous experience, but will probably be in the range of 3 to 9% binder.
Step 4. Manufacture and Compaction of Trial Mixes.
Trial mixes are prepared by blending heated aggregate mixtures with various
percentages of binder, and then compacting the hot mix into cylindrical moulds
using a standard compaction process. The Marshall Test uses a cylindrical mould
of 100 mm internal diameter and the compacted height of specimens aimed for is
64 mm. This test uses a compaction hammer with a dropping weight (a mass of
4540g falling through 475mm). The number of blows applied to each end of the
cylindrical specimen is 35, 50 or 75 depending on expected traffic conditions for
the mix in service (35 for light traffic, 50 for medium traffic, and 75 for heavy
traffic). Once compacted and cooled the specimens are extruded for testing.
Step 5. Testing of Trial Mixes.
The test specimens are heated to 60C for 30 to 40 minutes in a water bath. When
ready for testing the specimens are removed from the bath, seated in compression
heads, and a force applied diametrically at a uniform rate of deformation of 51
mm/min. The complete test must take less than 30 sec to avoid excessive cooling
of the specimen.
The maximum load resisted by the specimen (corrected for the actual height of
the specimen) and the amount of vertical deformation undergone in reaching
maximum load, are recorded as the Marshall Stability and Marshall Flow values
respectively.
In addition to strength testing, the following properties are determined for each
mix:
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bulk density;
maximum theoretical density;
voids filled with binder; and
voids in the mineral aggregate.
Although traditional sprayed treatments and asphalt are the two commonly used forms of
bituminous surfacing, there are several other techniques and methods which have been
developed. Some of these treatments have been used for decades and are therefore well
proven, while others are fairly recent and are limited in their use.
4.7.8 Novachip
Novachip (or Safepave) is a proprietary process developed in France. A single
size aggregate (10mm or 14mm) with fines is mixed to produce a relatively open
graded mix. The mix is laid directly onto a continuously applied emulsion spray.
Spraying and laying are done with a single piece of equipment.
5. Design of Pavements
5.1 General Approaches to Pavement Design
Pavement design is the process of developing the most economical combination of
pavement layers, with respect to thickness and type of material, to protect the soil
foundation from the cumulative traffic to be carried during the design life.
In its simplest form the design approach consists of the following steps:
Although this process is relatively simple to express, its solution for a road pavement is
complex.
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(life-cycle) costing should account for all costs and benefits associated with the
planning, design, construction, maintenance, rehabilitation and use of the
pavement over its whole life.
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Stage 1: Basic Network establishment of links main criteria is that roads must
be trafficable geometric design standards relatively unimportant.
Stage 2: Increasing Capacity improving the roads ability to carry increasing
volumes of traffic geometric standards assume greater importance.
Stage 3: Quality of Service building safety, efficiency and convenience into the
network alignment and cross sectional standards important.
The majority of the Australian road network is currently a mixture of increasing the
networks capacity and improving the quality of service, i.e. stages 2 and 3.
Observation suggests that there are effectively three speed ranges that roads can be
classified into:
o
High Speed Roads. Drivers will expect to be able to maintain a high travel
speed, and the design must therefore be able to provide for this
expectation along the entire length. The road will therefore be designed for
speeds of 100kph or more.
Intermediate Speed Roads. For roads designed for speeds of less than
100kph, the speed adopted by drivers will vary along the alignment in
accordance with driver perception and the control of road features such as
horizontal curves. The variation in travel speed must be considered in the
design of individual road elements. Provided the standard provided is in
keeping with driver expectations a safe and adequate alignment will result.
Low Speed Roads. Low speed roads (less than abut 60 kph) are only used
when difficult terrain and costs prevent the provision of better facilities. In
these areas drivers will generally be more alert, and lower standards are
both expected and acceptable.
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economic, environmental and social factors are taken into account. The location of a large
facility, such as a freeway, would probably involve a multi-disciplinary team of
professionals. Several approximate locations are initially selected based on preliminary
information and data. Possible choices are then narrowed down, usually with the help of
additional information. The ultimate aim is to determine a best route from a balance of
cost and user benefit, taking into account socioeconomic and environmental impacts.
6.5.3 Superelevation
The superelevation to be adopted should take into account factors such as safety,
appearance, grade, speed, drainage, and the presence of intersections. Generally,
the maximum superelevation should be about 0.06 m/m in flat country and about
0.12 m/m in mountainous terrain. For urban situations where intersections are
more numerous and property access must be considered, maximum values of 0.04
or 0.05 m/m are desirable.
42
44
60
63
66
70
90
95
105
80
135
140
160
90
215
230
270
100
360
440
110
435
530
120
670
provides a length of road over which the radius can be changed gradually from the
infinite radius of the straight to the radius of the circular curve, and this assists in
vehicle handling on the road. A wide range of curve forms can be suitable for a
plan transition but the curve most frequently used is the Clothoid.
Plan transition curves may be omitted when large radius curves are used or on
relatively low speed alignments. In most high standard road design carried out
today, large radius curves are used and plan transitions are not required.
For the case of a straight tangent to a circular curve, where no plan transition
curve is used, the superelevation is placed in such a way that 50% to 70% of the
length of development occurs prior to the tangent point, and 50% to 30% is within
the curve. Where a plan transition curve is used the superelevation development
commences in advance of the commencement of the plan transition, and the
superelevation transition and plan transition end at a common point within the
curve.
The desirable lane width on rural roads is about 3.5m. Lane widths as low as 3.0m
may be used on low volume roads. Widths greater than 7.5m for two lane roads
are not recommended because there may be a tendency for three lane operation to
develop.
The minimum width of a road shoulder on a two lane rural road should be 1.0m,
unless volumes are below 150 vehicles/day.
A width of 1.5m to 2.0m ensures that the capacity of the road will not be affected
by obstructions located adjacent to the shoulder. It will also mean that vehicles
stopped on the shoulder will provide only minor obstruction to the traffic lane.
A width of 2.5m is needed to allow a passenger vehicle to stand clear of the traffic
lanes. A width of 3.0m allows a passenger vehicle to stop clear of the traffic lanes
with some clearance, and also allows a commercial vehicle to stop clear of traffic.
In road design the aim should be to provide shoulders of 1.5 to 2.0m wherever
possible, and up to 2.5 to 3m on higher volume roads.
Crossfall %
Earth, Loam
Gravel
Bituminous Concrete
2.5 - 3
2-3
6.8.1 General
A major aim in road design is to ensure that the driver is able to sight any possible
road hazard in time to take evasive action. This aim is related to the geometry of
the road by the concept of sight distance. Sight distance, as used in road design, is
based on a number of stylised assumptions regarding the nature of hazards and
driver behaviour. The hazard is assumed to be an object of sufficient size to cause
the driver to change driving behaviour. Specific values are assumed for drivers
reaction time and the dimensions determining the sight line, although all of these
parameters would have a range of values in practice.
The values adopted in the Austroads publication Rural Road Design are:
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80
115
90
140
100
170
110
210
120
250
130
300
50
43
330
165
60
51
420
205
70
60
520
245
80
69
640
300
90
77
770
360
100
86
920
430
110
94
1100
500
120
103
1300
600
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Establishment distance is derived from the size of the time gap accepted
by a potential overtaking driver.
Continuation distance is derived from the time taken to move from a
position alongside a vehicle being overtaken to a position in front of that
vehicle.
Re-establishment distance is related to the time spent trailing a vehicle
before overtaking is attempted.
The overtaking vehicle and an oncoming vehicle are both assumed to
travel at the design speed.
The overtaken vehicle is assumed to travel at a lesser speed taken as the
mean speed for its direction of travel.
Sight distance parameters used are a 1.15m height of eye and a 1.15m
object height.
In checking a length of road for overtaking sight distance it will be found that the
continuation sight distance is fairly critical, and it will be on this figure that a
percent allowable for overtaking is calculated for the road section. Sections of
road assumed to provide for overtaking will commence at a point where
establishment sight distance is available, and finish where the available sight
distance drops below the continuation sight distance.
The overtaking distances recommended in the table are not an indication of where
barrier line marking should occur. If these figure were used for the purposes of
line marking it would be found that they would be unduly restrictive for many
safe manoeuvres e.g. overtaking very slow vehicles.
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the sight distance available on the approaches. The minimum length of sag curves is
generally determined by considerations for motorist comfort or discomfort due to vertical
acceleration, or by appearance. In some instances the length may be governed by
drainage, headlight performance or overhead restrictions to the line of sight.
Various curve forms can be used for vertical curves but traditionally the parabola has
been used, mainly for ease of manual calculation.
6.10 Grades
It is usually not feasible to construct roads with grades sufficiently flat so that all vehicles
can operate at the same speed. Therefore it is necessary to use a design standard which
takes account of vehicle performance and provides travelling conditions suitable for
individual vehicles and the traffic stream as a whole.
Design standards will usually recommend a general maximum grade for normal design,
but with the facility to vary this value in particular circumstances. On high speed roads
grades up to about 3% provide a very satisfactory level of service and minimise the
adverse effects of having different size and mass vehicles in the traffic stream. On roads
with more modest design speed, grades up to about 6% generally cause little problem.
Gradients over 10% bring problems of very slow climbing speeds and potentially high
downhill speeds for many vehicles.
The computer aided road design system described in the Study Notes is the MX system,
which was first developed in the United Kingdom in the 1970's as MOSS.
Another product description with reasonable graphics is found at the Softree Technical
Systems Inc . site. Go through their 'Products' link to see sites for the 4 modules in their
RoadEng package.
. Intersections
7.1 Importance of Intersections in the Road System
An intersection is a location at which two different traffic streams cross or merge.
Intersections are an inevitable part of any road system. Where a significant number of
intersections occur they are the major determinants of traffic flow and capacity of the
entire road system. They are also the source of significant accident risk.
The two basic types of intersections are
diverging,
merging, and
crossing.
A fourth basic manoeuvre, the weave, may also be defined, although this is really a merge
follow by a diverge.
An elemental manoeuvre occurs when any two one-way, single lane movements interact.
A multiple manoeuvre occurs when more than two one-way single lane movements take
place. Multiple manoeuvres should be avoided as they confuse drivers, reduce safety and
frequently reduce capacity. Intersection design and redesign often involves trying to
replace multiple manoeuvres with a series of elemental ones.
7.3 Types of Intersections At-Grade
An at-grade intersection occurs where roads meet or intersect at the same level. Three
basic forms may be identified:
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7.4 Factors Influencing the Design of At-Grade Intersections
At-grade intersections present a driver with several points of potential conflict with other
road users. The general aims of intersection design are to achieve efficient traffic
operation and to minimise the risk of collision. This is achieved by controlling vehicle
manoeuvres and minimising the number of points of conflict.
The principle factors influencing the design of an intersection are:
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Step 1. Obtain and analyse traffic data to determine design hour volumes for all
through and turning movements including further growth.
Step 2. Obtain physical data for site e.g. topography, buildings etc. (include future
development proposals).
Step 3. Obtain location, type and general design features of all existing and
proposal roads.
Step 4. Prepare study sketches for several likely intersection schemes that are
suitable to meet traffic needs and are practical for the site and design controls.
Step 5. Analyse alternate schemes and select the best two or more for further
study and for the preparation of preliminary plans and profiles.
Step 6. Prepare preliminary plans.
Step 7. Evaluate preliminary plans with respect to:
design features;
capacity;
operational characteristics;
overall adaptability;
maintenance of traffic during construction; and
suitability to stage construction
Step 8. Calculate preliminary cost estimates including:
o land acquisition;
o clearing the site;
o construction;
o maintenance; and
o utility changes. etc.
Step 9. Calculate road user costs and road user benefits for the alternatives.
Step 10. Analyse data from steps (7), (8) and (9) to reach a conclusion as to the
preferred plan.
Step 11. Prepare final design drawings, specifications and estimates.
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7.6 Principles of Intersection Design
The smallest unit of intersection design is the individual manoeuvre area, and a typical
road intersection can be considered as a combination of a number of elemental
manoeuvre areas. To a large extent the arrangement of manoeuvre areas is governed by
economic and environmental considerations. The proper compromise between these
competing factors will be made by the individual designer.
Intersection design should consider the following twelve fundamental principles:
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7.7.4 Channelisation
The design of channelisation for an intersection should be an individual design for
that intersection, based on considerations of traffic pattern, traffic volumes,
topography, pedestrian movement, parking, and the planned ultimate development
of the adjoining land. When considering the islands to be used in a channelised
design it is preferable to have a few large islands than a large number of small
ones.
7.7.5 Provision for Left-turning Vehicles
Left turning vehicles are usually catered for by simple left turns, left turn lanes
and left turn slip lanes. Simple left turns consist of a curve of appropriate radius
and would be used where the left turn volume is low. Left turn lanes may be
considered at signalised intersections or where left turn volumes are high. A left
turn lane with a corner island at the intersection is referred to as a left turn slip
lane.
7.7.6 Provision for Right-turning Vehicles
Auxiliary right turn lanes should be considered at all signalised intersections and
where median widths or lane widths allow their provision and safety would be
improved. The aim of using right turn lanes is usually to improve capacity and/or
safety.
7.7.7 Traffic Lane Widths
Ideally the width of traffic lanes on the approaches should be carried through the
intersection. However in some urban situations reduction in lane width to 3m, or
even lower, can provide an additional traffic lane.
7.8 Roundabouts
A roundabout is a channelised intersection in which all traffic through the intersection
circulates clockwise around a central island. Entering traffic is required to give way to
traffic circulating on the roundabout.
Roundabouts can be used to advantage on a wide range of intersections. Roundabouts are
particularly suitable for the following situations:
multi-leg intersections;
urban arterial road intersections which have a high right turning traffic volume;
and
T,Y or cross-road intersections where the major flow turns through a significant
angle.
The central island is usually circular. The island should be kerbed and raised slightly
above the level of the circulating roadway. The width of the circulating roadway depends
on the number of traffic lanes required, the size of the central island, the design vehicle,
and the need to cater for large vehicles. The main function of splitter islands is to guide
vehicles into the circulating roadway at an appropriate location and angle.
7.9 Grade Separations and Interchanges
A grade-separated intersection occurs when intersecting roads are separated in level to
eliminate crossing conflicts. The roads no longer intersect at the same grade (i.e. the
intersection is no longer an at-grade intersection) and so the intersections is referred to as
being grade separated. If the intersection also allows turning movements from one road to
another, then an interchange is formed. An interchange is the highest form of intersection
treatment. When fully developed all at-grade crossing is eliminated and interaction
between traffic streams takes place by merging, diverging or weaving.
The advantages of grade separation and interchanges are:
costly;
large land area required; and
may be confusing to drivers.
Although each design situation should be individually considered, there are certain
standard design configurations which act as a guide:
T or Trumpet (3 leg). This form uses a single bridge, and all traffic
movement except one turn moves through 90.
Y (3 leg). This form uses a simple bridge and incorporates one atgrade movement.
Cloverleaf. This form uses a single bridge. It takes a large land
area especially if high design speeds are used. Vehicles turning
right have to negotiate a 270 turn and usually have a fairly rapid
change in grade.
Partial Cloverleaf. At times it will not be desirable or possible to
construct a full cloverleaf. In these situations a partial cloverleaf
may be possible.
Diamond. This form has the disadvantage of 2 at-grade
intersections on the minor road, but uses less land than a
cloverleaf.
Rotary. The rotary interchange can cope with any number of
intersecting arms. It uses 2 bridges.
Road Construction
8.1 The Road Construction Process
The type of road construction used varies from one job to another. The type of
construction adopted for a particular road depends on:
the volume and nature of traffic to use the road,
the nature of the materials available,
the topography,
foundation conditions,
type and availability of construction equipment, and
financing arrangements and timing.
Any road construction job consists of number of basic steps, although the relevant
importance and the interaction between these steps will vary from job to job. These steps
can be summarised as:
o planning, programming and pre-construction activities;
o site clearance;
o setting out;
o earthworks;
o bridge construction;
o drainage structures;
o pavement construction;
o placement of road surfacing;
o placement of road furniture; and
o landscaping.
of vegetation such as grass, brush, trees and stumps, but may also include the removal of
old buildings, structures, etc.
The most commonly used item for clearing is the bulldozer, although scrapers and
graders may also be used. A dozer may affect clearing by pushing but pulling with a rope,
or the use of explosives, may be required with large trees. Clearing by chainsaw can only
be used if the stumps can be left behind (which is not usually the case - stumps will rot
away leading to subsidence of overlying material).
Consideration must be given as to how cleared material is to be disposed of. Timber may
be burnt if environmental conditions allow, but otherwise it has to be carted away and
disposed of as landfill.
Following clearing operations, topsoil should be stripped and stockpiled for future
landscaping. Topsoil is unsuitable for embankment or road building, and it is a valuable
resource which should be handled and used thoughtfully.
8.4 Setting Out
The object of setting out is to mark on the site actual positions and ruling dimensions for
the guidance of plant operators and supervisors.
Setting out may involve two phases:
establishment of a centreline (and suitable recovery markers for use if the centre
markers are destroyed) and marking of the limits of the area to be cleared; and
after clearing, the more detailed location of the formation together with level
control.
Setting out will therefore involve the placement of a pegged centreline, placement of
recovery pegs, placement of clearing stakes, establishment of batter pegs (and batter
profiles for larger cuts and fills), and pavement control markers.
Top
8.5 Earthworks
The eventual aim of the earthworks phase of the construction is to position the subgrade
underlying the pavement layers in the right location and at the correct level, and to
provide drainage.
The operations to be performed are:
The earthworks is often the largest task in the road building process and therefore careful
planning and organisation are essential. Speed and efficiency depend very much upon the
quantity and types of earthmoving plant available.
1.1.10
Top
8.6 Bridge Construction
Bridges form an integral part of the road system and from a motorists viewpoint are often
the most noticed feature. It is often necessary to commence bridgeworks ahead of
roadworks because bridges are slower to build. Small bridges may take six months to
build whereas large bridges can take several years.
Compared to other parts of the road, bridges are expensive. In urban areas the cost of a
bridge would usually be at least five times the cost of an equivalent length of road.
8.7 Drainage Structures
Many road failures can be attributed to the presence of water. The soundness of a road is
dependent upon adequate drainage being built into the road and then adequately
maintained.
Drainage structures can be classified into three groups:
Surface Drains:o Catch drains - to catch surface water and divert it into the drainage system
before it flows down the face of a batter or up against a fill.
o Table drains - collect the surface water draining from the road pavement.
o Kerb and gutter - the urban form of table drains.
Top
8.8 Pavement Construction
Pavements are generally constructed of either gravel, crushed rock, asphalt or cement
concrete - each of which may be used in its own right or in combinations with one or
more of the others.
1.1.12
Source: pits,quarries.
Haulage: trucks.
Spreading: grader or paver.
Compaction: higher compaction standard than subgrade; different roller
types used.
Accuracy of levels important.
1.1.13
Manufacture: fixed plants (up to 400 tonnes per hour), or large mobile
plants.
Haulage: trucks.
Placement: paving machine.
Compaction: rollers - smooth vibrating drum and pneumatic-tyred.
Usually final layer thin to achieve good riding surface.
Top
8.9 Placement of Road Surfacing
May be gravel, sprayed bituminous seal, asphalt or cement concrete.
1.1.14
Pavement must be sound. For new work: compaction and trimming of underlying
gravel or crushed rock pavement. For existing bituminous surface: patching.
Steps:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
1.1.15
The Picture Gallery contains pictures of the bitumen sealing process on four
pages:
o Preparation for a Sprayed Bituminous Surfacing
o Bitumen Sprayers
o Spraying the Bitumen for a Sprayed Surfacing ; and
o Spreading the Aggregate for a Sprayed Surfacing .
1.1.16
1.1.17
1.1.18
Steps:
1.
2.
3.
4.
1.1.19
Road Maintenance
9.1 The Need for Maintenance
For a road to be kept in first class travelling condition it must be well constructed and
well maintained. The amount of maintenance necessary after construction can be reduced
by a high standard of construction. However, a road constructed to a high standard but
neglected after construction will soon fall into disrepair. Maintenance, to be successful,
must be planned and organised.
9.2 Maintenance Management
Many factors influence the management of road maintenance and thus make it a complex
operation. Funds available for maintenance never seem to be sufficient and are always
subject to conflicting demands.
Maintenance can be divided into three types according to the mode of management:
Routine Maintenance.
This is maintenance which cannot be predicted or planned in detail but which is
assessed on the basis of accepted levels of service. It includes such things as
pothole repair, grading gravel or earth shoulders, controlling vegetation, washing
or renewing signs, and painting road linemarking.
Special Maintenance.
Restoration.
Restoration work seeks to repair damage caused by events beyond the control of
the road authority. Typical examples are restoration of roads and bridges after
scouring by floods, removal of fallen trees after wind or lightening storms, and
replacement of road furniture after bushfires.
Routine maintenance and the routine component of special maintenance are usually
organised and performed by permanent maintenance gangs or patrols, whereas the
specialised tasks in special maintenance and restoration will usually be done by specialist
gangs. Permanent maintenance gangs consist of 3 or 4 men equipped with a truck and
hand tools. They operate over a defined length of road, or area of road network. The
system is largely self managing with the pride of the gang in the condition of its stretch of
road being very important.
Maintenance planning, to ensure best value for the limited funds available, involves a
number of steps.
Step 1. Establishing Standards
Quality standards need to be defined which indicate the level of road
defects at which maintenance action is justified. Standards need to define
the severity levels for road defects at which either maintenance action is
justified or at which rehabilitation is warranted, i.e. the levels at which
intervention is necessary. The severity of deficiencies which can be
tolerated is influenced by various factors such as road classification,
climatic conditions, soil type, form of construction, and the volume and
type of traffic using the road. It is therefore not practical to adopt one
universal standard which applies to all road types and conditions.
Step 2. Assessing the Condition of the Road Network
This is generally done on a regular basis. The condition of each road, or
section of road, is evaluated against the standards established in (1), and
required maintenance action is determined. For the establishment of
annual programmed maintenance works, inspection may be carried out at
twelve month intervals. However, the need for routine maintenance action
(e.g. repair of potholes) can arise fairly quickly, and more frequent
inspection is needed to ascertain the requirements for this type of work.
Step 3. Planning and Budgeting
From the data gathered in the assessment of the road network, priorities
for maintenance work can be established and maintenance plans prepared.
An annual plan is usually required, although a longer planning period can
be used (e.g. 5 years) incorporating annual reviews.
Step 4. Executing Maintenance Work
Road maintenance work may be carried out by day labour forces or by
contract.
Step 5. Measuring and Recording Work Done
This provides data for future work, planning and expenditure monitoring.
Data is required on work carried out, road conditions prior to and after
maintenance intervention, materials used workmanship, costs, etc.
Top
9.3 Maintenance of Road Drainage Systems
The drainage system is a most important part of any road. Its functions include:
the removal of water from the carriageway in particular, and the road formation
and road reserve in general;
the interception of surface water flowing towards the road formation; and
the interception and disposal of ground water that would otherwise penetrate the
subgrade.
Table Drains
The function of a table drain is to collect water that has fallen on the carriageway
or the batters of a cutting and flowed to the edge of the formation. Table drains are
essential wherever the road is in cutting and often desirable along the shoulders of
embankments. Table drains require frequent maintenance, such as grading of
unlined drains to remove silt and other debris that may easily block the flow, and
to restore the original shape. Scours in table drains need prompt attention to
prevent serious damage that may lead to undermining of the drain lining, the
carriageway, or the cutting batters.
o
Batter Drains
It sometimes happens that water from table drains must be discharged down the
embankment batters. In such cases the slope of the invert of the drain down the
batter is too steep to allow the water to flow over most natural materials because
the high velocity induced would lead to serious scouring. Batter drains are,
therefore, generally lined with concrete, metal, or some other hard material such
as grouted stone. It is important that batter drains should be inspected frequently
and immediate steps taken to make good any undermining and repair any breaks
in the lining.
o
Catch Drains
Culverts
Culverts are key structures in any road drainage system and since they often
provide the only passage for surface water from one side of the road to the other
failure usually has serious consequences. Maintenance tasks include the constant
clearing of debris and growth from the channel, particularly after forest fires, or in
seasons when trees shed their leaves. The accumulation of silt or drift sand in the
culvert barrel must also be removed periodically by mechanical or hydraulic
means. Scour in the vicinity of culverts must be recognised in the early stages and
repaired promptly before the damage becomes extensive.
o
Subsoil Drains
The two main purposes of subsoil drains are to lower the level of the water table
and to intercept or drain underground water trapped or held by impervious
material. To be effective subsoil drains need to be not less than 500 mm below the
subgrade level. Subsoil drains are constructed near the outside edge of the
pavement parallel to the centre line of the road, but it is not uncommon for
transverse drains to extend as branches from longitudinal drains to at least the
centre line of the pavement. Maintenance action for buried drains consists
primarily of inspection of outlets from time to time to ensure that water is seeping
from them.
o
Underground drainage systems, which are rare in a rural situation but rather
common where the road passes through urban or built-up areas, consist of both
longitudinal pipes or conduits running generally parallel to the road centre line
and transverse pipes passing under the road formation. Frequent inspection and
cleaning of the drainage system is essential because serious damage can be caused
if surface water bypasses inlets and overloads the system at other locations
leading to flooding of the road or adjoining property.
Top
9.4 Maintenance of Earth and Gravel Roads
Earth roads are usually regarded as suitable for dry weather use only. They may vary
from wheel tracks on the natural surface to formed but unpaved roads usually constructed
out of the soil occurring along the line of the road. Gravel surfaced roads may be defined
as formed roads, the surfaces of which are composed of gravel won from a selected
deposit, but which have not been given a bituminous surface treatment. They form a large
proportion of the total length of rural roads in Australia and their adequate maintenance is
of great importance to the rural community.
Grading
Grading is the most important operation in the maintenance of earth and gravel roads.
The basic purpose of grading is to keep the road well drained to maintain a satisfactory
running surface. The process of maintenance grading consists of bringing material in
from the sides or cutting down high sections of the surface and filling the low spots with
the surplus loose material.
Scarifying and Reshaping
When a gravel road has become worn to a state where the surface has hollows, potholes,
and corrugations, it can sometimes be restored by loosening and reshaping. The shoulders
are normally built up at the same time.
Gravel Resheeting
Gravel resheeting is the process of adding material over the full width and length of a
specified section of pavement that is already gravelled. Resheeting is undertaken to
restore the thickness of the pavement to give adequate support to all vehicles using the
road. The steps in gravel resheeting are:
the cause is often difficult (especially in the early stages of distress), and it may be
necessary to dig small inspection pits to examine the various layers and arrange
laboratory tests of the materials. Proper investigation will guard against wrong
treatment and waste of effort. Defects such as those arising from a faulty
subgrade, a soft area in the pavement, faulty pavement material or poor drainage,
will continue unless the cause is removed.
Many failures result from the presence of excess moisture in the pavement or
subgrade, therefore, one of the most important functions of surface maintenance is
to prevent water reaching or remaining in these layers.
If excavation of faulty pavement material is necessary the sides of the hole must
be trimmed vertical, the depth of the hole being just sufficient to remove the poor
material. Gravel or crushed rock used for backfill must be moistened to facilitate
compaction and all materials should be compacted in layers not exceeding
100mm thick, preferably with mechanical equipment. The amount of material
used must be chosen to ensure that the patch, when compacted, is flush with the
surrounding pavement surface. On no account must a patch be left higher for
traffic to compact it.
Before applying the final bituminous surface the patched area must be swept clean
of dust and loose stones. The surfacing is then applied using materials similar to
those in the original surface. Premix may be used for patching in some
circumstances. Premix, made by mixing aggregate (preferably dried) with fluxed
and/or cutback bitumen by hand or in a mixing plant, may be stored for several
weeks or even months depending upon the amount and type of flux and cutter
used. A bitumen emulsion of a suitable type may be used as the binder. Where
available, hot mix is preferable to cold mix provided it can be used satisfactorily
before it sets.
Top
9.5.3 Particular Types of Defects and their Repair
Ravelled Surface
Ravelling is a condition in which plant mix or penetration macadam becomes
rough in texture due to a loss of aggregate. The causes could include insufficient
or aged binder, excessively open-graded mix, poor compatibility of aggregate and
binder, or fracturing of aggregate. Ravelled surfaces will require binder to be
added, the rate of application depending upon the amount and condition of the
existing binder. If ravelling has not developed too far the condition can be
corrected by a seal, slurry seal, enrichment seal, or fogcoat made by spraying a
very light application of binder with or without fine cover aggregate. Otherwise
resurfacing with plant mix will be necessary.
Stripped Surface
Stripping is a condition in which aggregate is lost from a spray seal due to one or
more of the following reasons:
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
Exposed stones may become polished under the action of traffic causing slippery
conditions when wet even though the surface is generally not smooth. A polished
aggregate surface must be resurfaced with either plant mix, sprayed seal, or slurry
seal.
Shoving
Shoving is a fairly regular waviness (somewhat resembling corrugations in a
gravel road) which may develop in bituminous surfaces due to movement under
traffic. The deformations are usually shallow and are not likely to be confused
with larger depressions resulting from weaknesses in the pavement or the
subgrade. If the bituminous material has been compacted by traffic to a stable
condition it will be practicable to fill in the depressions with premix. If it remains
unstable it will be necessary to remove the unsound material and replace it with a
stable premix.
Rutting
Rutting usually takes the form of depressions in the wheel tracks. If the transverse
deformation is accompanied by adjacent bulging of the pavement or shoulder
surface it may be a sign of excessive subgrade movement or weak pavement. The
treatment is the same as that described for shoving provided there is no subgrade
movement. Any faulty subgrade material must be replaced by suitable material.
Cracks
A bituminous surfacing may crack for a variety of reasons and often, in the early
stages, the crack pattern can indicate the cause. When the cracks have developed
over a large area and become sufficiently wide and numerous to allow the entry of
surface water or disturbance of the surfacing by traffic it can be very difficult to
determine the original cause of the trouble. Cracks wide enough to be treated
should be filled with a binder having a viscosity low enough to enable it to be
poured or worked into the cracks. Wider cracks should be filled with fine premix
or bituminous slurry. Large areas with fine cracks should be spray sealed, slurry
sealed, or resurfaced with plant mix.
Pot Holes
Pot holes not accompanied by distortion of the adjacent surface are usually due to
a cracked bituminous surface allowing moisture to enter the pavement. The repair
of pot holes will involve the vertical trimming of edges and removal of loose
material prior to reinstatement.
Edge Failures
The road and the vehicle are subject to engineering design and thus the characteristics of
these components can be dictated to a large extent by the engineer. However the traffic
engineer is essentially concerned with the road system and therefore the vehicle
component is substantially beyond the scope of control of the traffic engineer.
The characteristics of the road user are obviously beyond the control of the traffic
engineer, and these characteristics must therefore be accepted and catered for by the
traffic engineer. To enable traffic design and management to be undertaken effectively,
the traffic engineer requires a knowledge of human performance characteristics and
vehicle characteristics. The road user may be involved with the traffic system as a driver,
passenger or pedestrian but it is usually as a driver that is of most concern in traffic
engineering.
10.2 The Driving Task
Driving can be considered as comprising three essential tasks:
navigation;
guidance; and
control.
These tasks require the driver to receive inputs, process them, make predictions about the
results of alternative actions, decide which is the most appropriate action, and execute the
action. The driver then observes the effect of the act, gathers new information, and
repeats the sequence. There are many problems inherent in this sequence of tasks which
arise from the capabilities of the human driver and the interactions between the driver and
other components of the road traffic system.
Of course not all drivers are identical in their capabilities or habits. Driver behaviour
seems to vary between individuals according to two factors: ability and motivation.
Behaviour is dependent upon both what the driver is able to do and what the driver
chooses to do. As a consequence, there is little correlation between driver skill and driver
crash experience.
Driver ability is closely linked to prior experience. An experienced driver knows what
effects any controlling action is going to have and is thus able to select appropriate
actions, as well as to exercise greater discrimination in information input and processing.
Experience allows for the development over time of a set of workable expectancies,
which allow for anticipation and forward planning. If these expectancies are violated
problems are likely to occur, either as a result of wrong decision or of an inordinately
long reaction time.
Driver expectancy can be considered in three categories:
Continuation expectancy that the events of the immediate past will continue e.g.
in a stream of traffic moving at reasonable speed it is not expected that the vehicle
ahead will suddenly change speed or stop.
Event expectancy that events which have not been observed to happen will not
happen e.g. if a driver has regularly crossed over a railway level crossing and
never encountered a train no train is expected, and the level of risk may increase.
Temporal expectancy that where events are cyclic (e.g. traffic signals), the
longer a given state occurs, the greater the likelihood that change will occur. This
may result, perhaps, in drivers accelerating towards green traffic signals in the
expectancy that they must turn red soon.
If the driver receives information in the expected form, and events occur in accordance
with that information, then the drivers performance is likely to be error free. Alternately,
when the information received does not match the drivers expectations, system failures
are likely to occur. The traffic engineer should therefore attempt to ensure that:
o drivers expectations are recognised, and unexpected design or operational
situations are avoided or minimised;
o predictable behaviour is encouraged through familiarity and habit; and
o information provided decreases the drivers uncertainty.
10.3 Reaction Time
Reaction time refers to the period between the occurrence of stimulus to the driver and
the drivers physical reaction to it.
Reaction time may be considered to be comprised of four elements:
Expectations reduce reaction times because drivers respond through familiarity and habit.
However, different drivers will have different reaction times to the same stimulus because
reaction time is affected by a wide range of individual characteristics, such as experience,
skill, motivation, etc. Studies of driver reaction time have shown that for many situations
an average reaction time is about 2.5 seconds, but variations from this average are quite
large.
Traffic system design and operation should aim to present to drivers situations that are
simple and expected so that reaction times may be kept at low values. Some ways in
which this may be done are:
by minimising the number of alternatives from which the driver must choose a
large number of possible actions for the driver is likely to lead to confusion and
uncertainty e.g. multiway intersections with three or four possible routes to select
from are more confusing for the driver than a Tee intersection;
by providing positive information the driver should be told what to do rather
than what not to do e.g. Wrong Way Go Back is a more positive message
thanDo Not Enter; and
by providing prior warning the driver is prompted to expect an event which will
require an action e.g. roadworks warning sign. The prior warning should be in the
context of the action required e.g. a roadworks warning sign should be located
where the roadworks are visible.
10.4.3 Illumination
The human visual system is capable of operating over an enormous range of
illumination. Of interest in traffic engineering is the eyes ability to adjust to fairly
rapid changes in light intensity. On exposure to glare after a dark situation, the
pupil diameter contracts at a rate of about 3 mm/s, whereas on exposure to dark
after glare it is much less responsive, dilating at about 0.5 mm/s. In other words
the eye can adjust to sudden glare more rapidly than sudden dark. This is
important when designing artificial lighting for tunnels, where greater time must
be allowed for the drivers eyes to adjust as the tunnel is entered than when the
tunnel is exited.
10.4.4 Visual Handicaps
Several visual handicaps may have an effect on driver behaviour. About 2.5% of
the adult male population has colour defective vision, such that they cannot
discriminate red, yellow and green (as in traffic signals), or indeed any threecolour combination. Another 2.5% of the adult male population has a reduced
sensitivity to red light. Approximately 5% of the population are visually deficient
with respect to detecting low luminance contrasts. Visual sensitivity decreases
with age and the detection threshold of elderly drivers is about double that of
normal drivers. It is interesting to note that no correlation has been found
between poor visual performance and driver safety, suggesting that drivers with
visual impairment compensate in their driving behaviour.
10.5 The Information Needs of Road Users
The successful operation of the traffic system depends to a large extent on successfully
conveying information to drivers to aid them in the driving task. The key needs of road
users in relation to information are:
conspicuity i.e. the signal must be seen;
legibility i.e. the message must be able to be read;
comprehensibility i.e. the message must be understood; and
credibility i.e. the message must be perceived to be true.
10.6 Factors Modifying Normal Driver Behaviour
There are three major influences which may cause significant changes to a drivers normal
driving behaviour. These influences are fatigue, alcohol and drugs.
Fatigue
Fatigue is a decrease in the bodys work output or psychological or emotional
feelings. The body adopts a state between that of being wide-awake and being
asleep, and is best described as a state of drowsiness. Fatigue may result from
monotony, from an adverse environment (e.g. from a closed, warm atmosphere),
from over-work, from emotional factors (e.g. worry) and from physiological
factors (e.g. over-eating). The symptoms of fatigue are loss of attention to a task
and boredom. From a driving viewpoint the results of fatigue may be decreased
visual scanning, increased response times and falling asleep while driving.
Fatigue due to emotional or physical causes can only be overcome by rest and
recuperation. If the cause of fatigue is organic, such as narcolepsy, relief will only
be achieved by medical treatment.
Alcohol
Alcohol acts as a depressant on the central nervous system of the body. When
alcohol is orally taken into the body as a fluid it travels to the small intestine
where the main absorption into the blood stream occurs. The alcohol is then
spread to all parts of the body, including the brain where it has major effects. In
small amounts alcohol may act as a relaxant and can give the sensation of
improved mood, but judgement and decision making processes deteriorate. With
large amounts of alcohol muscle co-ordination and reflexes become slower, vision
and hearing are impaired, and the brains ability to process information is
diminished. Once alcohol has been absorbed into the blood stream it is
metabolised by the liver into waste products. The process of removal of alcohol
from the body is relatively slow and alcohol in the body is likely to affect driver
performance for several hours. All States and Territories in Australia have laws
which limit the amount of alcohol in the bloodstream (the blood alcohol
concentration, BAC) for drivers.
Drugs
It has long been known that alcohol affects driving skill but it is only in fairly
recent times that researchers have concentrated their efforts on looking at the
effects of other drugs on driving performance. It is known that about half of the
top 30 medications prescribed by doctors can affect driving, as well as many
medications that can be purchased without a doctors prescription. As well as
these drugs used for legitimate medical purposes, there are other drugs which are
used by certain people for mood altering effects or for the symptoms produced by
the development of physical dependence. These drugs include cannabis, cocaine,
heroin and morphine, as well as hallucinogenic substances such as L.S.D.
10.7 Road Vehicles
Study of traffic behaviour requires a detailed knowledge of the characteristics of the types
of vehicles commonly found in the traffic stream. In particular properties such as
dimensions, visibility restrictions, manoeuvrability, acceleration, braking, grade climbing,
steering, cornering, driver vision, lighting, axle loads and axle spacing are important for
the design of roadway elements.
The types of motor vehicles likely to be encountered on roads are passenger cars and
their derivatives (e.g. station wagons), utilities and light vans, heavy vehicles such as
trucks and buses, road trains and motor cycles.
The manoeuvrability of a vehicle is closely related to its overall size, length, width,
height and mass. It is accepted practice that roads be designed and constructed to
accommodate vehicles up to the legal maximum size, except in special circumstances.
Capacity of Roads
11.1 The Nature of Traffic Flow
Traffic flow is a complex phenomena. The three main components of the road traffic
system are the road, the user and the vehicle. These components all interact with each
other. Consequently the moving traffic stream has characteristics which are quite
different to those of the individual elements.
Traffic flow is concerned with the movement of discrete units (such as vehicles or
people) around a network. In general, these units move independently of each other,
although they interact. Each unit is usually under the control of a human operator, and the
processes by which a traffic stream works can often be described in terms of random
behaviour. The randomness originates from the multitude of individual decisions that
occur in a traffic stream, where each human operator has some personal freedom of
choice and action.
Three main approaches are available to the quantification and modelling of traffic flow:
Volume (or flow rate) q. The number of vehicles passing a fixed point in unit
time. Typical units are veh/day, veh/hr or veh/sec.
Speed (or velocity) v. The distance travelled by a vehicle in unit time. Typical
units are km/h (also kph) or m/s.
Density (or concentration) k. The number of vehicles per unit length of lane or
road, at a given time instant. Typical unit is veh/km.
Headway. The time gap between successive vehicles in a traffic stream (actually
between the same points on the vehicles, e.g. front of vehicle). Typical unit is sec.
"
Spacing. The distance between the same physical point (e.g. front of vehicle) on
two successive vehicles in a traffic lane. Typical unit is m.
Occupancy. The proportion of time that a designated point in a traffic lane is
covered by vehicles.
Where interruption to a flow occurs because of traffic signals it will be found that
vehicles tend to 'bunch' or 'platoon'. This bunching occurs when vehicles are facing a red
signal. When the green signal appears these vehicles move off as a bunch which will
gradually disperse if the flow is not interrupted again. It is generally recognised that if
traffic signals are spaced 3 km or more apart, some uninterrupted flow will develop. It
should be noted that uninterrupted flow and interrupted flow describe the type of road
facility, and not the quality of traffic flow on the road.
11.5 Capacity
Capacity is defined as the maximum hourly rate at which persons or vehicles can
reasonably be expected to pass a point (or uniform section of a lane or roadway) during a
given time period under the prevailing roadway, traffic and control conditions.
The following points should be noted with respect to this definition:
The capacity of a road is an important characteristic. Roads are generally not expected to
operate at or near capacity for long periods, because operating conditions at capacity are
poor. Thus the ability to analyse the traffic carrying ability of facilities under better
operating conditions is a major aspect of capacity analysis.
11.6 Level of Service
A qualitative measure describing traffic operational conditions and their perception by
drivers is needed to assess the degree of congestion on a road. Such a measure is referred
to as a 'level of service' and is intended to take account of factors such as speed and travel
time, freedom to manoeuvre, traffic interruptions, comfort and convenience and safety.
Six levels of service are used for describing traffic flow conditions. These are designated
from A to F with level of service A representing the best operating condition and level of
service F the worst.
The levels can be generally described as follows:
o
The concept of level of service may be used to analyse the operation of all types of road
facilities.
11.7 Factors Affecting Capacity and Level of Service
For the analysis of capacity or level of service the starting point is often to select values
that are applicable to ideal conditions and then to apply correction or adjustment factors
that reflect the actual roadway, traffic and control conditions. In general, an ideal
condition is one for which further improvements will not result in any increase in
capacity or level of service.
The factors affecting capacity and level of service include the following:
Roadway Conditions;
Terrain Conditions;
Traffic Conditions; and
Driver Population.
The NAASRA (1988) publication Guide to Traffic Engineering Practice, Part 2 Roadway
Capacity provides details for analysing the capacity and service volume of a variety of
facilities including:
In this module only the case of the uninterrupted two lane two way road situation will be
discussed, and will be based on the approach presented in the NAASRA (now Austroads),
publication.
11.8 Uninterrupted Two-Lane, Two-Way Roads
Two lane rural roads have one lane available for traffic travelling in each direction.
Overtaking of slower vehicles requires use of the opposing traffic lane, when convenient.
At low traffic volumes, drivers are able to choose their desired speed and overtaking of
slower vehicles is usually accomplished with minor, if any, delay. As volume increases
the need to overtake to maintain desired speed also increases, but the opportunities for
overtaking decrease due to an increased traffic flow of oncoming vehicles. It is found that
vehicles then tend to cluster in platoons or bunches.
Three types of analysis can be considered:
For two lane, two way roads, ideal conditions occur when no restrictions due to roadway,
terrain and traffic conditions apply. Specifically, ideal conditions occur when:
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
If all of these conditions are fulfilled the capacity of a two lane two way road is 2800
passenger cars per hour. This is the total of both directions of flow.
Traffic Studies
12.1 Purposes of Traffic Studies
A traffic study is the collection and analysis of measurable factual data relating to traffic
and its characteristics.
Traffic studies are carried out to:
provide a basis for planning and designing traffic facilities, including the selection
of geometric standards, economic analysis, and the determination of priorities;
assist traffic operation by determining the need for traffic control devices such as
signs, traffic control signals, pavement markings, and school and pedestrian
crossings;
evaluate the effect of changes made for traffic by conducting before and after
studies; and
determine the basic characteristics and the general laws of traffic behaviour.
Equipment used in automatic counts normally consists of a device to detect the passage
of axles or vehicles, and a metering device to record the number of axles or vehicles
detected. The detecting device most commonly used in Australia is the pneumatic
detector. A rubber tube is laid across the roadway and as a vehicles wheels pass over it an
air impulse is sent along the tube to the meter. Two main types of counter are used to
measure traffic volumes, the non-recording counter and the recording counter. The nonrecording counter accumulates the number of vehicles detected and must be read at
regular intervals over the time it is desired to obtain traffic counts, e.g. if 24-hour counts
are required the counter must be read every 24 hours. The recording counter records the
traffic volume passing each hour (in some cases each quarter hour, or each five minutes)
by printing numbers on, or by punching holes in, a moving paper tape, by recording on
magnetic tape, or by recording in a microprocessor which is later downloaded to a
computer.
The method of presenting results will depend on the purpose of the study. In
comprehensive area traffic counts the Average Annual Daily Traffic (AADT) volumes are
usually presented as traffic flow maps in which flow bands proportional to the AADT
volumes are drawn along the route surveyed.
12.3 Origin and Destination Surveys
Traffic counts give the amount of traffic passing specified points on the road but they do
not indicate where traffic desires to travel, i.e. its origin and its destination. An origin and
destination survey is designed to obtain such information about the movement of vehicles
and passengers within an area. The survey is primarily for transportation planning,
particularly the location, design, and programming of new or improved highways, public
transport, and parking facilities. An origin and destination survey may range from a
relatively simple study to determine the amount of traffic that would by-pass a town to a
comprehensive transportation survey for planning and design of the transportation system
in a large metropolitan area.
Methods used for Origin and Destination surveys include:
Results may be presented in tables, graphs and diagrams. These may include speed
distribution and cumulative frequency distribution curves. The more important quantities
are the mean speed and the 85th percentile speed.
12.5 Travel Time and Delay Studies
A modified form of the speed study is the travel time and delay study. It measures the
average journey time and journey speed of sections of a route (or routes) and is used in
traffic assignment, to assess the quality of the traffic route, or to evaluate the before and
after effect of traffic engineering techniques or other changes made for traffic. By
analysing the delays, the location and cause of the congestion can be identified and
remedied.
12.6 Accident Studies
The establishment of an accurate and efficient accident records system is of prime
importance to the traffic engineer. Accident records are used by the traffic engineer:
to identify hazardous locations and the causes of accidents at them;
as an aid in determining priorities for road improvements or the installation of
traffic control devices;
to evaluate safety improvements by before and after studies;
as a measure of the level of service provided; and
to carry out fundamental research into the relationship between traffic accidents
and the road environment.
Sources of data on accidents are reports of individual accidents, and the information
recorded varies from State to State.
Accident data may be conveniently represented by:
Accident
Spot
Maps
An accident spot map shows the location of each accident and the type of accident
by coloured pins, e.g. fatal accidents by red pins, injury accidents by blue pins,
etc. The maps which are large scale and attached to display boards are kept up to
date as accident report forms are received. The maps provide a quick visual guide
of where accident concentrations exist.
Collision
Diagrams
Accident
Summary
Forms
Carry out a parking inventory in the study area. This involves the
collection or preparation of suitable base maps of the study area showing
all streets, lanes, etc., the location and type of all buildings and vacant
areas, all kerb space available for legal parking (this is obtained from a
detailed survey), areas where vehicles cannot legally park (e.g. close to
intersections, school or pedestrian crossings, etc.), any off-street parking
lots, garages, or service stations with details of available spaces, fees, etc.
Carry out a cordon count. All vehicles entering and leaving the study area
should be counted at 15 or 30 minute intervals for the period from say
7.00 am to 7.00 pm. Determine the number of vehicles accumulated in the
area at any particular time and the time of day when it occurs. In small
towns cordon counts may be omitted.
Carry out a parking usage study. This study should extend from say 8.00
am to 6.00 pm, the active hours of the day. Observers should tour each
kerb and parking lot or garage every 15 or 30 minutes and record the
registration numbers and type of vehicles at each parking space. Illegally
parked vehicles should also be recorded. Close to certain generators such
as a post office, it may be necessary to make checks at shorter time
intervals (particularly if 30 minutes has been used as the general interval).
The area can be divided so that the survey can be spread over several days
which have a similar parking demand. At off-street parking stations the
actual distribution of the parking usage can be obtained from the tickets.
For larger cities, a comprehensive parking demand study may be required, which includes
the determination of parking usage, parking habits as well as the origin, destination, and
purpose of trip of drivers parking in the area. It is used primarily in determining the
demand for parking space by evaluating the individual parkers desires. The actual survey
is carried out in the form of questionnaire cards or direct interviews.
13. Parking
13.1 Types of Parking Facilities
The provision of adequate parking facilities is an essential part of the design and
construction of transport infrastructure.
Provision for parking may conveniently be thought of in three categories:
Dimension (m)
85 percentile
Dimension (m)
99 percentile
Overall length
4.74
5.37
Overall width
1.86
1.89
Front overhang
0.813
0.996
Rear overhang
1.100
1.300
Angle parking is more convenient than parallel parking but it invariably produces a much
higher accident rate than parallel parking at the same location. Angle parking is not
adaptable to commercial vehicles and requires substantially larger street widths. The
angle parking manoeuvre is easier to accomplish and causes less interference to traffic
than the parallel parking manoeuvre, but the unparking manoeuvre is not as easily
executed. Other disadvantages are that motorists drive more slowly when looking for
vacant spaces and the cars overhang at the kerb is greater interfering with pedestrians,
awning posts, and signs on the footway. Angle parking accommodates more cars for a
given length of kerb than parallel parking.
The decision on the type of parking allowed in any street must be based on:
Taxi stands should be distributed at convenient locations for patrons throughout business
centres. Stands should normally be restricted to accommodate no more than four taxis at
a time. If the demand is greater the main taxi stand should be fed from feeder stands
established nearby. The length of a taxi stand should be (5.5n + 1.5) metres where n is the
number of taxis to be accommodated.
Although some establishments provide off-street loading and unloading bays, most
loading and unloading takes place at the kerb and provision for loading zones must be
made. The length of loading zones can vary greatly depending on the number and type of
establishments served by each zone and the usual type of vehicles using the zone. The
recommended minimum length is 9 m.
13.4 Centre-of-the-Road Parking
This type of parking can only be considered for very wide streets and should be avoided
unless adequate provision is made to separate through traffic from parked vehicles,
motorists looking for spaces, and vehicles parking or unparking. One disadvantage is that
pedestrians leaving and returning to their vehicles have to cross the main traffic stream to
reach the footway.
Where vehicles have direct access to parking spaces from main traffic lanes they may
cause unnecessary interference with through traffic, reduce the traffic flow, and produce a
greater proportion of accidents.
13.5 Off-Street Parking
Off-street parking requirements normally depend on the extent and type of development
in the area, and the availability of on-street parking spaces.
The design problem for off-street parking areas is basically one of layout of parking
spaces, both to maximise the number of parking spaces and also to facilitate circulation
and access to those spaces. Layouts usually involve either angle or perpendicular parking.
Parallel parking is rarely used, except perhaps at the boundaries of the area where
insufficient space may remain to allow any alternative arrangement.
The majority of car parks in Australia are constructed with 90 parking because it
produces the most efficient layout in most cases.
Design for efficient circulation of vehicles within a parking lot should aim at ease of
movement around the site and safety for both vehicles and pedestrians. A definite
circulation plan should be developed, taking into account the different activities which
occur at the site; for example, the design for a supermarket parking area should allow for
pedestrian movements, parcel pickup, deliveries, etc.
Site entry and exit is always an important component of the design. The location of entry
and exit points depends not only on conditions and activities within the site, but perhaps
even more importantly on interactions with traffic on the road or roads adjacent to the
site. In some instances it will be more efficient to combine entry and exit at the one
location, while in other cases internal circulation and external traffic considerations will
indicate that separate entrances and exits should be provided. Allowance for adequate
queue storage space is another issue associated with entry and exit, especially the
avoidance of queues extending into the street at entrances.
Special problems may have to be considered in the design of parking areas for public
facilities such as sports arenas and concert halls, which have very large demands
concentrated over short periods. Circulation and entry/exit design must aim for maximum
efficiency to enable rapid evacuation of the parking area as the conclusion of the event
attended by the parkers.
13.6 Multi-Level Carparks
Multi-level car parks concentrate a high number of parking spaces into a small area, and
also have the potential to concentrate parking problems within the area. However, in
some respects they are simpler to design than single level car parks because heavy
vehicles and buses are usually excluded from their operation. Also the circulation system
for vehicles is often simpler. Multi-level car parks are normally only proposed in areas of
high density development where it is economical to construct a multistorey structure
rather than to acquire land for single level parking.
The special problems associated with multi-level car parks can be summarised as follows:
Presence of columns in the structure, which restricts access to parking spaces and
which may inhibit door opening of vehicles.
The geometry and grades of ramps between parking levels.
1.1.20
Traffic Control
14.1 Traffic Control Devices
Traffic control devices can be defined as all the signs, traffic signals, pavement markings,
traffic islands, or other devices placed or erected to regulate, warn or guide traffic.
These devices will only be effective if placed or erected by a traffic authority having the
necessary jurisdiction to enforce regulations pertaining to the devices e.g. a stop sign will
be of little use unless someone has authority and jurisdiction to prosecute those who do
not obey the sign.
Driver expectations must always be accounted for when installing devices and this means
that as far as practicable only standard devices should be used. Devices will only
command respect and attention from drivers if they can be readily seen and read, and if
their messages appear reasonable under the circumstances.
14.2 Standards, Guides and Warrants
Standards for signs, markings, etc. in regard to designs, sizes and usages can be found in
the following documents:
The Australian Standard Manual of Uniform Traffic Devices A.S. 1742. Part 1
contains description of the elemental devices which have been adopted as an
Australian Standard and provides the basis for signing and marking practices
throughout Australia. Part 2 contains standard applications of devices to traffic
situations.
The United Nations Convention on Road Signs and Symbols. This document is
notable for its wide use of symbols on regulatory and warning signs, and as
Australia is a signatory to the Convention, progressive inclusion of most of its
provisions in AS 1742 and future amendments has already commenced and can be
expected to continue.
Australian Standards AS1743 and 1744 which contain manufacturing standards
for signs and details of standard alphabets.
Manual of Uniform Traffic Control Devices. This document has legal significance
as it is the document referred to in the Traffic Act, Queensland.
14.3 Signs
Australian road signs may be classified into four types:
Regulatory Signs.
These signs are generally rectangular with the long axis vertical, and have a black
legend on a white background. Special shapes and colours are specified for these
signs where there is a need for easy identification e.g. Stop and Give Way signs.
Regulatory signs inform road users of traffic laws or regulations which it is an
offence to disregard.
Warning signs.
Warning signs are generally square with one diagonal axis vertical, and having a
black legend or symbol on a yellow background. They are used to warn traffic of
hazardous or potentially hazardous conditions in or adjacent to the road. Warning
signs advise the driver of conditions which require caution, and possibly a
reduction in speed.
Guide Signs.
These signs are generally rectangular with the longer axis horizontal, and the
usual colour combination is a white legend on a green background. However
several exceptions occur, including route markers, street name signs, tourist signs
and signs indicating roadside facilities. Guide signs inform and advise road users
about the direction and distances to destinations in the road system, inform them
of services or features of interest along the road, and give instructions which
although not regulatory should be obeyed.
1.1.21
Regulatory Signs
Warning Signs
Guide Signs
Signs for Roadworks and Special Purposes .
Despite these limitations their advantage under favourable conditions is that they convey
information to the driver without diverting attention from the roadway. A strong contrast
between the pavement and the pavement markings is a primary requirement. White is
used for most Australian markings, except that yellow may be used as an alternative for
barrier lines and for parking lines which indicate restricted parking areas.
Raised pavement markers may be used to supplement and, in some instances, replace
painted lines on the road surface. They may be reflective or non-reflective and in some
circumstances a combination of both types may be appropriate.
The following types of pavement markings are used.
Longitudinal Lines:
o Separation lines (Centre lines)
o Lane lines;
o Edge lines; and
o Barrier lines.
Transverse Lines:
o Stop lines;
o Holding lines; and
o Pedestrian crossing markings.
Other Markings:
o Turn lines;
o Diagonal and chevron markings;
o Pavement messages;
o Parking and loading area markings; and
o Kerb markings.
timber, although other materials may be used provided the posts do not constitute a
hazard to vehicles.
Guard fencing is of particular value in delineating the roadway, in deflecting traffic from
hazardous locations, and in reducing the severity of accidents where vehicles may
otherwise leave the road formation. Corrugated guard railing is now commonly used,
although the older types of post and cable, post and chain wire, and wooden post and rail
can still be found.
The use of guard fencing is recommended in the following circumstances:
sub-standard curves;
road embankments (greater than 5 m in height and with side slopes greater than 1
in 4);
narrowing of formation;
on the outside of curves on steep down grades;
protection at structures (e.g. bridge piers);
protection for pedestrians; and
median separators.
The basic principle of traffic signal design involves the allocation of green-time to
vehicle movements in proportion to the vehicle volumes entering and the available
approach saturation flows for the intersection.
14.7.1 Types of Traffic Signal Control
Pretimed Signals
With these signals green signals appear on each approach of a signalised
intersection and the time that signal remains green may be predetermined and
fixed in the signals equipment by a timing device. Signals which operate this way
are called pretimed signals, or fixed time signals. Pretimed signals cannot take
account of fluctuations in traffic flow and are not, therefore, highly efficient but
they are relatively cheap to install and maintain. If fluctuations in traffic flow are
small they are satisfactory. The efficiency of fixed-time signals can be improved
by providing a number of different cycle lengths, usually three, to control
morning peak, off- peak, and afternoon peak traffic.
Vehicle-actuated Signals
With this system vehicles on any intersection approach are sensed by some
detecting device, e.g. magnetic loops or pneumatic pads placed in the roadway.
By recording the vehicles as they cross the detector and by timing the intervals
between vehicles the signals are automatically adjusted to give preference to the
approach with the heaviest flow. Vehicle-actuated signals, as distinct from
pretimed signals, can take account of fluctuations in traffic flow so that in light
traffic conditions delays are less.
Pedestrian-actuated Signals
This type of signal should only be provided at mid-block locations to temporarily
interrupt the flow to permit pedestrians to cross the road.
14.7.2 Co-ordination of Traffic Signals
An urban arterial which has a series of signalised intersections may be coordinated for efficient movement of traffic. In business districts it may be
desirable to establish a comprehensive system which covers the entire area and
provides co-ordinated movement in all directions.
More recently attention has been given to using computers as a means of
optimising traffic flow which is controlled by traffic signals. Where there are a
significant number of signals over a wide area, and co-ordination for several
major road arteries is needed, on-line computers can economically and
functionally meet such a need.
In recent years the term Traffic Calming has been widely used, both in the technical
literature and in the popular press, to refer to a particular thrust of traffic management.
Objectives of traffic calming usually include:
Access Roads being culs de sac not more than 200 metres in length and other
minor roads intended to be used for access to residential buildings.
Collector Roads being roads intended primarily to provide access to residential
buildings and to access roads.
Distributor Roads being roads intended primarily to provide access to
residential buildings and to collector roads, and to connect neighbourhoods to sub
arterial roads. These would also normally carry public transport.
Sub Arterial Roads being roads intended primarily to provide access to
distributor roads and to carry through traffic. Access to residential properties
would not normally be permitted.
Industrial Roads being roads intended primarily to provide access to land
developed or intended to be developed for industrial purposes.
Arterial Roads being roads intended primarily only to carry through traffic.
Access to residential property would not be permitted.
Although the traffic function of streets and roads is well understood, their (social)
function as social and community spaces is not. The principal social function is to
provide public space for social contact of various kinds, and therefore the primary design
objective should be to discourage through traffic from local roads.
The design width, grade, alignment and construction of a street or road should enable a
driver to immediately recognise the class and function of the road. Thus when a driver is
confronted with a narrow winding road they are forced to lower their speed, or take a
different route. The driver can then drive their vehicle accordingly. This is one of the
reasons that winding roads have become popular in the last few years. Another reason is
that curved streets look much better as the streetscape is constantly changing. The road
names, such as Court, Crescent and Drive also indicate the class of road.
15.4 Traffic Management Strategies
The road classification plan provides a framework for the development of traffic
management strategies which address the specific issues associated with particular roads
and streets.
A procedure for the development of a strategy for a road network is:
(a) Define the area of the network for which a traffic management strategy is to be
developed.
(b) Conduct a survey of the study area, including traffic volumes, travel times,
traffic problem locations, identification of different interest groups, views of
interest groups, etc.
(c) Identify the desired objectives of the traffic management scheme, together
with measures of their achievement.
will have significant impact on local roads and vice versa. A local traffic area is an area
bounded by arterial roads in which through traffic is of limited importance, and can
therefore be justifiably restrained.
Modern subdivision design will usually attempt to design in Local Traffic Areas and so
encourage through traffic to use the arterial road system. Older established areas may be
able to encourage the development of local traffic areas by the following types of
treatments on local streets:
16. Railways
16.1 Characteristics of Rail Transport
Railways have had significant impact on development in many countries. Trains are able
to carry very large loads with relative speed at low cost.
The greatest advantage of a railway over a road is the saving in tractive effort. The
resistance of steel tyres on steel rails is of the order of 0.5 percent of the load, compared
with about 2.5 percent for rubber tyres on good road surfaces.
Rail transport has its advantage in transporting large consignments of bulk products over
long distances. As the vehicles are confined to a limited network of tracks rail transport is
often less convenient than road transport. Environmentally rail transport is far less
polluting than road, particularly if the rail system is electrified. The accident rate for rail
transport is also far less than for road transport.
Rail transport suffers from a lack of convenience, the need to double handle
consignments and the inability to provide door to door service.
16.1.1 Transport Tasks Most Suited to Rail
The following transport tasks are those most suited to railways:
haulage of large quantities of bulk commodities e.g. coal, iron ore,
bauxite, grain, etc.;
unit train operation point to point transport of a load of cattle,
military equipment, vehicles, etc.;
long distance traffic non-stop fully loaded trains with nothing to
unload or load between the origin and the destination; and
suburban passenger traffic with large numbers of people e.g. peak
hours for a large metropolitan area.
16.1.2 Transport Tasks Least Suited to Rail
The transport tasks least suited to rail are:
long distance passenger transport, particularly when sleeping
accommodation is required;
parcels and small package transport;
less than wagon load consignments;
short freight trips; and
stop-start train operation such as stopping every 10 km to pick up
or set down wagons.
1.1.22
Railway construction is similar to road construction in the initial stages as cuttings and
embankments must be formed, and a finished construction surface prepared in readiness
to receive the ballast, sleepers and tracks.
Top
16.4 Track Materials
16.4.1 Ballast
Ballast consists of clean, durable, preferably angular crushed rock. The
specification for ballast will usually stipulate grading requirements (38 + 9 mm
is typical) and abrasion and crushing properties. An important requirement of
ballast is its ability to pack to provide a stable track foundation. Ballast must also
be free draining.
16.4.2 Sleepers
In Australia sleepers are cut from durable native hardwoods, in sizes of about 2.15
m x 115 mm x 230 mm for most uses, but increased to 150 mm depth for heavy
haul lines. If termites or decay are likely to be a problem, the sleepers must either
be cut from a resistant species, or treated with preservatives. The life of a sleeper
varies from about 10 to 25 years depending on timber type, location, climate, etc.
Prestressed concrete and steel sleepers are also being used where it is economical
to do so.
16.4.3 Rails
Rails are manufactured to an Australian Standard and are designated by their
weight per lineal metre. Lighter rails for branch lines may be as light as 21 kg/m,
but the typical rail section is 41 to 47 kg/m for urban rail and 53 to 60 kg/m for
heavy haul railways.
16.4.4 Fastenings
Fastenings include the means on joining rails together, and of attaching the rails to
the sleepers.
Individual rail lengths may be joined by using two rolled angle sections called
fish-plates. Fish-plates are usually about 760 mm long and have 6 holes through
which fishbolts are passed (3 through each rail end). In addition to joining the
rails, provision is made within the fishplated joint for thermal expansion and
contraction of the rail. A fishplated joint has about 40 to 50% of the strength of
the parent rail, and these joints are a major maintenance problem.
1.1.23
Electric Staff
Again the staff must be in the possession of the train crew before the train can
proceed onto the single lane section. The staves vary in shape of head and colour
and are housed at each crossing station in instruments which are electrically
connected by wiring and operated in such a manner that only one staff can be
withdrawn from either instrument applying over the section. Electric staff
working normally applies to single lines where there are 20 or more trains per
day.
Top
16.7 Alternative Forms of Railway
16.7.1 Light Rail Systems (Tramways)
Light rail systems use vehicles with steel wheels on steel rails and the rail system
is duo-rail. Both the vehicles and the rails are of lighter construction than those in
a traditional rail system. Often light rail systems will not have an exclusive right
of way and will operate on partially segregated or non-segregated routes. They are
passenger rather than freight oriented. In Australia, light rail systems would often
be referred to as tramways. Light rail systems are usually characterised by the
following:
overhead electricity supply system;
non-automated, manually driven vehicles;
articulated vehicles to reduce swept area and to improve curving
ability;
where the system is integrated with normal road transport, grooved
rails flush with the road surface;
cost-effective passenger transportation for 5,000 15,000 per hour
in the peak direction; and
passenger stations at 250 m to 1000 m spacing.
1.1.24
within the government sector required to finance the transport task are comparatively
much greater.
The major private sector railways of Hamersley Iron and Mt. Newman Mining in northwest Australia are high density, single product lines, operating to the highest international
standards.
The main functions of both public and private rail operators in Australia are freight rather
than passenger oriented. About seventy-five percent of total earnings come from freight
operations, seventeen percent from passenger operations and the remainder from
miscellaneous activities.
The physical location of railways in Australia closely mirrors the development of the
continent with coastal centres operating as terminii for inland areas. An important feature
of the Australian system is the variety of gauges which is a remnant of the development
of colonies prior to Federation. There are three principal gauges in use in Australia
narrow (1067 mm), standard (1435 mm) and broad (1600 mm). Although it is now
unlikely that Australia will ever convert all its railways to standard gauge, there is a
continuing programme of upgrading main interstate routes to standard gauge where
traffic volumes are significant.
16.8.1 Freight Transport
o
Bulk Hauls
On many railway systems there are examples proving that rail can
transport materials in bulk in a manner which is efficient and cost
effective.
Non-bulk Freight
While the cost of transport is important, the high intrinsic worth of much
non-bulk freight means that a lot of emphasis is placed on the quality of
the transport service, particularly reliability. Australian rail systems have
for a long time suffered from institutional problems (work practices,
industrial relations problems, organisational structures, etc.) which have
made them not very efficient in this area.
Top
it is the fastest mode of transport available over long distances (due to use of a
very fast moving vehicle and an almost direct line of travel); and
it is generally the most expensive mode of transport over any distance.
These two characteristics have led air transport to specialise in transporting passengers
and high value commodities.
Aircraft flying outside terminal airspace operate on either visual flight rules (VFR) or
instrument flight rules (IFR). In visual flight rule mode it is the pilots responsibility to
make visual contact with other aircraft i.e. it works on the principle of see and be seen.
A flight begins with the pilot filing a flight plan which details departure time, flight route,
altitude, destination, etc. The flight plan must account for the anticipated weather
conditions along the route, and the load to be carried. When the flight is ready to
commence the air traffic controller advises the pilot by radio when taxiways and runway
may be used. Once the aircraft is airborne a climb-out path from the airport is indicated
by the air traffic controller. This climb-out path depends on factors such as the aircrafts
performance and load, wind speed, and restrictions on noise, etc. On reaching a
predetermined height the aircraft turns onto the first airway and climbs to cruising height.
Aircraft flying along airways in opposite directions are separated in altitude:
o
o
As the aircraft approaches its destination it again enters terminal airspace and is
controlled by ground based air traffic control. If congestion occurs in the use of runways
at the airport, incoming aircraft will be held in stacking areas, which are usually oval
shaped, about 8km long and 5 km wide. The aircraft will circle in these stacking areas,
separated vertically by about 300m, until directed to move down the stack or to land by
air traffic control.
Safety Factors
Topography
Foundation Conditions
Usability
Noise
Extension Possibilities
Navigational Aids
Land Use Compatibility
Traffic
Wind
Slope
Avoidance of Bird Hazards
Runway Length
Environmental Factors
The size of a ship is expressed in tons. There are different methods of assessing tonnage;
the common methods being:
Displacement tonnage the weight of water the ship displaces in accordance with
Archimedes Principle. This equals the total weight of the ship plus all that it
contains.
Deadweight tonnage a measure of the load that the ship is designed to carry, i.e.
cargo, passengers, stores, etc. This is the difference between the displacement
tonnage when the ship is fully loaded and unloaded.
Gross Registered tonnage (GRT) a measure of the total cubic capacity of all
enclosed space. In this case the ton is taken as 100 cubic feet.
Net Registered tonnage (NRT) the gross registered tonnage less space required
to run the ship e.g. machinery space, crews quarters, etc.
For efficient ship operation the time spent both at sea and in port must be kept to a
minimum. Speed of operation depends on the technical design of the vessel. Speed of
port operation requires high level of mechanisation. This may be difficult to achieve for
general cargo as there is a need for different equipment for different goods.
The development of specialist ships such as bulk cargo ships, and the introduction of
containerisation has helped to achieve greater port efficiency for loading and unloading
ships.
17.5 Ship Types
Road, rail and air vehicles feature a high degree of standardisation and are usually
produced using a mass-production system. Ships, on the other hand, are not massproduced and usually feature a high degree of individuality. Even sister ships are
unlikely to be exactly the same.
However ships do fall into a relatively small number of distinct groups, usually related to
the task which they are designed to perform. Some of the common types of commercial
ships are:
General Cargo Ships. Generally these are of modest size, mostly under 15,000
GRT. They fill the gaps left by more specialised vessels, but are still the most
common type of vessel for goods transport. One advantage of general cargo ships
is that they can be switched between different types of haulage, and therefore may
have a greater usability than more specialised vessels.
Container Ships. These vary greatly in size, depending largely what route they are
operating. Ships operating on larger international routes would often have a
capacity of 2000 containers, of which about 300 would be carried as deck cargo.
Smaller ships used on shorter routes may have a capacity of only 300 containers.
The ships may be provided with gantry cranes if they are likely to use ports
inadequately equipped with heavy lifting gear. Because of their high volume, high
speed and relatively high port turnaround, container ships can carry many times
the cargo of a general cargo ship in a year.
Large Crude Carriers. The largest of these vessels are known as Very Large Crude
Carriers (VLCC) and Ultra Large Crude Carriers (ULCC). These ships range in
size from 250,000 to 400,000 tons and are designed to operate from oil-producing
countries to a limited number of ports in consuming countries. Design is based on
ensuring stability of the large volume of liquid cargo. To prevent excessive
surging of the liquid when the ship rolls and pitches, a series of separate
compartments is used to hold the liquid. A feature of tanker operation is their
relatively quick turnaround and they consequently can spend a large proportion of
their time at sea.
Dry Bulk Carriers. In concept these are similar to large crude carriers, although
they are usually less than 200,000 dwt (deadweight tons).
Ro-ro Ships. Roll-on, roll-off ships are designed to minimise the time of loading
and unloading of general cargo by allowing it to be driven on and off the vessel.
Loading is generally through a stern door with ramps to different levels. Some
ships will also incorporate an opening bow which permits a movement of vehicles
through the vessel. Ships of this type may need specialist port facilities, although
the need for complex lifting equipment is dispensed with.
o
o
o
tide range;
land base area available; and
expansion potential.
Transport engineers generally work in the microeconomic area because they are involved
in the detailed planning, construction and maintenance of specific transport projects.
These projects all lead to small savings in economic resources which generate
microeconomic benefits and an increase in the welfare of the community. However it
should be noted that the sum total of the microeconomic effects of individual transport
projects will impact on macroeconomic factors such as infrastructure spending and
employment.
minimises anything, but rather prices are set that permit some other objectives to be
achieved (e.g. security, minimum market share, etc.).
Further, prices may be set to achieve certain objectives for the transport suppliers
welfare, while in other fields prices may be set to improve the welfare of consumers.
One of the major problems in discussing pricing policies in practice is to decide what
exactly the objective is. Profit maximisation is the traditional motivation of private
enterprise undertakings. The actual price level in this case depends upon the degree of
competition in the market. Where competition is high, then no single supplier has any
control over price and must charge that determined by the interaction of supply and
demand in the market as a whole. Within such a competitive environment it is impossible
for a supplier to make super-normal profits in the long run because if super-normal
profits exist, other competitors will enter the market and increase overall supply.
In contrast, if a transport supplier has a monopoly on the supply of services, and has no
fear of new entrants increasing supply, then prices can be set at any level the supplier
desires, or the supplier can specify what level of service is to be provided.
However there are few natural monopolies in transport. Modes are normally competitive
even if they have a tendency towards a monopoly. Also users of transport services often
have the alternative of either changing their method of production (in the case of freight
transport) or pattern of consumption (in the case of passenger transport), so that transport
is itself competitive with different forms of human activity.
Welfare economics takes a wider view of pricing, looking upon price as a method of
resource allocation which maximises the welfare of the society rather than simply the
welfare of the supplier. In some cases, when the good or service is provided by a public
agency, the suppliers welfare and social welfare will be the same thing. In other
instances controls or incentives may be applied to private companies so that their pricing
policy is modified to maximise social rather than private welfare.
18.7 An Example of Pricing in Practice - Charging for Roads
One of the most important forms of transport infrastructure in Australia, as in most
countries, is the road system. The pricing problems that have been alluded to in the
previous section can be illustrated by examining some of the main issues involved in
charging for road space.
In Australia no direct charge is usually made for using a public road, although motorists
are required to pay tolls on a small number of expressways, motorways and bridges. Road
space is thus provided free in most circumstances. However road users can be said to
contribute towards the cost of roads via fuel levies and other motoring charges such as
licence and registration fees.
Consider some figures for 1994/95. Governments in Australia (predominantly the Federal
Government) raised $9494 million in taxes on fuel. Another $4183 million was raised
through taxes based on vehicle ownership of vehicles (as distinct from the amount of
their use). A total of $15 588 million was raised as revenue from road users.
The total expenditure on roads was $5707 million, and the difference (approx. $9900
million went into consolidated revenue (i.e. was spent on other Government spending
initiatives not roads). It is this differential between revenue collected and funds spent
which gives rise to a lot of argument from the motoring public, motoring organisations,
state and local highway authorities, and other groups.
The other method of charging for road use is via direct user charges whereby the actual
time or distance of vehicle travel is monitored and charged. Traditional toll collection
consists of payment at a point or barrier for entry onto a facility (e.g. road, bridge or
tunnel). Developments in direct charging include the use of electronic systems using
fixed beacons and on-vehicle transponders. Many road authorities are now considering
charging not only for special purpose facilities (e.g. toll roads and harbour tunnels) but
also for use of the normal road system, particularly in areas subject to traffic congestion.
The concept is that with a limited supply of physical resources, the only realistic option is
some form of traffic restraint and stricter management of actual traffic demand. This is
best achieved through using effective pricing mechanisms in order to attain better
utilisation of the existing road space.
Another issue associated with road funding has received a significant amount of attention
in recent years. This is the issue of the contribution made by different categories of road
users, and in particular whether heavy vehicles pay their fair share for road use. From
engineering considerations there is no doubt that heavy vehicles result in increased road
costs through their damaging effects. It has been argued that there is a case for increased
taxation of road vehicles and that such taxation should be directly related to the damage
being caused to the road.
Although it may be possible to reach consensus that a relationship should exist between
the taxing of commercial vehicles and the extent of costs which have to be borne by
public authorities in maintaining roads, the problem of deciding on the basis of allocating
those costs between different types of vehicles and scales of operation remains extremely
difficult. The importance of devising an equitable basis of allocation increases as the
move to allow heavier goods vehicles gains political momentum.
However, it may also be considered that no vehicles cause road expenditure. Rather,
they have an effect on design standards and maintenance which is a response to their
effect. Therefore to burden heavy transport operators with charges above those of other
road users is unfair, as road authorities have as their charter to provide safe and trafficable
roads for all road users.
Both the overall funding and heavy vehicle issues tend to be argued largely from the
point of view of cost recovery, i.e. the road user generally, or truck operator in particular,
paying for the use of government provided roads.
(less than 500 Hz) and high frequencies (greater than 10,000 Hz) being more difficult to
hear.
Duration
A gunshot may be loud but it only lasts a fraction of a second. Road traffic noise may not
be as intense but it is continual. Therefore measures have been developed to describe how
sound varies with time.
Subjectivity
Individuals have different responses to various sounds. What one person perceives as
music another person may regard as a noise. Unwanted sound is commonly referred to as
noise. Transport noise is a common problem in urban areas. Noise annoyance is a
subjective thing and criteria for noise control are usually based on attitudinal surveys.
Single loud noises may result in hearing loss and these noises may need to be controlled
from a community viewpoint. However transport noise is usually of a longer duration and
not as loud. Short term effects are likely to be annoyance or irritation. Transport noise can
lead to problems in emotional well being and cause increased tension by interfering with
sleep patterns or causing disruption to the routines of daily life. Long term exposure may
result in reduced hearing ability.
19.2.1 Assessing Transport Noise Impacts
Transport noise prediction is undertaken using mathematical modelling
procedures. The basis of the models is the use of reference noise emission levels
from a range of standard vehicles. Noise reduction occurs with increased distance
from a source and is referred to as geometric spreading. The source may be
characterised as a point source (e.g. an individual road vehicle or aircraft) or a line
source (e.g. a road with a stream of traffic).The amount of attenuation which
occurs with distance from the source depends on the type of source used and the
geometrics of the noise travel path.
19.2.2 Mitigation of Transport Noise
The problems associated with noise from transport need to be appreciated in the
planning and design phase of new facilities. For existing facilities and operations
the undesirable effects of transport noise may be minimised by introducing
reduction measures at the noise source, in the propagation path of the noise,
and/or at the receiver.
Noise is generated by the engine and exhaust systems of vehicles, by aerodynamic
friction, and by the interaction between the vehicle and its support system (e.g.
tyre-pavement interaction for road vehicles and wheel-rail interaction for railway
vehicles). Insulation in the engine compartment is used to reduce engine noise,
mufflers are used for exhaust noise and pavement type selection may reduce
tyre/pavement noise production for road traffic.
The path may also be altered to reduce noise. Increased distance between the
source and the receiver results in reduced sound levels due to geometric
spreading. It therefore follows that increased path distance results in traffic noise
abatement. This abatement measure may be a possibility if sufficient right-of-way
widths are available. However the establishment of a green-belt between source
and receiver may be a very costly exercise in an urban area.
A more common strategy for noise abatement in urban areas is the use of noise
barriers. The barrier is designed so as to reflect and diffract the sound. The
difference in noise levels with and without the wall is referred to as insertion loss.
Although vegetation is sometimes used as a noise barrier, it is generally found
that a more solid, fabricated structure is most effective in noise amelioration.
In some cases it is not practical to mitigate noise in the path e.g. near airports. In
these cases it may be possible to improve the situation by insulating the buildings.
Measures which can be used include increased insulation of walls and roof,
double-glazed windows, acoustic vents and storm doors. These measure are
frequently used near large airports, and to protect buildings such as schools near
busy roads.
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19.3 Air Quality
Although the release of pollutants into the atmosphere does occur naturally in our world,
there are many pollutants which are the direct result of human activity. Particularly in
cities, the release of man-produced pollutants is dominant.
The combustion of fossil fuels for transport use results in the release of several
contaminants including carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, hydrocarbons, oxides of
nitrogen, and lead and other particulate matter. Hydrocarbons are the result of the
incomplete combustion of the fuel. Particulates are minute particles that are suspended in
the atmosphere and include aerosols, smoke and dust particles.
Once emitted into the atmosphere, air pollutants undergo mixing or diffusion, the degree
of which depends on topographic, climatic and meteorological conditions. Other
pollutants not directly emitted from the source may form in the atmosphere using the
directly emitted pollutants as feed material. These include nitrates, sulphates and
photochemical oxidants (ozone). Photochemical smog is the result of complex chemical
reactions of the oxides of nitrogen and hydrocarbons in the presence of sunlight.
Air pollution can be associated with respiratory damage in humans (bronchitis,
emphysema, pneumonia and lung cancer) as well as eye, nose and throat irritations.
Societal effects include damage to structures and materials, damage to crops and animals,
and atmospheric haze. Global effects from acid rain, global warming and ozone depletion
are also of concern.
Fossil fuel combustion, particularly by motor vehicles has been identified as the largest
single contributor to atmospheric pollution, particularly in urban areas. Judgement about
this must be tempered by the fact that motor vehicles are responsible for most of the
urban passenger task and virtually all the urban freight task.
The importance of transport pollution must also be considered in the context of air
pollution as a whole. For instance, although cars have higher rates of carbon dioxide
emissions per passenger kilometre than buses and rail, motor vehicles contribute less than
25% of total carbon dioxide emissions. The bulk of carbon dioxide emissions come from
coal-fired power stations which are usually located well clear of major urban areas. They
do however provide the motive power for urban rail services.
The rate of emission and the concentration of particular pollutants is also affected by the
speed of road vehicles. Emissions increase markedly when vehicles accelerate and are
low when they are idling. The impact of congestion on pollution levels is a complex
question but it is widely accepted that traffic congestion increases local air pollution.
19.3.1 Assessment of Air Pollution
The assessment of air-pollution effects of transport may be undertaken at three
levels:
o microscale analysis in the immediate vicinity of a transport facility, such
as a road;
o mesoscale analysis in areas that are somewhat removed from the source,
and which may include the contribution of other mobile and stationary
sources of pollution; and
o macroscale analysis extending from the regional to the global levels.
Common units of measurement for air pollutants include parts per million (ppm)
and micrograms per cubic metre.
Pollution levels at a location vary considerably depending upon the type of
vehicle operation, the time of day and the atmospheric conditions. In some cities
the peak condition for carbon monoxide concentration follows very closely the
chronological sequence of peak-hour vehicle operations, but in other cities this
relationship does not occur. Vehicle age is a factor in the level of pollution,
primarily because of innovations in anti- pollution equipment.
19.3.2 Control of Transport Produced Air Pollution
The most effective abatement for air pollution occurs at the source. In most
countries emission standards and test procedures have changed substantially since
the first emission standards were introduced (often in the mid 1960s). In Australia
all states have Clean Air Acts which usually include controls over emissions of
exhaust fumes from motor vehicles. The design and production of new vehicles is
controlled by Australian Design Rules, and these include standards for carbon
monoxide and hydrocarbon emissions for new vehicles.
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19.4 Water Quality
Transport systems may affect water quality or can interfere with the natural flow of a
waterway. For example, road, airport or railway runoff can add pollutants to watercourses
and bodies of water. These transport systems may also concentrate runoff water so as to
cause scour or flooding. Transport construction activities may also result in soil erosion
or alteration to the natural flow of water.
19.5 Ecological Impacts
Transport projects can have major impacts on ecological systems. Physical removal of
vegetation, compaction of soils, paving of surfaces, drainage works, and construction
vehicle operation can all destroy natural fauna and flora habitats during the construction
of transport facilities. Mowing, application of herbicides, accidental spills, vehicle
operations and human activity can interrupt normal ecosystems during the operation of
transport systems. Accordingly, these impacts should be considered during transport
planning.
In addition to these considerations, other ecological considerations are required. Coastal
zone management must be considered if the project is located near a coastline. The
effects on agricultural production must be considered if the project goes through or is
adjacent to arable land. If the project is in a floodplain special considerations will be
required. It becomes apparent that ecological impacts are very important and that many
players will need to be involved during the planning stage.
19.6 Social Impacts
Sociological impacts of transport proposals, such as impacts on historical properties,
cultural artefacts and other heritage issues must be considered. In addition,
socioeconomic impacts such as disruption of community cohesion, prevention of access
to community facilities and general social and economic disruption, should be taken into
account.
19.7 Aesthetics
The quality of a transport project is often judged by the public on its visual impact. A new
airport terminal for example is likely to be judged as much by its appearance as by its
functionality. Clearly many purchasers of new cars are as interested in what the vehicle
looks like as to how it performs. It is therefore important to evaluate the aesthetics of
transport facilities, from the viewpoints of both the traveller and the non-traveller. For
instance, a new road should be considered aesthetically from the viewpoints of the driver,
the passenger, and the pedestrian (all users of the facility) as well as the person whose
abode overlooks the new facility (a non-user).
19.8 Environmental Impact Assessment
The Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) concept is used by the Federal and State
Governments in Australia. The object of EIA is to provide for environmental matters to
be taken into account in the making of decisions. It also aims, in the interest of sound
environmental management to ensure that the potential environmental effects of activities
are considered in the early stages of development planning and prior to a decision being
taken to proceed with each stage of the project.
The requirements for environmental documentation vary depending upon the different
legislative and procedural arrangements adopted by differing governments. Most
however have the following common features:
Under all EIA procedures in Australia, the responsibility for preparation of the
documentation rests with the person proposing development.
It is now usual for the public to be involved in the basic decision-making process.
Involvement of the public from an early stage is desirable in order to minimise major
conflict after a project is committed or has reached a stage where modification is difficult.
The essential aspect is that public comment should be initiated before a commitment is
made to the project so that it is publicly evident that comments have the potential to
influence the course of the project.
The evaluation of EIA documents is carried out by the appropriate authorities both as an
aid to government decision making and to enable the identification of any environmental
conditions which need to form part of the approval.
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costs will be higher, but so will the cost of ongoing maintenance and replacement.
In reality, the crucial issue is the costs the citizens are willing to pay in order to
satisfy their wants. This willingness to pay is a function of a societys values,
attitudes, and preferences.
Energy Demand
Energy use may be thought of as occurring in four basic sectors: transport,
residential, commercial and industrial. Transport accounts for a significant
proportion of total energy use in most industrialised countries. Public policy in
Australia has been to provide relatively cheap energy and social, community and
industrial development has progressed on this premise from the end of World War
II (1945) until recent times. This has been one factor that has contributed to urban
expansion in Australia. Other factors include rapid increase in real per capita
income, rapid diffusion of the car, development of the major road system in
preference to the development of public transport, and land-use planning policies
which have encouraged low-density residential development. However changes in
factors such as the decline of household size, new environmental controls and
energy policy are now occurring which could change this pattern in the future.
Transport uses about 30% of the energy used in Australia. About one third of that
(10% of the total) fuels urban car travel. If the urban car usage could be halved
some increase in public transport energy usage would occur, but an overall
reduction of about 3% of national energy use may be possible. This is just one
way in which our national energy use could perhaps be reduced. The challenge is
for society to be willing to tackle the hard decisions involved in reforming our
energy usage.
19.9.2 Energy Conservation
There are at least three basic strategies for meeting future energy requirements:
develop new sources of energy;
reduce energy waste; and
adjust to lifestyles that use less energy.
Although a combination of all three strategies is needed, the one that holds the
most immediate promise is to reduce energy waste. Energy conservation, or the
more efficient use of energy, aims to reduce consumption levels while still
enjoying current living standards.
A major area for potential saving is the transport sector. A great deal of
investigation and research has been carried out in recent times to consider ways in
which transport energy usage may be reduced. The solutions proposed are quite
varied, and the following presents just a few of the ideas which have been
investigated or are being implemented:
o
o
o
The World Bank (Sustainable Transport: Priorities for Policy Reform 1996, The World
Bank, Washington, D.C.) has indicated that to be effective, transport policy must satisfy
three main requirements. First, it must ensure that a continuing capability exists to
support an improved material standard of living. This corresponds to the concept of
economic and financial sustainability. Second, it must generate the greatest possible
improvement in the quality of life, not merely an increase in traded goods. This relates to
the concept of environmental and ecological sustainability. Third, the benefits that
transport produces must be shared equitably by all sections of the community, and this is
termed social sustainability.
Economic, environmental and social sustainability are often mutually reinforcing. Road
or public transport systems that fall into disrepair because they are economically
unsustainable fail to serve the needs of the poor and often have environmentally
damaging consequences. Hence, the three types of sustainability are closely linked and a
policy on sustainable transport must therefore consider all three aspects in order to be
comprehensive and effective.
development will occur around public transport modes, and this trend has been in
evidence for some time.
Transport Technology
A great deal of research effort has been put into the development of innovative,
new transport technology. However, it is likely that any change that occurs will be
more evolutionary in character than revolutionary. Certain criteria can be
identified that will have to be met for the acceptance of any new system:
technical reliability;
acceptable cost;
fulfilment of a need not currently adequately met;
political acceptability;
social acceptability;
efficiency in the use of dwindling fossil fuel reserves; and
environmental acceptability.
Socio economic Climate
The effect of long term social and economic developments in our societies is
likely to be great. However, it is generally agreed, that it is extremely difficult to
forecast future economic scenarios. For example will Australia prosper
economically over the next 20 years or will the situation be one of declining
growth and prosperity? Changes in social attitudes are perhaps even more
unpredictable than economic conditions. However at least three trends can be
identified which are likely to continue in the long term:
o community concern for the environmental impact of transport systems;
o the desire for the public to be more involved in the decision making
process; and
o the desire for greater equity among the members of society, including the
recognition of the needs of minority groups, such as the disadvantaged, in
transport provision.
Transport Energy
The oil crises of 1973/74 and 1979 brought the realisation that a longer term
problem of oil demand exists. These events also brought into focus the links
between energy, economic growth and the balance of payments.
insidious consequences of mass car-ownership have been the effects on public transport
and the structure of towns. The growth in the proportion of trips by car is mirrored by the
corresponding decline in trips by public transport. The effect on the structure of towns is
shown particularly in the pressure for new developments on the periphery of urban areas.
An unknown in this situation is whether large-scale peri-urban development, and the
roads and parking areas which serve them, actually induce more trips to be made. The
need to provide a road network to cope with increasing vehicle numbers has also severed
many older neighbourhoods. People who cannot drive because of financial or physical
limitations now find their access to lifes opportunities seriously impaired and society has
divided into the transport haves and have nots.
Above all, mass use of cars has placed a tremendous burden on the worlds liquid energy
resources. More than half of the petroleum produced in the world today is used for
transport purposes, and about 80% of that is for cars. However, the possibility of reducing
societys reliance on the private car appears small. Most people in developed countries
seek to be able to have the freedom of movement associated with individual car
ownership and the concept of universal car ownership is not impossible. Very many in the
poorer countries of the world aspire to this as well, and car ownership in these countries
is often increasing at a much greater rate than population increase. Currently global car
ownership works out at about 100 cars per 1000 population and this is expected to grow
to about 120 cars per 1000 population by the year 2010. However rates in countries such
as the USA and Australia are about 600 cars per 1000 population and only slight
increases in this level are likely to occur. The bulk of the increase in total vehicle
population (from about 550 million now to about 800 million by 2010) will occur in the
rapidly developing countries of the world.
Suburbanisation of our cities and towns has made the car an essential component of daily
life in all areas except the central cores of our largest cities. Individually, people rely on
their cars and cherish the freedom, convenience and instant mobility that it provides.
Collectively, however, their attachment to the car has created conditions that increasingly
threaten to compromise the independence they value. Over the last two decades
governments have become increasingly aware of the cost to society of large scale
dependence on the car and have begun to formulate policies to met the challenges created
by continued high levels of car usage. These policies have included:
greater regulation of car and engine design to provide safer, cleaner and more fuel
efficient vehicles;
increased emphasis on encouraging collective forms of urban transport; and
greater stress on efficient and intensive use of the existing road network in
preference to the construction of new facilities.
Improvements in fuel economy are likely to offer some reprieve from the growing
demand for liquid petroleum fuels, but only in the short term. New cars are certainly
becoming more fuel efficient but total kilometres travelled is also growing. Therefore
something more than a marginal improvement in fuel efficiency is required; perhaps the
development of vehicles that can radically alter fuel usage. It would appear that the
development of relatively small light weight vehicles with small high compression
engines would achieve this, particularly in city areas. Such a vehicle, the city car would
be intended for commuting and for short intra metropolitan travel. This would account for
up to 80% of car travel in metropolitan areas.
But what of the other 20%? People do not use cars only for commuting. They are also
used for the 5000 km annual holiday and the like. Unfortunately we have grown up with
the concept that the one vehicle is suitable for all trip purposes when of course it is not. It
may be that in the future all purpose cars are not able to be sanctioned by society and
more specialised vehicles are developed and used.
20.4 Intelligent Transport Systems (ITS)
Advances in the fields of electronics, communications and computing are now being
applied to transport to improve efficiency, reduce costs, reduce negative environmental
impact and improve transport safety. These systems are commonly called Intelligent
Transport Systems (ITS). The systems that specifically apply to the road network are
frequently referred to as Intelligent Vehicle and Highway Systems (IVHS). They involve
integrated applications of advanced surveillance, communications, computer display and
control process technologies both in the vehicle and on the road. The systems have the
potential to improve the operation of transport systems and to provide feedback to
planners, designers and operators.
The essence of IVHS as it relates to transport operations is the improved ability to
manage services using accurate, real time information and hence to greatly enhance the
control of traffic flow and individual vehicles.
Six broad and interrelated categories can be identified in the area of ITS.