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1. .

The Transport System


1.1 The Importance of Transport

Transport an integral part of human culture in all societies


People wish to transport: people (individually or in mass), things (freight), and
information.

Information transfer is now relatively fast and efficient.


Transport of things can be dictated as to how and when they travel.
People want to exercise control over their travel.

1.2 The Development of Transport


Stages of Development:
Human Powered

Animal Powered

Machine Powered

An alternative method of thinking of the development of transport is:


Primitive
(vehicle found in nature)

Transitional
(improved vehicle)

Advanced
(the 'way' improved)

Chronologically transport development started with basic land and water transport where
motive power was provided by the human. Land transport developed to using other
animals as beasts of burden - horses, camels, etc. Further development occured with the
invention of devices to attach to the animal - sleds, carts, etc. A major step forward
occurred with the invention of the wheel, although the development of wheeled vehicles
was fairly slow.Water transport developed with the use of devices to carry the person canoe type structures, where the power was still provided by the human. The
development of the sail allowed the use of an external power - the wind. The use of sail
transport was limited by navigation restrictions (the necessity to be in sight of land) and
the inability to sail against the wind. The technique of sailing against the wind developed
in the mid 1400's with the development of multi-masted vessels.
A major impetus to the development of transport occur with the industrial revolution and
particularly the harnessing of steam power. This led to the development of the railway in
the early 1800's and a worldwide boom in railway construction occurred between about
1830 and 1900. Steam power also led to the development of steam ships and a move
away from sailing ships. The development of the motor vehicle in the late 1800's and

early 1900's started the decline in railway building and rail transport. However, at the turn
of the century it was by no means clear as to which way road transport would develop
with steam, electric and internal combustion engine powered vehicles all being used. The
internal combustion engine was to win out for road transport, and its relative compactness
and lightness also led to its use in the development of aircraft.
LINK TO THE PICTURE GALLERY

The Picture Gallery contains some photographs of The Development of Transport .

LINKS TO SITES ON TRANSPORT DEVELOPMENT:


The Smithsonian Institue in the USA provides some overview of transport development,
particularly in the last one hundred years, through its Smithsonian: Transportation History
FAQs and Links

1.3 Transport in the Modern World


The major factors influencing the development of transport on a global basis are:

The Pattern of Trading Nations. This is a complex factor. There is a growing


tendency for nations to associate in trading blocks and this increases the mutual
interdependence of nations.
The Growth of Population. Estimated world population figures are:
Year

Estimated World Population


(Millions)

1650

450

1900

2000

1960

3000

1980

4000

2000

6250

The Increasing Affluence of Nations.


The Decline in Strategic Interferences with Transport.
The Search for Increasing Efficiency in Transport.
Environmental Concerns. Including noise, air pollution, and safety.

Transport can be considered to have three major roles in modern society:


o

Economic - Economic wellbeing is dependent on adequate transport


facilities.

o
o

Social - Transport provides for the interaction of persons, and the


provision of goods and services.
Political - Transport influences trading, which in turn influences
sovereignty.

1.4 Transport / Land Use Interaction.


Transport and land use are closely related.
Can be considered in the following way:
New transport facilities results in increased accessibility, which results in land values
increasing, which results in a change of land use to a higher use, which results in
increased trip generation, which results in greater demand for transport services, which
results in new transport facilities (back to the beginning).(i.e. a cyclic process)
This is analogous to the old problem: Which came first - the chicken or the egg? In this
case, which comes first: Change to land use or change to the transport system?

2. Transport Planning
2.1 Transport Planning
Transport planning is a methodical process of planning for future transport needs. It is a
combination of art (creativity required) and science (solution of highly technical
problems).
It needs to be coordinated with other aspects of community planning, particularly land
use planning.

2.2 The Transport Modelling Process


Detailed transport planning depends on the use of complex mathematical models of the
transport system. These models are simplified representations of the real world. They are
used to explore the consequences of particular transport policies or strategies.
The ideal model is one which produces accurate forecasts at minimum cost.
A critical decision in creating a transport model is deciding which parameters to include
and which parameters to ignore. The inclusion of the most relevant parameters will
optimise the accuracy of the predictions obtained from the model. However it is always a
difficult task to know which are the key parameters in a particular situation. The accuracy
of a model may be improved by the inclusion of more parameters but this is usually at a
greater financial cost in creating and running the model.

The transport modelling process consists of the following steps:

Definition of study area and creation of internal and external zones


Data collection
Forecast of parameters (eg land use)
Preparation of mathematical model
Calibration of model
Modelling
Evaluation of results and production of a physical plan.

The conventional mathematical model used is a four-step model which consists of


submodels:
o trip generation,
o trip distribution,
o modal choice, and
o traffic assignment.
The mathematical model is constructed using a number of mathematical algorithms. Once
constructed the model is adjusted, or calibrated, so that it is able to model current
transport conditions. The model is then used to predict future transport conditions, using
future modelling parameters for land use, population, car ownership, etc.

LINKS TO SITES ON TRANSPORT MODELLING.


A very comprehensive (13 printed pages), introductory paper on transport modelling,
titled ' A Transport Modeling Primer ' is available on the Web. This paper discusses the
basis, procedures and limitations of transport modelling.

2.3 Survey Area


The size of the area to be studied depends on the purpose of the study. If the impact of a
new supermarket is to be examined the study area will be relatively small, whereas the
study area for an investigation of regional transpot issues will be quite large.
The study area is defined by an external cordon. The area within the study area is then
broken down into internal zones. External zones are created for travel from the study area
to outer destinations. External zones will usually be much larger than internal zones.
Zones should be established so that they are compatible with the zones used in other
relevant data collection exercises for the area (for example population data from census
collection). Zones should be relatively uniform in land use, fairly uniform and regular in
shape, and large enough to use for a statistically reliable sample.

2.4 Data Collection

Data may be cross-sectional (ie establishing characteristics across the area at one point in
time- the usual case) or time series (establishing the change of characteristics with time).
Census data often provides cross-sectional data on characteristics such as population
distribution and age characteristics. Home interview surveys will also frequently be used
in transport studies to supplement census data and to obtain specific data on travel
characteristics. Home interview surveys generally sample about 5 to 20 % of households
and obtain data on general household characteristics (eg number of motor vehicles in the
household), characteristics of individual household members (eg age, drivers licence
holding or not, etc) and/or particulars of individual trips.

2.5 Forecasts of Future Planning Parameters


The predictions of future trips in an area is based on linking together present trips with
present land use, population, income distribution, etc, and then forecasting future trips
using predictions of the future levels of these same parameters. It is therefore necessary
to come up with future predictions of the key chosen parameters such as:
o population,
o income distribution, and
o the spatial location of land use.

2.6 Trip Generation


A trip is defined as a one-way person movement by one or more modes of travel.
Each trip has an origin and a destination.
Transport modelling studies usually consider trips in two broad categories:

Home-based (any trip having either the origin or the destination of the trip as the
home), and
Non-home based (any trip having neither the trip origin nor the trip destination as
the home).

Trip Generation is the sub-model of the transport planning model which predicts the total
number of trips generated and attracted to each zone in the study area.
The two methods which are commonly used to build trip generation sub-models are:

Multiple linear regression, and


Category analysis.

2.7 Trip Distribution

The trip distribution sub-model is the second sub-model used in the transport planning
model. It uses the data produced by the trip generation sub-model to predict the number
of trips which will occur between one zone and another.
In mathematical terms, the trip generation sub-model will give a prediction of the total
trips generated from zone i (Pi), and the total trips attracted to zone j (Aj). The trip
distribution sub-model then allows the prediction of the interzonal trips between zones i
and j (Tij).
The methods used for trip distribution fall into two groups:

Growth Factor Methods, which include:


o The Constant Factor Method,
o The Average Factor Method,
o The Fratar Method, and
o The Furness Method.
Synthetic Methods, of which the most widely used is the Gravity Method.

2.8 Modal Choice


Trips may be made by differing methods or modes of travel e.g. car, walking, bus, train,
etc. The determination of the choice of travel mode is known as mode choice or modal
split.
The factors affecting a person's choice of mode are numerous. The variables which are
usually incorporated into a mode choice model are:

tripmaker characteristics - represented by factors such as car ownership, income,


and net residential density.
trip characteristics - usually considered by establishing differing modal split
relationships for different trip types e.g. home-work trips, home-school trips, etc.
system characteristics - generally evaluated by considering the cost of travel
including time cost.

Various mathematical models are used for mode choice modelling, with the most
commonly used being disutility curves, and probit and logit modelling techniques.

2.9 Traffic Assignment


At this point in the transport modelling process the number of trips and their origins and
destinations are known, but the actual route through the transport network is not known.
The process of allocating trips to particular routes is known as traffic assignment.
Traffic assignment is usually confined to road traffic as most other modes (except perhaps
walking and cycling) are limited to a particular route.

The basis of assignment is usually travel time, and as future trips are assigned to the
network travel times can be expected to vary.
In the traffic assignment process it is not unusual to find that the proposed road network
becomes overloaded and that some car trips may need to be restrained.
There are four common methods of traffic assignment:

all-or-nothing assignment;
assignment by the use of diversion curves;
capacity restrained assignment; and
multipath proportional assignment.

2.10 Evaluation
Once results from a transport model have been produced they need to be evaluated. Four
different forms of evaluation should take place:
Numerical evaluation. This is to confirm the computational validity of the results.
Two main sources of error which occur are programming errors (i.e. errors in the
computational algorithms used) and input information errors.
Operational evaluation. This is to confirm that the predictions made, and solutions
adapted, are physically achievable in the real world. Types of problems which
occur include the fact that modelling is usually done with 24 hour flows but the
network needs to be able to cope with peak period flows, and traffic assignment
may tend to leave some links very heavily loaded while other alternate links have
light flows predicted.
Environmental evaluation. Any proposed transport change must be perceived by
the community as being acceptable, or at least more acceptable than any
alternative.
Economic evaluation.The final stage of the evaluation process is commonly
known as cost-benefit analysis or economic evaluation. The basic approach to
economic evaluation is to compare the expected benefits with the cost of making
and operating any change.

2.11 Trends in Transport Planning


The theory and practice of transport planning have developed rapidly since the early
1950's.
In the 1950's and 1960's most transport plans used large household interview surveys to
gather travel data, used the conventional four-step transport planning model (trip
generation, trip distribution, modal split and traffic assignment), and produced a transport
plan for some distant planning horizon (usually 20 years). The results of the models were
criticised on many grounds, including that the process was cumbersome and expensive,
the process produced only one plan for some distant year, the modelling procedures were

unresponsive to policy needs or changes, and the process tended to rely too much on
historical data rather than being based on a true understanding of travel behaviour.
In the late 1960's researchers started to model transport demand based on behavioural
factors. This required consideration of individual travellers, or a "disaggregate" approach.
In the 1970's research into travel behaviour increased substantially. In the late 1970's
papers on 'activity analysis' appeared. Activity analysis sees travel as but one type of
human activity.
In the 1980's research tended to focus on dynamic analysis of travel behaviour which
focuses on looking at changes in travel behaviour (which requires longitudinal time series
data rather than the more common cross-sectional data).
The rapid increase in the power of microcomputers has meant that transport modelling
has tended to shift away from main-frame computers to microcomputers.

LINKS TO SITES ON TRANSPORT PLANNING.


The Queensland Government and the Queensland Department of Transport have
produced an Integrated Regional Transport Plan for South East Queensland which is
available at the IRTP Home Page . The document is comprehensive and well illustrated,
and provides a good overview of what is planned for the south east Queensland area.
Detailed papers on various aspects of transport planning are available from the Travel
Demand page of the National Transport Library, USA.

2.12 Microcomputer Traffic Systems Design Models


A range of different transport planning software packages are now available for
microcomputers, which cover a range of different levels of transport planning.
Commonly used packages in Australia include:

Strategic Network Modelling packages - EMME/2, TRANPLAN, TRIPS,


TRANSTEP and QRSII.
Local Area Traffic Models - TRAFFICQ, NETSIM, CONTRAM, SATURN and
MULATM.
Intersection Models - ARCADY, PICADY, SIDRA, INSECT, SIMSET.

LINKS TO SITES ON MICROCOMPUTER TRAFFIC SYSTEMS


DESIGN MODELS.
As noted above a large number of different software packages are available, and links in
this section do not imply that these systems are superior to any others.

The EMME/2 package is marketed by INRO , a Canadian firm, and a description of the
product is available by accessing their site and proceeding through 'Products' and then
EMME/2. The software comes in different sizes with the smallest size handling a
maximum of 250 zones, and the largest size handling a maximum of 4000 zones.
The SIDRA (Signalised Intersection Design Research Aid) was developed under the
guidance of Dr Rahmi Akcelik when he was at the Australian Road Research Board in
Victoria. The product has been further developed and is now serviced By Akelik and
Associates whose Web site gives a good description of the product.

3. 3. Roads and Road Materials


3.1 Roads
Road: A route trafficable by motor vehicles,
and which may also cater for pedestrians, bicyclists, animals, and animal-drawn
vehicles.
Includes the whole width of land between boundaries of abutting properties.
Purpose: To enable

safe
convenient
effective, and
efficient
transfer of goods and people.

Roads are for traffic, and traffic is for people.


Therefore, the distribution of population determines the need for roads.
For example, in Australia the population distribution is determined largely by climatic
factors, and to a lesser extent by topography. Consequently most of Australia's population
lives within a few hundred kilometres of the coast, and this is where the majority of roads
are located.

3.1.1 The Australian Road Network


Australia has three (3) levels of government:
Federal Government (also known as the National Government or Commonwealth
Government)
State Government (individual governments for the 6 states and 2 territories), and
Local Government (of which there are about 1000).

Each level of government is responsible for some of the nation's road network. The
Federal Government is responsible for direct funding of the National Highway System,
which are the major routes covering the whole country. The State Governments are
responsible for the major road network within their individual states. This is usually
known as the "declared" road system (the roads are declared as important under a state
Act of Parliament). Responsibility for the remainder of the public road systemfalls to
Local Governments (Cities, Towns, Municipalities or Shires).
Each State has a State Road Authority, although the name differs between States
e.g.Queensland has a "Department of Main Roads", New South Wales has a "Road and
Traffic Authority", and Victoria has "VICROADS".
In the state of Queensland their are six types of declared roads:

Urban Arterial
Urban Sub-arterial
State Highway
Developmental Road
Main Road
Secondary Road

The Queensland road network consists of about 165,000 km. of road, of which 39,800
km. is declared road. The remaining 125,200 km. is under the control of the 134 local
authorities.

LINKS TO SITES ON AUSTRALIAN ROADS.


Austroads has a Road Facts 2000 site which has some useful information on the
Australian road network.
An example of a State Road Authorities site is the Department of Main Roads,
Queensland .

3.2 Road Materials


Wheeled vehicles require a firm, smooth surface for operation. Usually natural soil is not
strong enough to support repeated wheel loads without surface deformation. Therefore a
pavement structure is used to carry applied wheel loads, and to distribute these loads to
the underlying natural soil.
The main materials used for road pavements are:

bituminous materials
unbound granular materials (gravels or loams)
cemented materials, and

cement concrete

Road pavements are classified into two broad categories:


o Flexible pavements - which flex slightly under the action of traffic, and
which distribute load to the underlying soil in the manner of classical soil
mechanics theory, and
o Rigid pavements - which distribute load to the underlying soil by a slab
action.

3.3 Pavement Materials


Pavement materials for flexible pavements (the major type of pavement used in Australia)
are:
Granular materials , such as crushed rock, soil aggregate mixtures, and chemically
modified natural materials (typically naturally occurring soils with a very small
percentage of cement or lime added).
Cemented materials, which are usually cement or lime stabilised materials having
a sufficient proportion of stabiliser to create a semi-brittle material.
Bituminous materials, which are usually mixtures of aggregate particles bonded
with a bituminous binder.

3.4 Gravels and Loams


The most commonly used materials for road pavement construction are naturally
occurring soil aggregate mixtures known as gravels or loams. In Queensland a soil
aggregate mixture having largest particles larger than 5mm is known as a gravel, while a
mixture with largest particles less than 5mm is called a loam.
These materials are obtained from pits or quarries created in ridges of harder materials or
in former creek beds. The source materials may be decomposed igneous rocks,
sedimentary rocks, metamorphic rocks, or fine grained sediments. Harder materials may
have to be crushed to produce a suitable product and sometimes a soil binder needs to be
added to a crushed rock to achieve the necessary cohesion within the material. Processing
of a soil aggregate mixture may involve crushing, the removal of excessive oversize
material, the removel of excessive fine material, or the modification of the material with a
stabilising agent (typically cement or lime).

3.5 Factors Influencing the Selection of Pavement


Materials
The material selected for a particular layer in a pavement will be influenced by the
following factors:
the type of pavement (different requirements for unsurfaced and surfaced roads),

the position in the pavement (different materials are used for areas just under the
surface and those areas lower down in the pavement structure),
the climatic conditions (specification regarding material plasticity may be more
demanding in wetter areas),
traffic (generally better quality materials are required for more heavily trafficked
roads), and
availability.

3.6 Location and Investigation of Natural Gravel


Deposits
The location and investigation of natural gravel deposits involves the following steps:
Search to identify potential deposits - involves one or more of:
o an examination of existing deposits,
o a study of available soil and geological maps of the area,
o an examination of available aerial photographs of the area, noting in
particular changes in landform and vegetation,
o utilising existing local knowledge within road personnel, local farmers,
etc.
Visual examination of potential deposits.
Preliminary sampling of potential deposits - involving the collecting of samples
from a range of conditions across the deposit, and the performance of basic
classification tests (grading, liquid limit, plastic limit, shrinkage limit, etc.) on
each sample, with the aim of determining the extent of usable material within the
deposit.
More extensive sampling and testing, utilising strength tests such as the California
Bearing Ratio (CBR) test.
Collection of additional information needed to establish the economic viability of
the deposit, such as amount of clearing and stripping required, length of haul,
condition of access roads, land ownership, etc.

3.7 Testing of Granular Pavement Materials


The properties of importance for a granular pavement material are:
o STABILITY - determined by strength testing (typically CBR test), or
inferred from classification tests.
o RESISTANCE TO WEAR - indicated by classification and index tests.
o PERMEABILITY - inferred from classification and index tests
o WORKABILITY - inferred from classification tests
Testing of gravel samples therefore usually includes the following tests:
Particle size distribution (sieving, and hydrometer analysis)
Consistency limits (or Atterburg limits) - LL, PL, SL, and hence calculation of PI)
Linear shrinkage

Maximum dry density and optimum moisture content


California Bearing Ratio (CBR) (Dry and/or soaked)

Other tests may include:


10% Fines (indicates resistance to crushing, and may be determined for dry or
soaked condition)
Wet / dry strength variation (comparison of dry and wet 10% fines values)
Washington degradation (to assess the extent of alteration or weathering)

3.8 Bituminous Surfacing Materials


Bituminous surfacing takes two common forms:
o SPRAYED SURFACINGS- where bituminous binder in a fluid state is
sprayed over the road surface, and aggregate particles are placed in the
fluid material.
o PLANT MIX SURFACINGS - where a graded range of aggregate
particles are mixed together with a bituminous binder in a mixing plant,
and the resulting mixture is spread as a mat on the road surface (and
normally compacted to achieve certain density requirements).
Both surfacing types involve the use of:
Aggregate particles to resist the wear of traffic, and
Bituminous binder to act as an adhesive to hold the aggregate particles in place
and to bond to the underlying pavement.

3.9 Road Surfacing Aggregate


Road surfacing aggregates are typically derived from:
Unconsolidated sediments (eg river gravels)
Crushed quarried rock (typically igneous rocks such as granite and basalt)
Crushed artificial rock (eg blast furnace slag)
An aggregate is characterised by its particle size distribution.

3.10 Desirable Properties of a Road Surfacing


Aggregate
Road surfacing aggregates need to be:
Mechanically strong
Resistant to wear
Well shaped physically (the most desirable shape is a cubical shape), and
Possessing good surface texture, and having a good resistance to polishing.

3.11 Testing of Road Surfacing Aggregates


The following tests are used for determining the properties of road surfacing aggregates:
o STRENGTH AND WEAR RESISTANCE
Los Angeles Abrasion test
Aggregate Crushing Value
o RESISTANCE TO DECOMPOSITION
Soundness (Sodium sulphate solution test)
Wet / Dry Strength Variation
o TESTS FOR PARTICLE SHAPE AND SURFACE TEXTURE
Flakiness Index
Angularity Number
o RESISTANCE TO POLISHING
Polished Aggregate Friction Values (PAFV)

3.12 Bituminous Materials


The bituminous binder predominantly used in road surfacing work is of petroleum origin
and in Australia is known simply as bitumen. It is composed mainly of hydrocarbons and
their derivatives.
Natural bitumen is probably the oldest petroleum product to be used by man. The ancient
Egyptians used it for embalming mummies and in jewellery. Through the ages it has been
used in Middle Eastern countries for water-proofing and constructional jobs. The bitumen
was obtained from natural seepages out of the ground in various parts of the Middle East.
Although naturally occurring bitumens are still available they account for only a very
small percentage of the bitumen used today.

3.13 Production of Bitumen


Bitumens are produced from suitable crude petroleum oils, essentially by a process of
distillation.
Australian crude oils are unsuitable for bitumen production as they are too light and too
waxy in nature. Therefore bitumen production in Australia is almost exclusively from
Middle East crudes.

3.14 Testing of Bitumen


The characteristics of bitumen which make it a good material for use in road surfacing
are:
good adhesiveness
good water resistance
flexibility

durability

The classification of bitumen is based on its viscosity at 60 degrees C. For example Class
170 bitumen has a viscosity in the range 140 to 200 Pa.s. (170 being the mid-point of the
range) at 60 degrees C.
The classes of bitumen generally used for road making purposes in Australia are 170 and
320.
The range of tests used for determining the characteristics of bitumen is as follows:
o
o
o
o
o
o
o

Viscosity at 60 degrees C (Pascal seconds)


Viscosity at 135 degrees C.
Penetration at 15 degrees C (mm)
Density at 15 degrees (kg/l)
Flashpoint (degrees C)
Purity (matter soluble in toluene)
Durability

3.15 Flux and Cutter


Flux and cutter are both petroleum which are added to bitumen to change the viscosity.
In fluxing the aim is to achieve a relatively long term change to the viscosity. A typical
flux in use is diesel fuel oil. Fluxing the bitumen means that the binder remains soft for a
period of weeks or months. Fluxed bitumen is used to manufacture pothole patching
mixes which have to be stored for a period of time before use. Flux may also be added to
the bitumen when sealing in colder climates during the cooler period of the year. In this
case flux helps to keep the bitumen fluid during very cold spells, and helps prevent loss
of aggregate from new seals due to bitumen brittleness at low temperatures.
Cutting is the addition of a fairly volatile oil which produces a temporary reduction in the
viscosity of the binder. Cutter is intended to be mainly lost by evaporation within a period
of minutes or hours. The use of cutter in sealing work is mainly to give enough time to
incorporate the aggregate particles firmly in the sprayed bitumen before it becomes too
hard, and subsequently to allow the development of a good bitumen-aggregate bond. The
cutter commonly used is power kerosene.
Fluxing and cutting may both be carried out at the job site before sealing work is
performed. However cuback bitumen can also be purchased in bulk from bitumen
refineries.
Fluxes and cutters have fairly low flashpoints (eg power kerosene 38 degrees C) and
therefore strict safety procedures must be adopted when using these materials.

3.16 Cutback Bitumen


Cutback bitumen is classified into three categories:
Slow Curing (using fuel oil cutter)
Medium Curing (using kerosene cutter), and
Rapid Curing (using white spirit cutter).
Curing refers to the time required for the altered bitumen to return to its original
properties. Medium curing cutbacks are generally used for roadmaking purposes. Typical
uses
are:
Grade
of
Bitumen

Cutback Percent of Kerosene in


Use
Cutter

AMC00, AMC0, AMC1 56, 44, 34

Precoating, Priming

AMC2, AMC3, AMC4

27, 21, 16

Primersealing, Light sealing, Cold


Mix

AMC5, AMC6, AMC7

11, 7, 3

Sealing

3.17 Bitumen Emulsions


Bitumen emulsion is a mixture of bitumen and water, with the bitumen suspended in
water as very fine droplets. In order to achieve this condition an emulsifying agent is used
in the mixture. The stability of an emulsion (ie its ability to retain the bitumen in droplet
form) is controlled by the amount and type of emulsifying agent used.
Emulsions are very fluid and have the advantage that they allow the bitumen to be
applied to the road surface without the heating of the bitumen. However because of the
very fluid nature of the material it can only be applied in a relatively thin layer (thicker
applications attempt to run off the road surface). They are used for tack coats before the
spreading of plant mix, for maintenance patching, and to a limited extent for spray
sealing work. When emulsion is applied to a surface the emulsion "breaks", with the
bitumen droplets coalescing and the water evaporating off to leave behind a thin bitumen
layer.
Two types of emulsion are in common use and are described by the type of emulsifying
agent used in their manufacture. The two type are 'anionic' and 'cationic'.

3.18 Adhesion Agents


An adhesion agent may be used in bituminous surfacing work to assist with the adhesion
between bitumen and aggregate particles. They may be applied to the aggregate or by
incorporating in the bitumen. The performance of particular adhesion agents varies with

different types of aggregateand it is necessary for them to be tested for effectiveness with
the particular aggregate to be used. They are generally used in the proportion of about 0.5
to 1% of the volume of the bitumen.

3.19 Precoating Materials


Precoating agents are used to improve the bond between the bitumen binder and the
aggregate particles. The precoating material is applied to the aggregate particles before
the sealing work takes place. Materials used for precoating include bitumen based
materials (such as AMC00 grade cutback bitumen) and oil based materials. The
application rate for precoating material varies according to the nature, size and surface
area of the aggregate, but is normally about 4 to 12 litres per cubic metre of aggregate.

3.20 Polymer Modified Binders


Polymer modified binders (PMBs) have been in use in Australia since the 1970s. Early
materials used natural or synthetic rubber at about 4 to 6 % by mass of binder.
PMBs can now be manufactured to produce specific binder properties. The binder
properties desired often include rutting resistance, fatigue resistance, and crack control
for asphalt binders; and crack control and aggregate retention for sprayed seal binders.

LINKS TO SITES ON POLYMER MODIFIED BINDERS


The Australian Road Research Board in Victoria has done a lot of work in recent years on
the use of polymer modified binders. The work is described on their Web Site at
Overview of Polymer Modified Binders.

4. . Design of Pavement Surfacings


4.1 Types of Bituminous Surfacings
The purpose of a bituminous surface on a road is to:
Shield the underlying pavement
Eliminate dust
Provide an unchanging surface to traffic,
Provide a surface suitable for high travel speeds,
Reduce maintenance, and
Eliminate water penetration of pavement materials.
As discussed in Module 3, bituminous surfacings can be classified into two broad groups:
o Sprayed treatments, and
o Plant Mix treatments.

Plant mix surfaces are used where higher traffic volumes prevail, and the change from the
use of sprayed surfacing to plant mix surfacing occurs when traffic volumes exceed 5000
to 7000 vehicles per day.

4.1.1 Sprayed Treatment

Primes
Preliminary applications
Short life
Typical application 0.8 litres per square metre (0.5 to 1.4, depending on
surface porosity)
Primerseals
o Life of a few months
o Typical application 1 litre per square metre + fine aggregate
Seals
o Application of binder + aggregate
o Life 7 to 15 years
o Types:
One binder + one aggregate (single/single)
One binder + two aggregates (single/double)
Two binder + two aggregates (double/double)
o Where two aggregates are used, the size of the second aggregate is approx.
1/2 size of first aggregate
Reseals
o Applied over existing bituminous surface to prolong life of pavement
surface.
Surface enrichment
o Application of new binder to existing seal where aggregate still okay, but
binder deteriorating.
o Also known as enrichment seal or fog coat.
o Binder is usually cutback bitumen or bitumen emulsion.
o
o
o

4.1.2 Asphalt

Also known as hot mix, plant mix, asphaltic concrete or bituminous concrete.
Used for new pavement surfaces, strengthening existing pavements or correcting
surface irregularities.
Types:
o Dense graded (normal asphalt)
o Open graded, and
o Gap graded
Mixes may be hot mixed and hot laid, or warm mixed and cold laid, or cold mixed
and cold laid.
The nominal size of a mix is the nominal size of the largest aggregate in the mix,
e.g. 20mm mix.

LINKS TO SITES ON ASPHALT


Some informative sites are available on the Web regarding asphalt and related matters.
The National Asphalt Paving Association site ( NAPA ) is a site for the national asphalt
body in the USA. The site is somewhat complex and a high quality browser is required
for access.
The European Asphalt Pavement Association ( EAPA ) site (click on Welcome) based in
The Netherlands contains a page titled 'Everything You Always Wanted to Know ',
refering of course to asphalt.
The Australian Asphalt Pavement Association ( AAPA ) has a useful site. The site
contains some technical information, for example in the Pavement Work Tips series, and
has information on current activities in the Australian surfacing industry.
Top

4.2 Selection of Surfacing Type


Selection of the appropriate surfacing for a particular situation depends on a number of
factors:
Pavement structure,
Economic and financial considerations,
Riding quality,
Pedestrian usage,
Safety considerations,
Noise,
Plant availability,
Material availability,
Waterproofing requirements,
Tolerable roughness, and
Traffic (volume, nature and speed)
Surfacing type will vary from a single coat, small aggregate sprayed seal for low traffic
conditions,
to an asphalt surfacing for heavy traffic conditions.

4.3 Design of Sprayed Surfacings


4.3.1 Selection of Primer and Application Rate
The main functions of a primer are:
o to provide a bond between the pavement and the seal coat;

o
o
o

to minimise the effects of dust which may remain on the surface after
sweeping;
to strengthen the pavement near the surface by increasing cohesion; and
to provide a short term running surface prior to sealing.

The type of primer and application rate should be such that the primer penetrates
the surface up to a depth of 10mm, and leaves a continuous film of binder at the
surface. Selection of primer type is usually influenced by availability, cost, and
previous experience as to suitability.
The condition of the surface to be primed is assessed as to its 'tightness'
(resistance to penetration by the primer) and this assessment is largely based on
experience.
Typical primes would be cutback bitumens (AMC00 to AMC1) with application
rates from 0.5 to 1.3 litres per square metre, depending on conditions.

4.3.2. Selection of Primerseal


A wide range of cover aggregates and bituminous materials can be successfully
used. In the selection of materials consideration should be given to the type of
pavement material, the condition of the pavement, traffic and life expectancy.
The aggregate size will generally be 7mm or less. Primerbinders are usually
cutback bitumen, bitumen emulsion or tar.

4.3.3 Design of Seals and Reseals


The following design process is normally used:
Step 1. Select Type of Seal (e.g. on application of binder and one application of
aggregate).
Step 2. Select Aggregate Size.
The nominal aggregate size/s used should be related to the conditions of the work
such as:
o
o
o
o
o

type of treatment;
nature and volume of traffic;
traffic noise levels;
condition of the pavment; and
horizontal and vertical alignment.

Where two applications of aggregate are used, the nominal size of the aggregate
in the second application should be approximately one half of that used in the first
application.
Step 3. Select Aggregate Type.
Step 4. Select Aggregate Application Rate .
o

Single Application Work


After rolling the aggregate particles will lie on their flattest side and the
average thickness of the seal is the average of their least dimensions
(average least dimension = ALD).
Australian trials show that application rates should be about 700/ALD for
larger aggregates, and 600/ALD for smaller aggregates.
Example: A nominal 14 mm aggregate is found to have an ALD of 8.0mm.
The spread rate is then 700/8.0, or 88 square metres per cubic metre of
aggregate.

Multiple Application Work


Where multiple applications of aggregate are to be placed it is generally
satisfactory to calculate the first application rate for aggregate using the
method for single application work. The second application is designed so
that particles lodge within the voids of the first aggregate. The rate for the
second application is usually based on past experience. Typical application
rates would vary from 110 square metres per cubic metre for 10mm
aggregate, to 250 square metres per cubic metre for sand.

Step 5. Select Binder Type.


The function of the binder is to retain the cover aggregate and to provide a
waterproof seal.
The types of binder commonly available are:
o
o
o
o

bitumen;
fluxed bitumen;
cutback bitumen; and
bitumen emulsion.

Step 6. Select Binder Application Rate .


o One Application of Binder and One Application of Aggregate.

The design aim is for the binder level to be between one half and two
thirds of the ALD of the aggregate. this provides a good compromise
between the levels required to hold the aggregate in place, waterproof the
pavement, and provide adequate surface texture and durability.
The basic application rate is found using the formula:
Application rate (l/sq.m.) = ALD x Void Factor
The following table relates Void Factor and traffic volume (expressed in
terms of the Annual Average Daily Traffic, or AADT)

AADT per Lane

Void Factor

< 35

0.20 - 0.24

35 - 100

0.18 - 0.21

100-150

0.16 - 0.19

150 - 300

0.15 - 0.17

300 - 625

0.14 - 0.16

625 - 1250

0.13 - 0.15

> 1250

0.12 - 0.14

The basic binder application rate may be adjusted to account for:

aggregate shape;
aggregate wear;
surface texture of the existing surface;
absorption of binder into the base;
absorption of binder by aggregate particles; and
embedment of aggregate in the base layer.

The application rates so designed are based on the residual binder at a


temperature of 15 C and adjustment of the rate must be made to spray the
hot binder (e.g. a rate of 1.2 l/sq m at 15 C may correspond to an
application rate of 1.33 l/sq m at 175 C).
o

One Application of Binder and Two Applications of Aggregate

The rate of application of the binder should be determined as for a single


application of aggregate, using the larger aggregate size as the basis for the
design.
o

Two Applications of Binder and Two Applications of Aggregate


This type of treatment is applied by spraying the first binder application,
applying the larger aggregate size, spraying the second binder application,
then applying the second, smaller aggregate.
It is desirable that the first binder application be at a rate slightly less than
that determined by the design method for a single application job, and this
is achieved by reducing the void factor slightly. The determination of the
second application rate for binder is usually based on experience. As a
guide it could be based on the ALD of the second aggregate and assuming
a smooth surface for the second coat.

Top

4.4 Example of Sprayed Surfacing Design


(Refer to Study Notes).

4.5 Design of Asphalt Surfacings


4.5.1 Design Objectives
Dense Graded Mixes
The mix should contain sufficient binder to coat the aggregate particles, to
waterproof and bond them together when suitably compacted, and to provide
flexibility, durability and stability of the compacted mass. A small volume of air
voids (3 - 7%) will mean low permeability and improved durability. Dense graded
mixes are often used for heavily trafficked roads and care must be taken that the
voids in the mix are not overfilled with bitumen.
Open Graded Mixes
There must be sufficient binder to coat, waterproof and bond the aggregate.
Gap Graded Mixes
These mixes have some intermediate aggregate sizes omitted compared to a dense
graded mix. Harder binders are generally used because gap graded mixes depend

largely on the stiffness of the mixture for stability. Good durability may be
obtained by the use of high binder contents and low air voids.

4.5.2 Design Procedure

A number of design procedures are used in Australia and around the world. The
most widely used procedure is the Marshall Testing Procedure and this will be the
only method described in these notes.
Step 1. Selection of Mix Type.
Selection depends on the expected use of the mix, the type of road to be paved,
existing pavement conditions, climatic conditions, and available materials.
Step 2. Combination of Aggregates.
The available aggregates, including the mineral filler, are combined in such
proportions that their combined grading approximates that of a proven target
grading. There are several methods available for aggregate grading determination,
and these are the same techniques used in the blending of aggregates for Portland
cement concrete.
Step 3. Binder Content Estimation.
The binder content is determined by the preparation and testing of trial mixes at a
range of binder contents. Estimation of binder content for trial mixes is ususally
based on previous experience, but will probably be in the range of 3 to 9% binder.
Step 4. Manufacture and Compaction of Trial Mixes.
Trial mixes are prepared by blending heated aggregate mixtures with various
percentages of binder, and then compacting the hot mix into cylindrical moulds
using a standard compaction process. The Marshall Test uses a cylindrical mould
of 100 mm internal diameter and the compacted height of specimens aimed for is
64 mm. This test uses a compaction hammer with a dropping weight (a mass of
4540g falling through 475mm). The number of blows applied to each end of the
cylindrical specimen is 35, 50 or 75 depending on expected traffic conditions for
the mix in service (35 for light traffic, 50 for medium traffic, and 75 for heavy
traffic). Once compacted and cooled the specimens are extruded for testing.
Step 5. Testing of Trial Mixes.
The test specimens are heated to 60C for 30 to 40 minutes in a water bath. When
ready for testing the specimens are removed from the bath, seated in compression
heads, and a force applied diametrically at a uniform rate of deformation of 51

mm/min. The complete test must take less than 30 sec to avoid excessive cooling
of the specimen.
The maximum load resisted by the specimen (corrected for the actual height of
the specimen) and the amount of vertical deformation undergone in reaching
maximum load, are recorded as the Marshall Stability and Marshall Flow values
respectively.
In addition to strength testing, the following properties are determined for each
mix:
o
o
o
o

bulk density;
maximum theoretical density;
voids filled with binder; and
voids in the mineral aggregate.

Step 6. Evaluation of Test Results.


Test results are best presented graphically to show the general level of their values
and their trend with increasing bitumen content. The values of stability, flow, air
voids, voids in the mineral aggregate, and bulk density are plotted against binder
content on individual graphs.
The final binder content selected for the mix should give close to the maximum
value for stability and bulk density, near the minimum value for VMA, and result
in air voids and flow values within the specified limits.
Step 7. Adjustment of Mix Design.
The initial mix may need to be adjusted and further testing carried out to obtain a
mix which meets specified criteria.
Step 8. Job Mix.
After the laboratory testing and selection of a design mix, it will be desirable to
manufacture, spread and compact a quantity of the mix in a full scale field trial to
ensure the mix meets expectations.
Top

4.6 Example of Asphalt Surfacing Design


(Refer to Study Notes).

4.7 Other Forms of Bituminous Surfacing

Although traditional sprayed treatments and asphalt are the two commonly used forms of
bituminous surfacing, there are several other techniques and methods which have been
developed. Some of these treatments have been used for decades and are therefore well
proven, while others are fairly recent and are limited in their use.

4.7.1 Polymer Modified Binders (PMB)


The properties of bitumen may be altered by the inclusion of polymers into the
binder. PMBs are used for a wide variety of applications including crack control
and aggregate retention in spray seals, and rutting resistance, fatigue resistance
and crack control in asphalt.

4.7.2 Geotextile Seals


Geotextile reinforced seals are generally used with normal binders and
aggregates. There are many types of geotextile available but the most suitable for
spray sealing work appears to be polyester, non-woven, needle-punched geotextile
as this does not melt when sprayed with hot binder.

4.7.3 Fibre Reinforced Seals


These seals use a polymer modified emulsion with glass fibres to reinforce the
binder and to achieve thicker films of binder.
The Fibredec system sprays an emulsion tack coat over the surface and chopped
glass fibres are then spread over the emulsion. A second coat of emulsion is then
sprayed, and the aggregate spread in the same way as a sprayed seal.

4.7.4 Surface Enrichment


Surface enrichment is a light application of bituminous binder to an existing
sealed surface. The process is also known as an enrichment seal or a fog coat.
This type of treatment may be used when either the existing binder content is
inadequate to continue holding the aggregate, or the binder has deteriorated due to
oxidation and hardening.

4.7.5 Stone Mastic Asphalt (SMA)


This is basically a gap graded asphalt mix with a high coarse aggregate content,
which interlocks to form a strong aggregate skeleton that provides good resistance
to rutting and shoving. The mix has a high binder and filler content to provide a
strong mastic binding the aggregate particles. A small percentage of fibres is
generally added to improve stability of the binder and to avoid drainage of the
binder during transport and placement.

4.7.6 Asphalt and Geogrid


Asphaly may be reinforced with geogrid to improve resistance to crack reflection
from underlying surfaces, to improve rut resistance, and to enhance stiffness and
fatigue resistance.

4.7.7 Bituminous Slurry Surfacing


This is a proprietary technique in which a mixture of bitumen emulsion, mineral
aggregate, mineral filler additives (mixed cold in a pupose built truck mounted
mixer) is spread as a thin layer on the pavement surface. It is usually most suited
to rural areas where it may be used as an alternative to resealing. The life
expectancy of a slurry surfacing is about 4 to 6 years. The technique may also be
referred to as microsurfacing or micro asphalt.

4.7.8 Novachip
Novachip (or Safepave) is a proprietary process developed in France. A single
size aggregate (10mm or 14mm) with fines is mixed to produce a relatively open
graded mix. The mix is laid directly onto a continuously applied emulsion spray.
Spraying and laying are done with a single piece of equipment.

4.7.9 Recycled Asphalt


Asphalt recycling techniques are based on the underlying assumption that asphalt
mixes can be rejuvenated by restoring the rheological properties of the bituminous
binder to near new conditions. The actual process to achieve this may take place
at a plant, or in place, using cold or heated asphalt material.

LINKS TO SITES ON FORMS OF BITUMINOUS SURFACING.


The Asphalt Recycling and Reclaiming Association in the USA has a Web site
which contains information on cold planning, cold recycling, full depth
reclamation, hot in-place recycling and hot recycling (under the FAQ area).

5. Design of Pavements
5.1 General Approaches to Pavement Design
Pavement design is the process of developing the most economical combination of
pavement layers, with respect to thickness and type of material, to protect the soil
foundation from the cumulative traffic to be carried during the design life.
In its simplest form the design approach consists of the following steps:

define the loading and environmental conditions;


select materials with the appropriate properties for use in the pavement;
select the thickness of pavement based on empirical rules or on a stress strain
analysis of the pavement structure; and
adjust the initial design using different materials until a satisfactory design
emerges.

Although this process is relatively simple to express, its solution for a road pavement is
complex.

5.2 Types of Pavements


Pavements are divided into two broad categories, namely flexible pavements and rigid
pavements.
o Flexible pavements consist of materials such as gravels and loams overlain
by bituminous layers. They are so named because they flex under the
actions of traffic and rebound when traffic loads are removed.
o Rigid pavements on the other hand exhibit a slab action when loaded. A
typical type of rigid pavement is the cement concrete pavement.
In Australia the majority of pavements are flexible pavements.

5.3 Design Considerations


5.3.1. Subgrade Evaluation
The performance of a road pavement is influenced to a great extent by the
subgrade support. This subgrade support is dependent upon soil type, material
density and moisture content. The method of subgrade support determination
most commonly used is the California Bearing Ratio (CBR). The aim of the
subgrade evaluation is to determine, for design, a subgrade CBR value at density
and moisture conditions which are expected to prevail in service.

5.3.2 Pavement Environment


The environmental factors which significantly affect pavement performance are
moisture and temperature.
Pavement and subgrade moisture conditions exert a major influence on the
performance of roads. In pavement design it is important to be able to recognise
ways by which moisture may enter the pavement or subgrade and to determine
measures needed to control moisture movement. Moisture changes usually result
from one or more of the following effects:

o
o
o
o

seepage from higher ground near the road pavement;


fluctuations in water table level;
infiltration of water through the surface of the road pavement and
shoulders; and
transfer of moisture in liquid or vapour states.

The temperature environment has a major influence on the performance of asphalt


pavements. Asphalt becomes stiff and brittle at low temperatures while it is soft
and visco-elastic at higher temperatures. Permanent deformation in asphalt at
higher temperatures may occur, although this is generally considered as a mix
design problem and not a pavement design problem.

5.3.3. Design Life


The design life, or design period, is the length of time (in years) before it is
anticipated that rehabilitation of the pavement will be necessary to restore shape,
repair other forms of distress or to provide additional pavement strength. The
factors which influence the selection of the design period include:
subgrade type and environment effects;
maintenance strategies of the road organisation;
possibility of reconstruction being required for road geometry or
traffic capacity reasons;
funding consideration; and
type and cost of rehabilitation anticipated at the end of the design
period.
Typical design periods are:
o New granular pavements 20 to 25 years
o New rigid pavements 20 to 40 years
o Asphalt overlays 10 to 15 years
o Granular overlays 10 to 20 years

5.3.4 Available Materials


Pavement materials can be classified into four categories according to their
fundamental behaviour under the effects of applied loadings.
Unbound granular materials behave according to their shear
strength characteristics, developed by particle interlock. Under
repeated stresses deformation occurs primarily through shear and
partly through desensification.
Cemented materials (cement or lime stabilised granular materials)
are semi-brittle materials which under repeated flexure form initial
cracks which then propagate through the material.
Bituminous materials are visco-elastic bound materials. Under
repeated stresses they may either crack and/or deform.

Cement concrete (or simply concrete) refer to aggregate bound


hydraulically with Portland Cement. Concrete can be used as a
sub-base in either flexible or rigid pavements and as a base in rigid
pavements.

5.3.5 Construction and Maintenance Factors


Several construction and maintenance factors must be taken into account in
pavement design because they can influence the type of surfacing which is
adopted, the base and sub-base material requirements or the choice of pavement
type. These factors include:
o Extent and Type of Drainage;
o Use of Boxed Construction;
o Availability of Equipment;
o Use of Stage Construction;
o Use of Stabilisation;
o Social Considerations;
o Construction Under Traffic; and
o Maintenance Strategy.

5.3.6 Design Traffic


The major features of traffic that influence pavement performance are:
the number of axle passes;
the axle loadings; and
the axle configurations.
For all pavements, performance is influenced by only the heavy end of the traffic
spectrum. No account need be taken of cars and light commercial vehicles, as far
as pavement design is concerned.
The design traffic is expressed in terms of the number of standard axle load
repetitions (in one lane) which are equivalent in destructive effort to the total
number of repetitions of the actual axles using the pavement during the design
period. The standard axle is a single axle with dual wheels that carries a load of
80kN. The design traffic is given in terms of the Equivalent Number of Standard
Axles (ESAs).

5.3.7 Whole-of-Life Economic Evaluation


It is essential in the evaluation of pavement designs that all costs occurring during
the life of the facility be evaluated. When making economic comparisons this has
not always been understood or practiced by pavement designers because
comparisons were often made over a fixed, equal design period. Whole-of-life

(life-cycle) costing should account for all costs and benefits associated with the
planning, design, construction, maintenance, rehabilitation and use of the
pavement over its whole life.

5.4 Flexible Pavement Design


Until the mid 1960s flexible pavement design was largely empirically based.
Early methods developed an empirical relationship between pavement thickness and soil
properties such as grading and/or Atterberg limits. Sometime later correlation studies
were carried out between pavement thickness and soil strength with the typical strength
test used being the California Bearing Ratio. These investigations resulted in CBR
Traffic Thickness Charts being produced. The major limitation with empirical methods
was the dangers which existed where the methods had to be extrapolated beyond the
observed conditions upon which the methods were formulated. However, empirical
pavement design methods served for a number of decades in a reasonably satisfactory
way and are still used to some extent today.
Since the mid 1960s an increasing amount of research has been directed towards the
formulation of theoretical or semi-theoretical pavement design methods. These methods
treat the pavement as a structure and attempt to analyse stress-strain conditions within the
pavement. They are therefore referred to as mechanistic design methods.

5.5 Rigid Pavement Design


The majority of rigid pavements have a base of Portland cement concrete. There are five
basic types:
jointed unreinforced concrete pavements;
jointed reinforced concrete pavements;
continuously reinforced concrete pavements;
steel-fibre reinforced concrete pavements; and
prestressed concrete pavements.
The last two types, steel-fibre reinforced and prestressed, are not normally adopted for
construction as they are not economical. Most of the concrete pavements constructed are
therefore unreinforced or conventionally reinforced.
The amount (if any) of reinforcement required in a concrete pavement is determined by
the spacing of contraction joints. This spacing can range from 4 to 7m for unreinforced
concrete pavements, through 8 to 30m for reinforced concrete pavements to the
elimination of joints (infinite spacing!) for continuously reinforced concrete pavements.
The design methods used for rigid pavements are based on an assessment of:
o

subgrade strength (CBR or Modulus of Subgrade Reaction (k));

o
o

predicted traffic; and


thickness and nature of sub-base.

5.6 Pavement Rehabilitation


Pavement rehabilitation is carried out to improve the structural aspects of the pavement to
significantly extend pavement life. Prior to selecting a rehabilitation treatment it is
essential that the cause and extent of pavement distress is ascertained. The rehabilitation
treatment can then be successfully designed to treat the pavement deficiencies. The level
of investigation carried out will depend upon the size of the affected area and the relative
importance of the road.

5.6.1 Pavement Evaluation


A number of techniques have been developed to provide information on pavement
deterioration, in order that the most appropriate rehabilitation treatment will be
used.
o Visual Evaluation Techniques. These methods assess severity and extent of
cracking, deformation, surface texture, edge defects, shoulder condition
and drainage problems.
o Deflection Testing. It has been found that the deflection of the pavement
caused by a standard axle load is an indication of the rate at which
permanent pavement deterioration will occur under traffic. Studies have
been able to establish design deflections for particular traffic loadings. If
actual deflections remain below the design deflection for a particular
traffic loading then permanent deformation of the pavement remains at a
tolerable level. The actual deflections of a pavement generally increase
with age, and the aim of pavement investigation will be to ascertain when
deflections are reaching a critical level, so that an overlay can be applied
to return the pavement to an acceptable state. It should be noted that the
critical state for deflections will generally occur before any visually
identifiable deterioration of the pavement is noticed, or before riding
quality is affected. Three devices are commonly used in Australia for the
measurement of pavement deflection. These are:
Benkelman Beam. A long thin beam supported on the pavement,
whose tip is placed between the tyres of a standard loaded axle,
and which measures the rebound of the pavement as the axle is
moved away.
Deflectograph. Essentially a set of Benkelman beam like devices
suspended below a truck. The beams sit on the pavement as the
truck moves slowly forward. The beams are then lifted and slide
forward beneath the truck to be repositioned on the pavement
again.
Falling Weight Deflectometer. A trailer device which applies a
dynamic load to the pavement by release of a suspended weight.

o
o

Pavement response is measured by a load cell and series of


geophones.
Ride Quality or Roughness. This is the term given to variations in the
longitudinal profile from a uniformly shaped surface. The two most
common types of devices for the measurement of roughness are the Road
Response Measurement Type (such as the Bump Integrator and the
NAASRA Roughness Meter), and the Laser-based type.
Surface Texture. Surface texture may be assessed with the Sand Patch
Test, or through non-contact laser-based testing.
Skid Resistance. Methods currently used include The Pendulum or
Portable Skid Resistance Tester, and the vehicle mounted SCRIM
(Sideways force Coefficient Routine Investigation Machine)

5.6.2 Rehabilitation Treatments

Overlay and Resheet Techniques. An asphalt overlay or granular


resheet involves the addition of material over the existing
pavement, thereby increasing the finished surface level. A
fundamental concern then in the investigation of one of these
treatments is level control. Controls on the thickness and finished
level of such a treatment is governed by kerb and channel levels,
existing pavement shape, height of overhead structures and dead
weight considerations on bridge decks.
In Situ Stabilisation. Stabilisation of road making material is
defined as the process of improvement of a material to increase
and maintain its load bearing properties. In the case of pavement
rehabilitation, stabilisation is used to improve the load bearing
properties of one or more layers of the pavement structure. The
main forms of stabilisation are (1)Mechanical, where various
construction materials are blended to produce one material with
desired properties (e.g. the blending of a gravel deficient in fines
with a sand may produce a satisfactory base material); and
(2)Chemical, where chemical reaction is used to produce a
satisfactory material (e.g. lime stabilisation of a clayey gravel may
produce an acceptable material).
Recycling. Asphalt may be recycled using either a hot process or a
cold process. Cold recycling involves removing the existing
asphalt, carting it to a mixing plant, adding rejuvenating agents,
and returning it to the site for cold laying. Hot asphalt recycling
uses a machine to heat the asphalt in situ, remove it by milling,
mix in rejuvenators and other additives, and then relay it.
Deep Lift Recycling. Deep lift recycling of pavements was
introduced in the early 1990s. The process consists of the milling,
mixing (usually with the addition of new material or chemicals)
and relaying of pavement material in a single thick layer (perhaps
in the order of 300 to 400 mm thickness).

LINKS TO SITES ON STABILISATION


The Australian Stabilisation Industry Association has a very useful Web site. The section
'Austab Guidelines' provides a good introduction to various aspects of stabilisation. The
site also contains material and links to sites on binders and equipment, and its 'Reference
Material' link has a lot of good technical papers on various aspects of stabilisation.

6. Geometric Design of Roads


6.1 Approach to Road Design
The geometric design of roads refers to the design of the visible dimensions of the
roadway. The aim of geometric design is to provide for the safe, efficient and economical
movement of all types of traffic. The design process is aided by the use of geometric road
design standards which have proven to provide acceptable design. The majority of
material in this module will deal with alignment and cross-sectional design and is based
on the Austroads publication Rural Road Design: Guide to the Geometric Design of
Rural Roads (1989). This publication is recognised Australia-wide as the basic design
guide, with other design guides tending to be variations on the Austroads guide. It is
important to realise, however, that the Austroads publication, and the material in this
module, are intended as a guide to road design and not as a mechanistic approach. The
designer is required to interpret the material presented and to use engineering judgement
in any design situation. The practice of good road design involves judgement as well as
calculation. It involves comprises between conflicting goals. Experience assists the
designer to arrive at an appropriate compromise that cannot be met by simply applying a
set of mathematical rules. The designers aim should be to produce an appropriate design
for the specific problem being addressed, while retaining a reasonable overall level of
uniformity within the road network.

6.2 Factors Influencing the Choice of Design Standard


Three reasonably distinct stages may be identified in the development of a nations road
system:

Stage 1: Basic Network establishment of links main criteria is that roads must
be trafficable geometric design standards relatively unimportant.
Stage 2: Increasing Capacity improving the roads ability to carry increasing
volumes of traffic geometric standards assume greater importance.
Stage 3: Quality of Service building safety, efficiency and convenience into the
network alignment and cross sectional standards important.

The majority of the Australian road network is currently a mixture of increasing the
networks capacity and improving the quality of service, i.e. stages 2 and 3.

Observation suggests that there are effectively three speed ranges that roads can be
classified into:
o

High Speed Roads. Drivers will expect to be able to maintain a high travel
speed, and the design must therefore be able to provide for this
expectation along the entire length. The road will therefore be designed for
speeds of 100kph or more.
Intermediate Speed Roads. For roads designed for speeds of less than
100kph, the speed adopted by drivers will vary along the alignment in
accordance with driver perception and the control of road features such as
horizontal curves. The variation in travel speed must be considered in the
design of individual road elements. Provided the standard provided is in
keeping with driver expectations a safe and adequate alignment will result.
Low Speed Roads. Low speed roads (less than abut 60 kph) are only used
when difficult terrain and costs prevent the provision of better facilities. In
these areas drivers will generally be more alert, and lower standards are
both expected and acceptable.

Consideration of a nations stage of development and the role of driver expectancy in


regard to speed therefore help in determining what is an appropriate road design standard
for a specific situation. A number of other factors can be identified as influencing the
choice of design standard, and these include:

Financial Level - Design standards must somehow be related to the overall


availability of finance to construct, operate and maintain the whole of the road
network.
Terrain - Research indicates that terrain is one of the factors which influences
driver expectation in regard to speed. Terrain also has a significant effect on costs,
particularly the cost of adopting high design standards.
Traffic Volume - The volume of traffic to be carried by a road can be considered
as the design loading which the designer must satisfy. Design is generally carried
out for some future design year, say 20 years hence.
Traffic Composition - The proportion of heavy commercial vehicles in the traffic
stream influences the structural design of the pavement, as well as the design of
geometric elements such as grades.
Safety - Whatever the design standard, safety is a major goal of road design.
Environment - Environmental impacts need to be considered in all major
engineering construction works and must be seen as an essential part of the design
process.

Top

6.3 Locational Design


One of the most crucial and important parts of the design process is the location of the
road. The location procedure is an iterative process in which engineering, land use,

economic, environmental and social factors are taken into account. The location of a large
facility, such as a freeway, would probably involve a multi-disciplinary team of
professionals. Several approximate locations are initially selected based on preliminary
information and data. Possible choices are then narrowed down, usually with the help of
additional information. The ultimate aim is to determine a best route from a balance of
cost and user benefit, taking into account socioeconomic and environmental impacts.

6.4 Speed Parameters


To produce a logical basis for the selection of speeds for geometric design it is necessary
to define three speed parameters:

Desired Speed the operating speed a driver will adopt in non-constrained


conditions e.g. on straights or large radius curves. Desired speeds is largely a
function of terrain and the overall geometric standard of the road.
Speed Environment describes a characteristic of a section of road which is
reasonably consistent in terrain and geometric standard. It is numerically the
desired speed of the 85th percentile driver over that road section. It can be
measured on existing roads but must be estimated for new roads.
Design Speed applies to individual geometric elements. It is the speed that a
driver can negotiate a road element (e.g. curve or grade) without exposing himself
to undue hazard. It must be a speed that is unlikely to be exceeded by most
drivers.

6.5 Horizontal Alignment


6.5.1 General
The horizontal alignment of a road is a plan view of the road projected onto a
horizontal plane. It is the view of the road that would be obtained flying above it.
The horizontal alignment is usually a series of straights (tangents) and circular
curves joined by transition curves. Where long, large radius circular curves are
used instead of straights the alignment is known as curvilinear alignment. This
type of alignment may be used where the terrain is suitable (e.g. flat inland areas
of Australia) to reduce driver headlight glare and to improve the drivers
perception of the speed of an approaching vehicle.

6.5.2 Movement on a Circular Path


When a vehicle travels round a circular horizontal curve it is subjected to a radial
force which tends to cause it to slide outwards. In order to resist this force it is
usual to super-elevate the pavement.

6.5.3 Superelevation

The superelevation to be adopted should take into account factors such as safety,
appearance, grade, speed, drainage, and the presence of intersections. Generally,
the maximum superelevation should be about 0.06 m/m in flat country and about
0.12 m/m in mountainous terrain. For urban situations where intersections are
more numerous and property access must be considered, maximum values of 0.04
or 0.05 m/m are desirable.

6.5.4 Coefficient of Sideways Friction


The coefficient of sideways friction at which skidding is imminent depends on:
o
o
o

the type and condition of the pavement surfacing;


the type and condition of the vehicles tyres; and
the speed of the vehicle.

6.5.5 Horizontal Curvature


By adopting desirable maximum values for superelevation and for coefficient of
side friction, a set of values for the minimum radius of horizontal curves at
various design speeds can be calculated. The following table shows the minimum
radius for various design speeds.
Minimum Radius (m)
Vehicle Speed
Mountainous Terrain General Maximum Flat Terrain
(km/h)
e = 0.12
e = 0.10
e = 0.06
50

42

44

60

63

66

70

90

95

105

80

135

140

160

90

215

230

270

100

360

440

110

435

530

120

670

Minimum Radius of Horizontal Curve

6.5.6 Plan Transition Curves


A curve used to transition from a straight to a circular arc, or between adjacent
circular curves, is known as a plan transition curve. The plan transition curve

provides a length of road over which the radius can be changed gradually from the
infinite radius of the straight to the radius of the circular curve, and this assists in
vehicle handling on the road. A wide range of curve forms can be suitable for a
plan transition but the curve most frequently used is the Clothoid.
Plan transition curves may be omitted when large radius curves are used or on
relatively low speed alignments. In most high standard road design carried out
today, large radius curves are used and plan transitions are not required.

6.5.7 Application of Superelevation


On straights, the pavement has normal crossfall to shed water. A change from
normal crossfall to superelevation occurs as the road changes from a straight to a
curved alignment. On a two-lane, two-way road, the superelevation is normally
developed by rotating each half of the cross section (including the shoulders)
about the centreline of the road (axis of rotation). All curves, apart from those
with large radii (larger than 4000m), should be superelevated.
The length required to develop superelevation should be sufficient to provide a
good appearance and give satisfactory riding qualities. The criteria used to
determine the superelevation length are:

Rate of rotation of the road crossfall. This should generally not


exceed 0.025 radians per second of travel time at the design speed,
with a maximum of 0.035.
Relative change of grade of the edges of the carriageway in
relation to the grade of the axis of rotation.

For the case of a straight tangent to a circular curve, where no plan transition
curve is used, the superelevation is placed in such a way that 50% to 70% of the
length of development occurs prior to the tangent point, and 50% to 30% is within
the curve. Where a plan transition curve is used the superelevation development
commences in advance of the commencement of the plan transition, and the
superelevation transition and plan transition end at a common point within the
curve.

6.5.8 Widening on Horizontal Curves


To ensure adequate clearance between opposing streams of vehicles, it may be
necessary to widen the pavement on horizontal curves. Widening is required
because vehicles tracking around a curve occupy a greater width than on a straight
road section, and because vehicles tend to wander more on curves due to the extra
control required in steering.
Top

6.6 Width of Traffic Lanes and Carriageway


6.6.1 Factors Affecting Lane Width
A traffic lane is that part of the roadway set aside for the normal movement of a
single stream of vehicles.
Lane width is based on:
o

Traffic Volume. Usually expressed as the Annual Average Daily Traffic


(AADT), although in some situations the peak hour volume will be critical
and should be used.
Vehicle Dimensions. Commercial vehicles are commonly the full legal
width of 2.5m. Normal steering and tracking errors mean that a width
greater than this is required.
Combination of Speed and Traffic Volume. When both the speed
environment and the traffic volume are high, narrower lane widths should
be avoided.

The desirable lane width on rural roads is about 3.5m. Lane widths as low as 3.0m
may be used on low volume roads. Widths greater than 7.5m for two lane roads
are not recommended because there may be a tendency for three lane operation to
develop.

6.6.2 Factors Affecting Shoulder Width


Shoulder width is measured from the outer edge of the traffic lane to the edge of
usable carriageway. Wide shoulders have the following advantages:

space is available for stationary vehicles to stand clear of the traffic


lanes;
space is available for vehicles to deviate from their normal travel
path to avoid collision;
driver comfort is increased; and
sight distance is improved across the inside of horizontal curves.

The minimum width of a road shoulder on a two lane rural road should be 1.0m,
unless volumes are below 150 vehicles/day.
A width of 1.5m to 2.0m ensures that the capacity of the road will not be affected
by obstructions located adjacent to the shoulder. It will also mean that vehicles
stopped on the shoulder will provide only minor obstruction to the traffic lane.

A width of 2.5m is needed to allow a passenger vehicle to stand clear of the traffic
lanes. A width of 3.0m allows a passenger vehicle to stop clear of the traffic lanes
with some clearance, and also allows a commercial vehicle to stop clear of traffic.
In road design the aim should be to provide shoulders of 1.5 to 2.0m wherever
possible, and up to 2.5 to 3m on higher volume roads.

6.7 Cross Sections


Crossfall is the slope of the surface of a carriageway measured normal to the centreline.
The purpose of crossfall is to drain the carriageway on straights and curves, and to
provide superelevation on horizontal curves.
Type of Pavement

Crossfall %

Earth, Loam

Gravel

Bituminous Seal Coat

Bituminous Concrete

2.5 - 3

Portland Cement Concrete

2-3

Recommended Pavement Crossfalls on Straights


Table drains are located on the outside of shoulders in cuttings. The side slopes of table
drains should be flat enough to minimise the likelihood of overturning of out of control
vehicles. A maximum slope of 4 horizontal to 1 vertical is recommended, with a desirable
maximum slope being 6 to 1.
Catch drains are located on the high side of cutting batters to intercept overland flow
before it flows down the batter face.
Batter slopes should be as flat as economically feasible to improve maximise safety and
to improve appearance. However flatter slopes usually cost more and where earthwork
volumes are significant maximum batter slopes will usually be adopted. Materials in fills
will generally be unstable at a batter slope greater than 1.5 to 1 unless angular rock facing
is used. Cut slopes should be consistent with material stability and in material other than
rock will generally vary between 1.5 to 1 and 2 to 1. In rock, slopes as great as 0.25
horizontal to 1 vertical may be feasible.
Top

6.8 Sight Distance

6.8.1 General
A major aim in road design is to ensure that the driver is able to sight any possible
road hazard in time to take evasive action. This aim is related to the geometry of
the road by the concept of sight distance. Sight distance, as used in road design, is
based on a number of stylised assumptions regarding the nature of hazards and
driver behaviour. The hazard is assumed to be an object of sufficient size to cause
the driver to change driving behaviour. Specific values are assumed for drivers
reaction time and the dimensions determining the sight line, although all of these
parameters would have a range of values in practice.
The values adopted in the Austroads publication Rural Road Design are:
o

Height of eye of driver:


car 1.15m.
commercial vehicle 1.8m.
Object height above road surface:
approaching vehicle 1.15m.
stationary object on road 0.2m.
vehicle tail light/stop light 0.6m.
Reaction time: 2.5 seconds.

6.8.2 Stopping Sight Distance


A theoretical stopping distance can be derived by assuming the driver travels at
the design speed during the reaction time and then decelerates from the design
speed to a stop. Assumptions are required for the values of reaction time and the
coefficient of longitudinal deceleration and these enable a notional stopping
distance to be calculated for an initial design speed. This distance is considered to
be the minimum sight distance that should be available to a driver.
Design Speed (km/h)

Stopping Sight Distance (m)


(Assumed reaction time 2.5 seconds)

80

115

90

140

100

170

110

210

120

250

130

300

Stopping Sight Distances

6.8.3 Overtaking Requirements


The overtaking action has a large number of variable components including the
judgement of the overtaking driver and the risks he is prepared to take, the speed
and size of the vehicles involved, the actions of the driver being overtaken, and
the actions of the other drivers in the vicinity. It can be assumed that there are
three basic considerations in regard to the provision of sight distance for
overtaking manoeuvres:
o

Establishment. A certain sight distance must be available for a driver to


contemplate undertaking a passing manoeuvre. This is known as the
Establishment Sight Distance (ESD) as it establishes a potential
overtaking length.
Continuation. Once a passing manoeuvre has commenced the sight
distance may decrease to a value less than establishment sight distance,
but the motorist may still feel sufficient sight distance is available to
continue the manoeuvre. The minimum sight distance at which this occurs
is the Continuation Sight Distance (CSD).
Re-establishment. On high volume roads there is the possibility that the
driver will not be able to utilise the first opportunity for passing (i.e. when
establishment sight distance first becomes available) because of oncoming
traffic. On low traffic roads, the probability is much lower but the time
that the motorist spends trailing a lead car is important when assessing the
quality of service which is provided.

In studying overtaking behaviour it is useful to consider time gaps between


vehicles. However, to convert study data to design data a change from time gaps
to road length is usually considered beneficial. The Australian Road Research
Board has carried out a major study on overtaking on Australian rural roads. This
research provides the basis for the overtaking sight distances recommended in the
following table.
Design Speed
(km/h)

Overtaken Vehicle Establishment Sight Continuation Sight


Speed (km/h)
Distance (m)
Distance (m)

50

43

330

165

60

51

420

205

70

60

520

245

80

69

640

300

90

77

770

360

100

86

920

430

110

94

1100

500

120

103

1300

600

Overtaking Sight Distances (1.15m to 1.15m)


The values in the table are based on:
o
o

o
o
o
o

Establishment distance is derived from the size of the time gap accepted
by a potential overtaking driver.
Continuation distance is derived from the time taken to move from a
position alongside a vehicle being overtaken to a position in front of that
vehicle.
Re-establishment distance is related to the time spent trailing a vehicle
before overtaking is attempted.
The overtaking vehicle and an oncoming vehicle are both assumed to
travel at the design speed.
The overtaken vehicle is assumed to travel at a lesser speed taken as the
mean speed for its direction of travel.
Sight distance parameters used are a 1.15m height of eye and a 1.15m
object height.

In checking a length of road for overtaking sight distance it will be found that the
continuation sight distance is fairly critical, and it will be on this figure that a
percent allowable for overtaking is calculated for the road section. Sections of
road assumed to provide for overtaking will commence at a point where
establishment sight distance is available, and finish where the available sight
distance drops below the continuation sight distance.
The overtaking distances recommended in the table are not an indication of where
barrier line marking should occur. If these figure were used for the purposes of
line marking it would be found that they would be unduly restrictive for many
safe manoeuvres e.g. overtaking very slow vehicles.
Top

6.9 Vertical Curves


The longitudinal profile of a road consists of straight grades joined by vertical curves. In
addition to smoothing the passage of a vehicle from one grade to another the vertical
curve increases the sight distance, particularly over crests.
Convex vertical curves are known as summit or crest curves and concave vertical curves
as sag curves. At crest curves the minimum length of curve is determined by the
requirement to provide stopping sight distance, or by appearance requirements. Lengths
above the minimum may increase the sight distance over the crest but may also reduce

the sight distance available on the approaches. The minimum length of sag curves is
generally determined by considerations for motorist comfort or discomfort due to vertical
acceleration, or by appearance. In some instances the length may be governed by
drainage, headlight performance or overhead restrictions to the line of sight.
Various curve forms can be used for vertical curves but traditionally the parabola has
been used, mainly for ease of manual calculation.

6.10 Grades
It is usually not feasible to construct roads with grades sufficiently flat so that all vehicles
can operate at the same speed. Therefore it is necessary to use a design standard which
takes account of vehicle performance and provides travelling conditions suitable for
individual vehicles and the traffic stream as a whole.
Design standards will usually recommend a general maximum grade for normal design,
but with the facility to vary this value in particular circumstances. On high speed roads
grades up to about 3% provide a very satisfactory level of service and minimise the
adverse effects of having different size and mass vehicles in the traffic stream. On roads
with more modest design speed, grades up to about 6% generally cause little problem.
Gradients over 10% bring problems of very slow climbing speeds and potentially high
downhill speeds for many vehicles.

6.11 Design Form


The traditional methods of road design have been limited by drafting techniques where
the road is considered as a series of two dimension views. Thus normal design
presentations contain a plan view, a longitudinal profile along the road centreline, and a
series of cross sectional views at regular chainages or at points of particular significance
(e.g. tangent points). Such an approach can produce good results if carried out by an
experienced designer. Equally, it can produce poor results if the designer considers each
view independent of all others. Adherence to appropriate design rules and tabulations, as
set out in previous sections of this module, gives no guarantee of a satisfactory result
unless a broad design perspective is adopted which considers the road from the viewpoint
of the road user.
The road user sees the road as a constantly changing three-dimensional continuum. It is
the appearance of the road to the driver that determines the drivers behaviour, and unless
the road appears to the driver as the designer intended, then the designer has failed. The
road must be considered at all stages of design as a three-dimensional structure which
should be safe, functional, economical and aesthetically pleasing. While nothing can
replace the attitude of continually viewing the road as a three dimensional structure, the
following are some points which should be borne in mind by the designer to achieve a
satisfactory design:

Horizontal and vertical sight distances should be considered simultaneously


each may be adequate separately but they may be deficient in combination.
The most aesthetically pleasing effect is achieved if horizontal and vertical
curvature are kept in phase. Where possible the vertical curves should be
contained within the horizontal curves.
The need to provide adequate overtaking opportunities may override
considerations of co- ordination of alignment.
Sharp horizontal curves should not be introduced at or just beyond the top of a
vertical curve.
If possible, intersections should not be located on crest vertical curves.
Short vertical curves on long horizontal curves should be avoided.
Rolling grades on long straights should be avoided.
A short sag curve on a straight is undesirable consider a long sag curve.
A small radius curve at the end of a long straight appears sharper than it is use a
radius as large as possible for both safety and aesthetic reasons.

6.12 Computer Aided Road Design


Computers were first used in the road design process in the early 1960's. Their initial use
was to relieve the tedium of manual calculation. Although the computers were able to
rapidly carry out the required calculations, the jobs were usually run in a batch mode and
so the process suffered from slow turnaround times.
One of the strengths of modern computer road design systems is the ability to utilise
survey information captured by electronic distance measuring equipment. The raw data
can be electronically downloaded to a computer where it can be reduced to a form useful
to the designer. The designer is then able to proceed with the road design without having
to enter large amounts of survey data as was necessary in the early days of computer
aided road design.
The major benefit of the computer is its ability to handle large quantities of data with
precision. The modern computer aided road design process therefore enables the designer
to seek for an optimum solution of high quality. Prior to the advent of computer aided
road design systems the designer needed to manually perform numerous calculations for
each design stage and time and money constraints limited the designer to perhaps two or
three attempts at reaching an optimum solution. The use of a computer system now
enables possibly twenty attempts or more, within a reasonable time period.

LINKS TO OTHER SITES ON COMPUTER AIDED ROAD DESIGN


Road design software packages are commercial products. There are a variety of packages
available and the selection of a 'best' package depends on a large range of factors
including the anticipated type of use, available finance, hardware platform, etc. The
packages mentioned in this section are given as examples only and no endorsement of
any particular product is intended. There are probably descriptions of similar products at
other Web sites that I am not aware of.

The computer aided road design system described in the Study Notes is the MX system,
which was first developed in the United Kingdom in the 1970's as MOSS.
Another product description with reasonable graphics is found at the Softree Technical
Systems Inc . site. Go through their 'Products' link to see sites for the 4 modules in their
RoadEng package.

. Intersections
7.1 Importance of Intersections in the Road System
An intersection is a location at which two different traffic streams cross or merge.
Intersections are an inevitable part of any road system. Where a significant number of
intersections occur they are the major determinants of traffic flow and capacity of the
entire road system. They are also the source of significant accident risk.
The two basic types of intersections are

at-grade intersections, and


grade-separated intersections.

7.2 Types of Conflicting Manoeuvres


There are three basic types of at-grade intersection manoeuvres:

diverging,
merging, and
crossing.

A fourth basic manoeuvre, the weave, may also be defined, although this is really a merge
follow by a diverge.
An elemental manoeuvre occurs when any two one-way, single lane movements interact.
A multiple manoeuvre occurs when more than two one-way single lane movements take
place. Multiple manoeuvres should be avoided as they confuse drivers, reduce safety and
frequently reduce capacity. Intersection design and redesign often involves trying to
replace multiple manoeuvres with a series of elemental ones.
7.3 Types of Intersections At-Grade
An at-grade intersection occurs where roads meet or intersect at the same level. Three
basic forms may be identified:

Unchannelised Unflared Intersections. This type of intersection is used where


minor roads intersect and where a minor road joins a major road. Many
intersections in urban areas are of this type.
Unchannelised and Flared Intersections. Simple unchannelised intersections may
be flared to provide additional through lanes or turning lanes.
Channelised Intersections. A channelised intersections is one where paths of travel
for various movements are delineated by traffic islands, raised markers, painted
markings, etc. A roundabout is a channelised intersections where traffic moves
one way around a central island.

Top
7.4 Factors Influencing the Design of At-Grade Intersections
At-grade intersections present a driver with several points of potential conflict with other
road users. The general aims of intersection design are to achieve efficient traffic
operation and to minimise the risk of collision. This is achieved by controlling vehicle
manoeuvres and minimising the number of points of conflict.
The principle factors influencing the design of an intersection are:
o
o

o
o

Traffic. An intersection should accommodate all road users with comfort


and safety.
Topography and Environment. The alignment and grade of the approach
roads will influence intersection design, as will drainage requirements,
location of public utilities and property access.
Economic Considerations. Alternate intersection designs can be
considered economically by cost-benefit studies.
Human Factors A driver must be aware of the presence of an intersection,
as well as the presence of other vehicles and road users within the
intersection.

7.5 Design Procedure


The following provides a general approach to at-grade intersection design:

Step 1. Obtain and analyse traffic data to determine design hour volumes for all
through and turning movements including further growth.
Step 2. Obtain physical data for site e.g. topography, buildings etc. (include future
development proposals).
Step 3. Obtain location, type and general design features of all existing and
proposal roads.
Step 4. Prepare study sketches for several likely intersection schemes that are
suitable to meet traffic needs and are practical for the site and design controls.

Step 5. Analyse alternate schemes and select the best two or more for further
study and for the preparation of preliminary plans and profiles.
Step 6. Prepare preliminary plans.
Step 7. Evaluate preliminary plans with respect to:
design features;
capacity;
operational characteristics;
overall adaptability;
maintenance of traffic during construction; and
suitability to stage construction
Step 8. Calculate preliminary cost estimates including:
o land acquisition;
o clearing the site;
o construction;
o maintenance; and
o utility changes. etc.
Step 9. Calculate road user costs and road user benefits for the alternatives.
Step 10. Analyse data from steps (7), (8) and (9) to reach a conclusion as to the
preferred plan.
Step 11. Prepare final design drawings, specifications and estimates.

Top
7.6 Principles of Intersection Design
The smallest unit of intersection design is the individual manoeuvre area, and a typical
road intersection can be considered as a combination of a number of elemental
manoeuvre areas. To a large extent the arrangement of manoeuvre areas is governed by
economic and environmental considerations. The proper compromise between these
competing factors will be made by the individual designer.
Intersection design should consider the following twelve fundamental principles:
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o

Minimise the Number of Points of Conflict


Control Relative Speed
Separate Points of Conflict
Give Priority to Major Traffic Movements
Reduce Area of Conflict
Coordinate Intersection Design and Traffic Control Considerations
Clearly Define Vehicle Paths and Conflict Areas
Control the Speed and Angle of Conflicting Traffic Movements
Prohibit Undesirable or Unnecessary Movements
Provide Adequate Capacity
Consider the Spacing of Intersections
Consider the Needs of All Road Users

7.7 Geometric Design Standards for At-Grade Intersections


7.7.1 Design Vehicles
Intersection design should make provision for vehicles of legal dimensions to
perform movements with adequate clearance to road furniture and other vehicles.
In some cases allowance may have to be made for vehicles which exceed legal
dimensions. Three design vehicles are normally used in intersection design.
These are the design car, the design single unit truck or bus, and the design semitrailer. The selection of the appropriate design vehicle for a particular intersection
depends on the location of the intersection and the expected traffic composition.
7.7.2 Sight Distance
The provision of adequate sight distance at an intersection is fundamental to safe
intersection design. Three sight distance criteria are applicable to vehicle
operation at an intersection:

Approach Sight Distance (ASD) This is the minimum sight


distance to be provided to a driver to create awareness of
intersection layout, etc. and to allow sufficient time to react and
stop if necessary.
Entering Sight Distance (ESD) This is the sight distance required
for a driver on a minor road to enter a major road with a left or
right turn such that traffic on the major road will not be impeded.
Safe Intersection Sight Distance (SISD) This provides sufficient
distance for a driver on the major road of an intersection to observe
a vehicle from a minor road approaching, and to stop before
reaching collision point.

7.7.3 Horizontal and Vertical Alignment


The best locations for intersections are on straight roads having a uniform grade.
At these locations sight distance is maximised and the driving task is easiest.
Where a straight alignment cannot be achieved the intersection should be
contained within a horizontal curve, so that drives are travelling on the curve
before reaching the intersection. Sharp curves or severe changes in alignment
within an intersection should be avoided. In rolling terrain intersections should be
located in sag curves rather than on or near crest curves where sight distances are
restricted.

7.7.4 Channelisation
The design of channelisation for an intersection should be an individual design for
that intersection, based on considerations of traffic pattern, traffic volumes,
topography, pedestrian movement, parking, and the planned ultimate development
of the adjoining land. When considering the islands to be used in a channelised
design it is preferable to have a few large islands than a large number of small
ones.
7.7.5 Provision for Left-turning Vehicles
Left turning vehicles are usually catered for by simple left turns, left turn lanes
and left turn slip lanes. Simple left turns consist of a curve of appropriate radius
and would be used where the left turn volume is low. Left turn lanes may be
considered at signalised intersections or where left turn volumes are high. A left
turn lane with a corner island at the intersection is referred to as a left turn slip
lane.
7.7.6 Provision for Right-turning Vehicles
Auxiliary right turn lanes should be considered at all signalised intersections and
where median widths or lane widths allow their provision and safety would be
improved. The aim of using right turn lanes is usually to improve capacity and/or
safety.
7.7.7 Traffic Lane Widths
Ideally the width of traffic lanes on the approaches should be carried through the
intersection. However in some urban situations reduction in lane width to 3m, or
even lower, can provide an additional traffic lane.
7.8 Roundabouts
A roundabout is a channelised intersection in which all traffic through the intersection
circulates clockwise around a central island. Entering traffic is required to give way to
traffic circulating on the roundabout.
Roundabouts can be used to advantage on a wide range of intersections. Roundabouts are
particularly suitable for the following situations:

multi-leg intersections;
urban arterial road intersections which have a high right turning traffic volume;
and

T,Y or cross-road intersections where the major flow turns through a significant
angle.

The safe performance of a roundabout is dependent on the geometric arrangement


slowing all traffic to 50km/hr or less. This may be achieved by:

a central island of suitable size and position;


providing appropriate deflection of entering traffic; and
staggering or misaligning the traffic path between entry and exit.

The central island is usually circular. The island should be kerbed and raised slightly
above the level of the circulating roadway. The width of the circulating roadway depends
on the number of traffic lanes required, the size of the central island, the design vehicle,
and the need to cater for large vehicles. The main function of splitter islands is to guide
vehicles into the circulating roadway at an appropriate location and angle.
7.9 Grade Separations and Interchanges
A grade-separated intersection occurs when intersecting roads are separated in level to
eliminate crossing conflicts. The roads no longer intersect at the same grade (i.e. the
intersection is no longer an at-grade intersection) and so the intersections is referred to as
being grade separated. If the intersection also allows turning movements from one road to
another, then an interchange is formed. An interchange is the highest form of intersection
treatment. When fully developed all at-grade crossing is eliminated and interaction
between traffic streams takes place by merging, diverging or weaving.
The advantages of grade separation and interchanges are:

capacity approaches that of normal road sections;


increased safety and driver comfort;
design is flexible they can be adapted to most situations; and
staged development is often possible.

The disadvantages of grade separations and interchanges are:


o
o
o

costly;
large land area required; and
may be confusing to drivers.

Although each design situation should be individually considered, there are certain
standard design configurations which act as a guide:

T or Trumpet (3 leg). This form uses a single bridge, and all traffic
movement except one turn moves through 90.

Y (3 leg). This form uses a simple bridge and incorporates one atgrade movement.
Cloverleaf. This form uses a single bridge. It takes a large land
area especially if high design speeds are used. Vehicles turning
right have to negotiate a 270 turn and usually have a fairly rapid
change in grade.
Partial Cloverleaf. At times it will not be desirable or possible to
construct a full cloverleaf. In these situations a partial cloverleaf
may be possible.
Diamond. This form has the disadvantage of 2 at-grade
intersections on the minor road, but uses less land than a
cloverleaf.
Rotary. The rotary interchange can cope with any number of
intersecting arms. It uses 2 bridges.

Road Construction
8.1 The Road Construction Process
The type of road construction used varies from one job to another. The type of
construction adopted for a particular road depends on:
the volume and nature of traffic to use the road,
the nature of the materials available,
the topography,
foundation conditions,
type and availability of construction equipment, and
financing arrangements and timing.
Any road construction job consists of number of basic steps, although the relevant
importance and the interaction between these steps will vary from job to job. These steps
can be summarised as:
o planning, programming and pre-construction activities;
o site clearance;
o setting out;
o earthworks;
o bridge construction;
o drainage structures;
o pavement construction;
o placement of road surfacing;
o placement of road furniture; and
o landscaping.

LINKS TO SITES ON ROAD CONSTRUCTION.


Main Roads Queensland has a List of Projects at their Web site which gives details of
major road works being undertaken around Queensland.

An overview of the Pacific Highway reconstruction in Queensland and N.S.W. is


provided by the Federal Department of Transport and Regional Services.
The NSW Roads and Traffic Authority site includes a Major Construction Projects
section which gives some details of major road building projects around NSW.
Top
8.2 Pre-Construction Activities

1.1.1 8.2.1 Propery Acquisition


Property acquisition may take considerable time, and may be a very emotive issue
for land owners involved.

1.1.2 8.2.2 Public Utility and Property Adjustments


In rural areas public utility adjustments rarely constitue major work and the main
property adjustment work is fencing new boundaries and restoring property
accesses. In urban areas public utility adjustments may be complex and extensive.
Consequently they may be very costly, take a long time, and require a lot of
coordination.

1.1.3 8.2.3 Cost Estimates


Detailed cost estimates are required for all construction jobs prior to
commencement.

1.1.4 8.2.4 Pre-construction Investigations


These include geotechnical surveys and consideration of available labour, plant
and materials.

1.1.5 8.2.5 Work Planning


Construction activities are summarised onto some form of job control diagram
such as a bar chart or Critical Path Network. This work must be done before the
job commences and also periodically updated as the job progresses.

1.1.6 8.2.6 Commencement


The first activities on site are usually the establishment of site offices, the
construction of compounds to ensure security for plant and materials, and the
provision of facilities (eg meal rooms, change rooms) for the workforce.
Top
8.3 Site Clearance
The method used depends upon the extent of the task, the type of country, the time
available, and the equipment and labour available. Clearing usually involves the removal

of vegetation such as grass, brush, trees and stumps, but may also include the removal of
old buildings, structures, etc.
The most commonly used item for clearing is the bulldozer, although scrapers and
graders may also be used. A dozer may affect clearing by pushing but pulling with a rope,
or the use of explosives, may be required with large trees. Clearing by chainsaw can only
be used if the stumps can be left behind (which is not usually the case - stumps will rot
away leading to subsidence of overlying material).
Consideration must be given as to how cleared material is to be disposed of. Timber may
be burnt if environmental conditions allow, but otherwise it has to be carted away and
disposed of as landfill.
Following clearing operations, topsoil should be stripped and stockpiled for future
landscaping. Topsoil is unsuitable for embankment or road building, and it is a valuable
resource which should be handled and used thoughtfully.
8.4 Setting Out
The object of setting out is to mark on the site actual positions and ruling dimensions for
the guidance of plant operators and supervisors.
Setting out may involve two phases:

establishment of a centreline (and suitable recovery markers for use if the centre
markers are destroyed) and marking of the limits of the area to be cleared; and
after clearing, the more detailed location of the formation together with level
control.

Setting out will therefore involve the placement of a pegged centreline, placement of
recovery pegs, placement of clearing stakes, establishment of batter pegs (and batter
profiles for larger cuts and fills), and pavement control markers.
Top
8.5 Earthworks
The eventual aim of the earthworks phase of the construction is to position the subgrade
underlying the pavement layers in the right location and at the correct level, and to
provide drainage.
The operations to be performed are:

formation of cuttings by excavating through high ground,


formation of embankments by filling over low ground,
shaping the finished surface to design levels, and

excavating for drainage works.

The earthworks is often the largest task in the road building process and therefore careful
planning and organisation are essential. Speed and efficiency depend very much upon the
quantity and types of earthmoving plant available.

1.1.7 8.5.1 Sequence of Operations


The normal sequence of operations in cut and fill work is:
o In Cut
excavate to the depth necessary to reach formation level,
transport away from the site undesirable material such as organic
soils,
haul suitable materials from cuts to fill areas, and
suitably dispose of any excess cut material.
o In Fill
drain water from depressions and dispose of any unsuitable
underlying material,
spread fill material in horizontal layers not more than 250 mm
thick, and
thoroughly compact these layers to required density.

1.1.8 8.5.2 Preparation of Fill Sites


Fill sites are prepared by removing any material too weak to support the fill and
then compacting the surface by rolling.Where the natural surface slopes at more
than 1 in 4, horizontal terraces will need to be cut on which to bed the fill.

1.1.9 8.5.3 Excavation of Cuttings


Cuts in softer materials can be made by dozers, scrapers, excavators and
occasionally by graders. In hard materials excavation by drilling and blasting may
be required.
Haulage will usually be by scrapers or by trucks loaded with a wheeled loader. In
rocky materials special rock buggies may be required. On shorter hauls (up to
100m) it is possible that a dozer may be able to economically push material from
cut to fill.
General principles to be observed in the excavation of cuttings are:
o
o
o
o
o

provide for drainage during construction;


establish down-grades so that plant can work downhill and be assisted by
gravity while cutting;
ensure that cuts are made to the full design width;
in through cuts keep the centre high; and
in side hill cuts keep the inside edge low.

1.1.10

8.5.4 Construction of Fills

Transport of fill material will usually be accomplished by bulldozers (short hauls),


scrapers or trucks. Once the material is deposited at the fill site it is spread
(usually by dozer and/or grader) and, if necessary, brought to its optimum
moisture content by the incorporation of water from a water cart. Compaction is
then carried out using an appropriate roller or compactor.
General principles to be observed when constructing embankments:
o
o
o
o
o
o

ensure that the base of the fill is the correct width;


place the material in layers and compact each layer;
check the suitability of the fill material as it arrives;
ensure that the fill material is at the correct moisture content for
compaction;
keep the edges of the fill higher than the centre to prevent material sliding
out and to increase safety for plant; and
in wet climates crown the fill at the end of the days work so that any
overnight rain will be shed from the work and will not pond.

Top
8.6 Bridge Construction
Bridges form an integral part of the road system and from a motorists viewpoint are often
the most noticed feature. It is often necessary to commence bridgeworks ahead of
roadworks because bridges are slower to build. Small bridges may take six months to
build whereas large bridges can take several years.
Compared to other parts of the road, bridges are expensive. In urban areas the cost of a
bridge would usually be at least five times the cost of an equivalent length of road.
8.7 Drainage Structures
Many road failures can be attributed to the presence of water. The soundness of a road is
dependent upon adequate drainage being built into the road and then adequately
maintained.
Drainage structures can be classified into three groups:

Surface Drains:o Catch drains - to catch surface water and divert it into the drainage system
before it flows down the face of a batter or up against a fill.
o Table drains - collect the surface water draining from the road pavement.
o Kerb and gutter - the urban form of table drains.

Subsoil Drainage - incorporated into the construction wherever there is a risk of


underground water causing damage to the road. The drain is usually a trench into
which a line of porous pipes is laid and the trench backfilled with porous material.
Culverts - which carry water from one side of the road formation to the other.
Types commonly used are precast concrete pipes, precast concrete boxes, cast-insitu concrete boxes, and corrugated steel pipes and arches.

Top
8.8 Pavement Construction
Pavements are generally constructed of either gravel, crushed rock, asphalt or cement
concrete - each of which may be used in its own right or in combinations with one or
more of the others.

1.1.118.8.1. Gravel and Crushed Rock Pavements


o
o
o
o
o

1.1.12

Source: pits,quarries.
Haulage: trucks.
Spreading: grader or paver.
Compaction: higher compaction standard than subgrade; different roller
types used.
Accuracy of levels important.

8.8.2. Asphalt Pavements


o
o
o
o
o

1.1.13

Manufacture: fixed plants (up to 400 tonnes per hour), or large mobile
plants.
Haulage: trucks.
Placement: paving machine.
Compaction: rollers - smooth vibrating drum and pneumatic-tyred.
Usually final layer thin to achieve good riding surface.

8.8.3 Cement ConcretePavements


o
o
o
o
o

Manufacture: ready-mixed batching plant.


Haulage: agitator truck.
Large quantities: site manufacture + normal trucks.
Placement: slip-form paver.
Compaction: internal vibrators + external screeds.

Top
8.9 Placement of Road Surfacing
May be gravel, sprayed bituminous seal, asphalt or cement concrete.

1.1.14

8.9.1 Construction of Sprayed Bituminous Surfacing

Pavement must be sound. For new work: compaction and trimming of underlying
gravel or crushed rock pavement. For existing bituminous surface: patching.
Steps:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Sweep surface - drawn rotary broom + hand sweeping.


Prepare binder - transport to job by road or rail tanker, or in drums.
Flux and/or cutback binder.
Incorporate adhesion agent.
Prepare aggregate - stockpiles, precoating
Spray binder - air temperature should be > 15 C; no rain should be
threatening; mark out spray run- alignment and start and finish.
7. Apply aggregate - quick incorporation into hot bitumen before excessive
cooling; spreaders required; drag broom to correct spreading
inconsistencies.
8. Roll surface - to bed stone; pneumatic-tyred or static steel drum rollers.
9. Drag broom
10. Record work - quantities bitumen sprayed, aggregate spread, etc.
11. Traffic control - throughout steps 1 to 10; minimise traffic delays.

1.1.15

LINK TO THE PICTURE GALLERY

The Picture Gallery contains pictures of the bitumen sealing process on four
pages:
o Preparation for a Sprayed Bituminous Surfacing
o Bitumen Sprayers
o Spraying the Bitumen for a Sprayed Surfacing ; and
o Spreading the Aggregate for a Sprayed Surfacing .

1.1.16

8.9.2. Manufacture of Asphalt

Two types of plants:


o Batch
o Continuous

1.1.17

LINK TO THE PICTURE GALLERY

The Picture Gallery contains photographs of Asphalt Production .

1.1.18
Steps:
1.
2.
3.
4.

8.9.3 Asphalt Paving


Prepare surface
Transport and deliver mix
Place mix - warm weather, no rain; asphalt temp > 110 C
Compact mix

1.1.19

LINK TO THE PICTURE GALLERY

The Picture Gallery contains photographs of Asphalt Paving .


Top
8.10 Placement of Road Furniture
Protective barriers, guardrails, signposts, guideposts, traffic signals, street lighting,
emergency telephones, etc.
8.11 Landscaping
Includes:
reshaping and contouring land;
topsoiling, turfing and mulching;
stabilising drains to prevent scour; and
planting trees and shrubs.

Road Maintenance
9.1 The Need for Maintenance
For a road to be kept in first class travelling condition it must be well constructed and
well maintained. The amount of maintenance necessary after construction can be reduced
by a high standard of construction. However, a road constructed to a high standard but
neglected after construction will soon fall into disrepair. Maintenance, to be successful,
must be planned and organised.
9.2 Maintenance Management
Many factors influence the management of road maintenance and thus make it a complex
operation. Funds available for maintenance never seem to be sufficient and are always
subject to conflicting demands.
Maintenance can be divided into three types according to the mode of management:

Routine Maintenance.
This is maintenance which cannot be predicted or planned in detail but which is
assessed on the basis of accepted levels of service. It includes such things as
pothole repair, grading gravel or earth shoulders, controlling vegetation, washing
or renewing signs, and painting road linemarking.

Special Maintenance.

Special maintenance can be predicted and planned and is therefore able to be


subjected to rigorous planning. Typical examples of special maintenance are
asphalt overlaying, bitumen resealing, and shoulder resheeting.

Restoration.
Restoration work seeks to repair damage caused by events beyond the control of
the road authority. Typical examples are restoration of roads and bridges after
scouring by floods, removal of fallen trees after wind or lightening storms, and
replacement of road furniture after bushfires.

Routine maintenance and the routine component of special maintenance are usually
organised and performed by permanent maintenance gangs or patrols, whereas the
specialised tasks in special maintenance and restoration will usually be done by specialist
gangs. Permanent maintenance gangs consist of 3 or 4 men equipped with a truck and
hand tools. They operate over a defined length of road, or area of road network. The
system is largely self managing with the pride of the gang in the condition of its stretch of
road being very important.
Maintenance planning, to ensure best value for the limited funds available, involves a
number of steps.
Step 1. Establishing Standards
Quality standards need to be defined which indicate the level of road
defects at which maintenance action is justified. Standards need to define
the severity levels for road defects at which either maintenance action is
justified or at which rehabilitation is warranted, i.e. the levels at which
intervention is necessary. The severity of deficiencies which can be
tolerated is influenced by various factors such as road classification,
climatic conditions, soil type, form of construction, and the volume and
type of traffic using the road. It is therefore not practical to adopt one
universal standard which applies to all road types and conditions.
Step 2. Assessing the Condition of the Road Network
This is generally done on a regular basis. The condition of each road, or
section of road, is evaluated against the standards established in (1), and
required maintenance action is determined. For the establishment of
annual programmed maintenance works, inspection may be carried out at
twelve month intervals. However, the need for routine maintenance action
(e.g. repair of potholes) can arise fairly quickly, and more frequent
inspection is needed to ascertain the requirements for this type of work.
Step 3. Planning and Budgeting

From the data gathered in the assessment of the road network, priorities
for maintenance work can be established and maintenance plans prepared.
An annual plan is usually required, although a longer planning period can
be used (e.g. 5 years) incorporating annual reviews.
Step 4. Executing Maintenance Work
Road maintenance work may be carried out by day labour forces or by
contract.
Step 5. Measuring and Recording Work Done
This provides data for future work, planning and expenditure monitoring.
Data is required on work carried out, road conditions prior to and after
maintenance intervention, materials used workmanship, costs, etc.
Top
9.3 Maintenance of Road Drainage Systems
The drainage system is a most important part of any road. Its functions include:

the removal of water from the carriageway in particular, and the road formation
and road reserve in general;
the interception of surface water flowing towards the road formation; and
the interception and disposal of ground water that would otherwise penetrate the
subgrade.

It is a principle of good drainage practice that the concentration of water should be


increased as little as possible. When, because of road works, increased concentration is
unavoidable the flow should be so controlled that it does not cause scouring or other
damage. As a general rule it is good practice to interfere as little a possible with the
natural flow of water. Water flowing towards a road formation should be allowed to
return to its natural course as soon as possible after being passed under the road.
Bituminous and Concrete Pavements
Bituminous and concrete pavements are relatively impervious to water so that
drainage is carried out by providing the surface of the pavement with a crossfall
normal to the centreline of the road. Most pavements have crossfalls of 2 to 3
percent. The surface should be maintained in a waterproof condition by the
prompt repair of any cracks in the surface and by filling minor depressions that
would hold surface water.
Gravel Surfaces

As gravel surfaces are not waterproof the crossfall is usually increased to 4 or 5


percent. Shoulders should be steeper depending upon the nature of the shoulder
material. Ponding of water in depressions in the pavement can have serious results
because of the consequent weakening of the pavement material and its
displacement under wheel loading. To prevent serious damage from water and to
maintain unsealed surfaces in reasonable condition for traffic, scours and
depressions must be promptly filled and the whole surface kept in a smooth and
self-draining condition by frequent grading.
Unpaved Surfaces
As with sealed pavements the principal means of draining an unpaved formation
is to provide a crossfall normal to the centre line that will remove surface water as
quickly as possible. Grading to restore the crossfall and to fill potholes and ruts is
the major activity to maintain riding conditions and surface drainage efficiency.
Drainage Structures
o

Table Drains

The function of a table drain is to collect water that has fallen on the carriageway
or the batters of a cutting and flowed to the edge of the formation. Table drains are
essential wherever the road is in cutting and often desirable along the shoulders of
embankments. Table drains require frequent maintenance, such as grading of
unlined drains to remove silt and other debris that may easily block the flow, and
to restore the original shape. Scours in table drains need prompt attention to
prevent serious damage that may lead to undermining of the drain lining, the
carriageway, or the cutting batters.
o

Batter Drains

It sometimes happens that water from table drains must be discharged down the
embankment batters. In such cases the slope of the invert of the drain down the
batter is too steep to allow the water to flow over most natural materials because
the high velocity induced would lead to serious scouring. Batter drains are,
therefore, generally lined with concrete, metal, or some other hard material such
as grouted stone. It is important that batter drains should be inspected frequently
and immediate steps taken to make good any undermining and repair any breaks
in the lining.
o

Catch Drains

The primary function of a catch drain is to intercept surface water flowing


towards the road cutting or formation embankment. It thus prevents the water
flowing down the cut batter or along the toe of the embankment, which may cause

severe scouring. Maintenance involves periodic inspection, clearing of


obstructions, repairing of breached banks, and the filling of scours.
o

Culverts

Culverts are key structures in any road drainage system and since they often
provide the only passage for surface water from one side of the road to the other
failure usually has serious consequences. Maintenance tasks include the constant
clearing of debris and growth from the channel, particularly after forest fires, or in
seasons when trees shed their leaves. The accumulation of silt or drift sand in the
culvert barrel must also be removed periodically by mechanical or hydraulic
means. Scour in the vicinity of culverts must be recognised in the early stages and
repaired promptly before the damage becomes extensive.
o

Subsoil Drains

The two main purposes of subsoil drains are to lower the level of the water table
and to intercept or drain underground water trapped or held by impervious
material. To be effective subsoil drains need to be not less than 500 mm below the
subgrade level. Subsoil drains are constructed near the outside edge of the
pavement parallel to the centre line of the road, but it is not uncommon for
transverse drains to extend as branches from longitudinal drains to at least the
centre line of the pavement. Maintenance action for buried drains consists
primarily of inspection of outlets from time to time to ensure that water is seeping
from them.
o

Underground Drains and Pits

Underground drainage systems, which are rare in a rural situation but rather
common where the road passes through urban or built-up areas, consist of both
longitudinal pipes or conduits running generally parallel to the road centre line
and transverse pipes passing under the road formation. Frequent inspection and
cleaning of the drainage system is essential because serious damage can be caused
if surface water bypasses inlets and overloads the system at other locations
leading to flooding of the road or adjoining property.
Top
9.4 Maintenance of Earth and Gravel Roads
Earth roads are usually regarded as suitable for dry weather use only. They may vary
from wheel tracks on the natural surface to formed but unpaved roads usually constructed
out of the soil occurring along the line of the road. Gravel surfaced roads may be defined
as formed roads, the surfaces of which are composed of gravel won from a selected
deposit, but which have not been given a bituminous surface treatment. They form a large

proportion of the total length of rural roads in Australia and their adequate maintenance is
of great importance to the rural community.
Grading
Grading is the most important operation in the maintenance of earth and gravel roads.
The basic purpose of grading is to keep the road well drained to maintain a satisfactory
running surface. The process of maintenance grading consists of bringing material in
from the sides or cutting down high sections of the surface and filling the low spots with
the surplus loose material.
Scarifying and Reshaping
When a gravel road has become worn to a state where the surface has hollows, potholes,
and corrugations, it can sometimes be restored by loosening and reshaping. The shoulders
are normally built up at the same time.
Gravel Resheeting
Gravel resheeting is the process of adding material over the full width and length of a
specified section of pavement that is already gravelled. Resheeting is undertaken to
restore the thickness of the pavement to give adequate support to all vehicles using the
road. The steps in gravel resheeting are:

Tyning (loosening the existing surface);


Spreading the new gravel; and
Compaction.

9.5 Maintenance of Bituminous Surfaced Pavements


9.5.1 General
A bituminous surface is applied to a pavement to resist abrasion by traffic and to
prevent penetration by moisture. Constant surveillance of the bituminous surface
is an important phase of road maintenance because any failures may cause rapid
deterioration of the pavement. Prompt attention to minor faults may obviate major
failures with consequent costly repairs, and prevent the development of conditions
likely to be hazardous or inconvenient to the road user.
9.5.2 Repair Methods
If the bituminous surface of a pavement shows signs of weakness it is essential to
determine whether the fault is in the surface, the pavement, or in the subgrade
before any extensive repairs or resurfacing works are begun. Correct diagnosis of

the cause is often difficult (especially in the early stages of distress), and it may be
necessary to dig small inspection pits to examine the various layers and arrange
laboratory tests of the materials. Proper investigation will guard against wrong
treatment and waste of effort. Defects such as those arising from a faulty
subgrade, a soft area in the pavement, faulty pavement material or poor drainage,
will continue unless the cause is removed.
Many failures result from the presence of excess moisture in the pavement or
subgrade, therefore, one of the most important functions of surface maintenance is
to prevent water reaching or remaining in these layers.
If excavation of faulty pavement material is necessary the sides of the hole must
be trimmed vertical, the depth of the hole being just sufficient to remove the poor
material. Gravel or crushed rock used for backfill must be moistened to facilitate
compaction and all materials should be compacted in layers not exceeding
100mm thick, preferably with mechanical equipment. The amount of material
used must be chosen to ensure that the patch, when compacted, is flush with the
surrounding pavement surface. On no account must a patch be left higher for
traffic to compact it.
Before applying the final bituminous surface the patched area must be swept clean
of dust and loose stones. The surfacing is then applied using materials similar to
those in the original surface. Premix may be used for patching in some
circumstances. Premix, made by mixing aggregate (preferably dried) with fluxed
and/or cutback bitumen by hand or in a mixing plant, may be stored for several
weeks or even months depending upon the amount and type of flux and cutter
used. A bitumen emulsion of a suitable type may be used as the binder. Where
available, hot mix is preferable to cold mix provided it can be used satisfactorily
before it sets.
Top
9.5.3 Particular Types of Defects and their Repair
Ravelled Surface
Ravelling is a condition in which plant mix or penetration macadam becomes
rough in texture due to a loss of aggregate. The causes could include insufficient
or aged binder, excessively open-graded mix, poor compatibility of aggregate and
binder, or fracturing of aggregate. Ravelled surfaces will require binder to be
added, the rate of application depending upon the amount and condition of the
existing binder. If ravelling has not developed too far the condition can be
corrected by a seal, slurry seal, enrichment seal, or fogcoat made by spraying a
very light application of binder with or without fine cover aggregate. Otherwise
resurfacing with plant mix will be necessary.

Stripped Surface
Stripping is a condition in which aggregate is lost from a spray seal due to one or
more of the following reasons:
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o

ageing and hardening of the binder;


cold or wet weather before, during, or soon after spraying;
wet or dusty aggregate to which the binder has not readily adhered;
insufficient binder for the size of aggregate used;
aggregate of a rock type to which the binder does not readily adhere;
insufficient cutter in the binder when spraying, preventing the binder from
wetting the aggregate properly;
excess cutter in the binder when spraying, making the binder too soft to
hold the aggregate under the action of traffic;
insufficient rolling and/or excessive brooming of the aggregate before
allowing it to be traversed by fast traffic; and
aggregate size incompatible with the aggregate size of the previous seal.

If stripping is occurring due to aged and hardened binder it should be treated


without delay to avoid further loss of aggregate. If there has been loss of scattered
individual stones only the condition may be corrected by an enrichment seal with
or without fine cover aggregate. If stripping has occurred over large isolated areas
a reseal will be necessary but care must be taken in selecting an aggregate similar
to the existing.
Fatty or Slick Surface
A fatty surface is due to surplus binder on the surface. Fatty surfaces become soft
in hot weather (bleeding) and slippery in wet or frosty weather. Slick surfaces are
hard, smooth, and slippery. They result from:
o
o
o
o
o
o
o

loss of cover aggregate from sprayed seals due to stripping;


excessive application of binder during surfacing operations or excess
binder rising from the underlying surface, bad patches, etc,.;
breakdown of aggregate;
poor spreading of cover aggregate in sprayed seals;
over-filled voids in plant mix;
graded cover aggregate with particles so small that they are covered by the
binder; or
aggregate penetrating the pavement surface and sinking into the binder.

The successful treatment of this condition is difficult. Possible methods of


treatment are resurfacing with open-graded plant mix, resealing, incorporation of
additional aggregate into the existing binder, and burning-off .
Polished Aggregate Surface

Exposed stones may become polished under the action of traffic causing slippery
conditions when wet even though the surface is generally not smooth. A polished
aggregate surface must be resurfaced with either plant mix, sprayed seal, or slurry
seal.
Shoving
Shoving is a fairly regular waviness (somewhat resembling corrugations in a
gravel road) which may develop in bituminous surfaces due to movement under
traffic. The deformations are usually shallow and are not likely to be confused
with larger depressions resulting from weaknesses in the pavement or the
subgrade. If the bituminous material has been compacted by traffic to a stable
condition it will be practicable to fill in the depressions with premix. If it remains
unstable it will be necessary to remove the unsound material and replace it with a
stable premix.
Rutting
Rutting usually takes the form of depressions in the wheel tracks. If the transverse
deformation is accompanied by adjacent bulging of the pavement or shoulder
surface it may be a sign of excessive subgrade movement or weak pavement. The
treatment is the same as that described for shoving provided there is no subgrade
movement. Any faulty subgrade material must be replaced by suitable material.
Cracks
A bituminous surfacing may crack for a variety of reasons and often, in the early
stages, the crack pattern can indicate the cause. When the cracks have developed
over a large area and become sufficiently wide and numerous to allow the entry of
surface water or disturbance of the surfacing by traffic it can be very difficult to
determine the original cause of the trouble. Cracks wide enough to be treated
should be filled with a binder having a viscosity low enough to enable it to be
poured or worked into the cracks. Wider cracks should be filled with fine premix
or bituminous slurry. Large areas with fine cracks should be spray sealed, slurry
sealed, or resurfaced with plant mix.
Pot Holes
Pot holes not accompanied by distortion of the adjacent surface are usually due to
a cracked bituminous surface allowing moisture to enter the pavement. The repair
of pot holes will involve the vertical trimming of edges and removal of loose
material prior to reinstatement.
Edge Failures

Fretting or breaking of the edge of a bituminous surface may be caused by worn


shoulders , inadequate strength at the edge of the pavement, or entry of water
through the shoulder. The failed area should be boxed out and both pavement and
shoulder material replaced.
Large Depressions
Large depressions occur in the pavement surface when a fill has been
inadequately compacted, for instance at bridge abutments. Depressions caused by
failure to compact the fill may continue to increase in size and depth and deep
seated correction may be necessary.
9.6 Maintenance of Road Shoulders
The road shoulder is that portion of the road adjacent to the pavement. The net width of
shoulder is that width available to traffic inside guide posts or guard fencing or the edge
of a table drain or fill slope measured from the edge of the pavement.
Shoulders may be constructed of earth, gravel, or bituminous concrete with surfaces
unsealed, grassed, stabilised, or sealed. A shoulder should have a smooth running surface,
a minimum of loose material, an adequate slope for drainage, sufficient strength to
support wheel loads and a surface flush with the pavement edge.
Maintenance of earth and gravel shoulders will normally involve one or more of the
following operations:

smoothing and reshaping, usually with a motor grader;


adding new material to replace material lost from the actions of traffic or water
erosion(resheeting); and
watering and rolling to compact new or existing shoulder material.

Grass shoulders must be mown regularly.

Road Users and Vehicles


10.1 The Traffic System
The traffic system can be considered to be made up of three components, namely the
road, the user and the vehicle. For the system to operate without failure the three
components must interact in a compatible manner. In practice this does not always occur
with the result that the system breaks down. Road accidents, congestion and traffic
intrusion are examples of system breakdown and in most cases result from an
incompatibility between the three components, or between one of the components and the
environment within which the system operates.

The road and the vehicle are subject to engineering design and thus the characteristics of
these components can be dictated to a large extent by the engineer. However the traffic
engineer is essentially concerned with the road system and therefore the vehicle
component is substantially beyond the scope of control of the traffic engineer.
The characteristics of the road user are obviously beyond the control of the traffic
engineer, and these characteristics must therefore be accepted and catered for by the
traffic engineer. To enable traffic design and management to be undertaken effectively,
the traffic engineer requires a knowledge of human performance characteristics and
vehicle characteristics. The road user may be involved with the traffic system as a driver,
passenger or pedestrian but it is usually as a driver that is of most concern in traffic
engineering.
10.2 The Driving Task
Driving can be considered as comprising three essential tasks:
navigation;
guidance; and
control.
These tasks require the driver to receive inputs, process them, make predictions about the
results of alternative actions, decide which is the most appropriate action, and execute the
action. The driver then observes the effect of the act, gathers new information, and
repeats the sequence. There are many problems inherent in this sequence of tasks which
arise from the capabilities of the human driver and the interactions between the driver and
other components of the road traffic system.
Of course not all drivers are identical in their capabilities or habits. Driver behaviour
seems to vary between individuals according to two factors: ability and motivation.
Behaviour is dependent upon both what the driver is able to do and what the driver
chooses to do. As a consequence, there is little correlation between driver skill and driver
crash experience.
Driver ability is closely linked to prior experience. An experienced driver knows what
effects any controlling action is going to have and is thus able to select appropriate
actions, as well as to exercise greater discrimination in information input and processing.
Experience allows for the development over time of a set of workable expectancies,
which allow for anticipation and forward planning. If these expectancies are violated
problems are likely to occur, either as a result of wrong decision or of an inordinately
long reaction time.
Driver expectancy can be considered in three categories:

Continuation expectancy that the events of the immediate past will continue e.g.
in a stream of traffic moving at reasonable speed it is not expected that the vehicle
ahead will suddenly change speed or stop.

Event expectancy that events which have not been observed to happen will not
happen e.g. if a driver has regularly crossed over a railway level crossing and
never encountered a train no train is expected, and the level of risk may increase.
Temporal expectancy that where events are cyclic (e.g. traffic signals), the
longer a given state occurs, the greater the likelihood that change will occur. This
may result, perhaps, in drivers accelerating towards green traffic signals in the
expectancy that they must turn red soon.

If the driver receives information in the expected form, and events occur in accordance
with that information, then the drivers performance is likely to be error free. Alternately,
when the information received does not match the drivers expectations, system failures
are likely to occur. The traffic engineer should therefore attempt to ensure that:
o drivers expectations are recognised, and unexpected design or operational
situations are avoided or minimised;
o predictable behaviour is encouraged through familiarity and habit; and
o information provided decreases the drivers uncertainty.
10.3 Reaction Time
Reaction time refers to the period between the occurrence of stimulus to the driver and
the drivers physical reaction to it.
Reaction time may be considered to be comprised of four elements:

perception the use of sensory organs to detect the stimulus;


identification the identification and understanding of the
stimulus;
emotion the driver deciding what action should be taken in
response to the stimulus (e.g. apply the brakes, turn the steering
wheel, etc.); and
volition executing the action decided upon.

Expectations reduce reaction times because drivers respond through familiarity and habit.
However, different drivers will have different reaction times to the same stimulus because
reaction time is affected by a wide range of individual characteristics, such as experience,
skill, motivation, etc. Studies of driver reaction time have shown that for many situations
an average reaction time is about 2.5 seconds, but variations from this average are quite
large.
Traffic system design and operation should aim to present to drivers situations that are
simple and expected so that reaction times may be kept at low values. Some ways in
which this may be done are:

by encouraging familiarity drivers will react slower to unfamiliar situations (e.g.


unusual intersection layouts or non-standard traffic signs);

by minimising the number of alternatives from which the driver must choose a
large number of possible actions for the driver is likely to lead to confusion and
uncertainty e.g. multiway intersections with three or four possible routes to select
from are more confusing for the driver than a Tee intersection;
by providing positive information the driver should be told what to do rather
than what not to do e.g. Wrong Way Go Back is a more positive message
thanDo Not Enter; and
by providing prior warning the driver is prompted to expect an event which will
require an action e.g. roadworks warning sign. The prior warning should be in the
context of the action required e.g. a roadworks warning sign should be located
where the roadworks are visible.

10.4 Visual Characteristics of Drivers


As previously mentioned the driving task is information-driven and this requires the
driver to select and sample inputs from the road traffic system. About 90 percent of the
information used by average drivers is visual and a small amount of information is
received by auditory or tactile means. Since vision is so important to the driving task it is
necessary to understand the visual characteristics and limitations for design purposes.
10.4.1 Visual Field
If a visual signal is to be seen it must obviously be within the drivers visual field.
For reading purposes the visual field is quite narrow, usually between 3 and 10.
However, objects outside this field can be detected by peripheral vision which
extends to about 90 left and right, 60 above and 70 below the line of sight.
These values are for a stationary observer and tests show that the values are
reduced when the observer is moving.
10.4.2 Eye and Head Movement
The main constraint on the rate of information gathering is the rate at which the
eye can move from one object to another, and refocus. For normal driving, where
the driver is performing several tasks simultaneously, a rate of 1.0 to 1.5 fixations
per second would be reasonable. Thus, for traffic design, it is necessary for
signals to be separated in time. As the driver is usually sampling inputs from a
moving vehicle this also means that the signals must be separated in space. For
example a driver travelling at 100 kph, and sampling at the rate of 1.0 to 1.5
fixations per second, would need to have the inputs spaced at about 20 to 28 m
apart. If the signals (signs, linemarkings, traffic signals, etc) are closer than this,
some information will be missed because the driver is physically incapable of
sampling at a faster rate.

10.4.3 Illumination
The human visual system is capable of operating over an enormous range of
illumination. Of interest in traffic engineering is the eyes ability to adjust to fairly
rapid changes in light intensity. On exposure to glare after a dark situation, the
pupil diameter contracts at a rate of about 3 mm/s, whereas on exposure to dark
after glare it is much less responsive, dilating at about 0.5 mm/s. In other words
the eye can adjust to sudden glare more rapidly than sudden dark. This is
important when designing artificial lighting for tunnels, where greater time must
be allowed for the drivers eyes to adjust as the tunnel is entered than when the
tunnel is exited.
10.4.4 Visual Handicaps
Several visual handicaps may have an effect on driver behaviour. About 2.5% of
the adult male population has colour defective vision, such that they cannot
discriminate red, yellow and green (as in traffic signals), or indeed any threecolour combination. Another 2.5% of the adult male population has a reduced
sensitivity to red light. Approximately 5% of the population are visually deficient
with respect to detecting low luminance contrasts. Visual sensitivity decreases
with age and the detection threshold of elderly drivers is about double that of
normal drivers. It is interesting to note that no correlation has been found
between poor visual performance and driver safety, suggesting that drivers with
visual impairment compensate in their driving behaviour.
10.5 The Information Needs of Road Users
The successful operation of the traffic system depends to a large extent on successfully
conveying information to drivers to aid them in the driving task. The key needs of road
users in relation to information are:
conspicuity i.e. the signal must be seen;
legibility i.e. the message must be able to be read;
comprehensibility i.e. the message must be understood; and
credibility i.e. the message must be perceived to be true.
10.6 Factors Modifying Normal Driver Behaviour
There are three major influences which may cause significant changes to a drivers normal
driving behaviour. These influences are fatigue, alcohol and drugs.
Fatigue
Fatigue is a decrease in the bodys work output or psychological or emotional
feelings. The body adopts a state between that of being wide-awake and being
asleep, and is best described as a state of drowsiness. Fatigue may result from
monotony, from an adverse environment (e.g. from a closed, warm atmosphere),
from over-work, from emotional factors (e.g. worry) and from physiological

factors (e.g. over-eating). The symptoms of fatigue are loss of attention to a task
and boredom. From a driving viewpoint the results of fatigue may be decreased
visual scanning, increased response times and falling asleep while driving.
Fatigue due to emotional or physical causes can only be overcome by rest and
recuperation. If the cause of fatigue is organic, such as narcolepsy, relief will only
be achieved by medical treatment.
Alcohol
Alcohol acts as a depressant on the central nervous system of the body. When
alcohol is orally taken into the body as a fluid it travels to the small intestine
where the main absorption into the blood stream occurs. The alcohol is then
spread to all parts of the body, including the brain where it has major effects. In
small amounts alcohol may act as a relaxant and can give the sensation of
improved mood, but judgement and decision making processes deteriorate. With
large amounts of alcohol muscle co-ordination and reflexes become slower, vision
and hearing are impaired, and the brains ability to process information is
diminished. Once alcohol has been absorbed into the blood stream it is
metabolised by the liver into waste products. The process of removal of alcohol
from the body is relatively slow and alcohol in the body is likely to affect driver
performance for several hours. All States and Territories in Australia have laws
which limit the amount of alcohol in the bloodstream (the blood alcohol
concentration, BAC) for drivers.
Drugs
It has long been known that alcohol affects driving skill but it is only in fairly
recent times that researchers have concentrated their efforts on looking at the
effects of other drugs on driving performance. It is known that about half of the
top 30 medications prescribed by doctors can affect driving, as well as many
medications that can be purchased without a doctors prescription. As well as
these drugs used for legitimate medical purposes, there are other drugs which are
used by certain people for mood altering effects or for the symptoms produced by
the development of physical dependence. These drugs include cannabis, cocaine,
heroin and morphine, as well as hallucinogenic substances such as L.S.D.
10.7 Road Vehicles
Study of traffic behaviour requires a detailed knowledge of the characteristics of the types
of vehicles commonly found in the traffic stream. In particular properties such as
dimensions, visibility restrictions, manoeuvrability, acceleration, braking, grade climbing,
steering, cornering, driver vision, lighting, axle loads and axle spacing are important for
the design of roadway elements.

The types of motor vehicles likely to be encountered on roads are passenger cars and
their derivatives (e.g. station wagons), utilities and light vans, heavy vehicles such as
trucks and buses, road trains and motor cycles.
The manoeuvrability of a vehicle is closely related to its overall size, length, width,
height and mass. It is accepted practice that roads be designed and constructed to
accommodate vehicles up to the legal maximum size, except in special circumstances.

LINKS TO SITES ON ROAD VEHICLES.


The Australian Design Rules set out design standards for vehicle safety and emissions in
Australia. This Web site gives the title, and a 1-2 line summary of the content, of each of
the Design Rules produced to date.

Capacity of Roads
11.1 The Nature of Traffic Flow
Traffic flow is a complex phenomena. The three main components of the road traffic
system are the road, the user and the vehicle. These components all interact with each
other. Consequently the moving traffic stream has characteristics which are quite
different to those of the individual elements.
Traffic flow is concerned with the movement of discrete units (such as vehicles or
people) around a network. In general, these units move independently of each other,
although they interact. Each unit is usually under the control of a human operator, and the
processes by which a traffic stream works can often be described in terms of random
behaviour. The randomness originates from the multitude of individual decisions that
occur in a traffic stream, where each human operator has some personal freedom of
choice and action.
Three main approaches are available to the quantification and modelling of traffic flow:

Macroscopic Approach. This considers the flow in an aggregate sense. It is


appropriate for studying steady state phenomena of flow and is best in modelling
the overall system. The approach makes use of physical analogies to traffic flow
such as heat flow and fluid flow.
Microscopic Approach This approach considers the response of each individual
vehicle in a disaggregate manner. The behaviour of individual driver vehicle
combinations is modelled, and the approach has been used extensively in
examinations of road safety.
Human Factors Approach This approach seeks to define the mechanism by which
individual drivers and their vehicles located themselves with reference to the rest
of the road traffic system. This approach is closely related to the microscopic
approach.

11.2 Parameters Describing Traffic Flow


There are at least six basic variables or measures used in describing traffic flow, and
several other stream characteristics are derived from these. The three primary variables
are speed (v), volume(q) and density(k). Three other variables used in traffic flow
analysis are headway (th), spacing (s) and occupancy .
These terms can be defined as follows:

Volume (or flow rate) q. The number of vehicles passing a fixed point in unit
time. Typical units are veh/day, veh/hr or veh/sec.
Speed (or velocity) v. The distance travelled by a vehicle in unit time. Typical
units are km/h (also kph) or m/s.
Density (or concentration) k. The number of vehicles per unit length of lane or
road, at a given time instant. Typical unit is veh/km.
Headway. The time gap between successive vehicles in a traffic stream (actually
between the same points on the vehicles, e.g. front of vehicle). Typical unit is sec.
"
Spacing. The distance between the same physical point (e.g. front of vehicle) on
two successive vehicles in a traffic lane. Typical unit is m.
Occupancy. The proportion of time that a designated point in a traffic lane is
covered by vehicles.

11.3 Speed-Volume Relationship of Traffic


Average speed and volume are the more common descriptors of a traffic stream as they
can be easily measured.
The three basic parameters are related to each other by the continuity of flow equation:
q = kv
in which v is the space mean speed. This equation only applies to the case of
uninterrupted traffic flow (e.g. major highways or freeways).
11.4 Types of Traffic Facilities
Traffic facilities may be classed into two broad categories:

Uninterrupted Flow Facilities. On these facilities vehicles operate without


interruption by external factors. The traffic flow therefore depends only on the
interaction between individual vehicles and between vehicles and the road.
Typical uninterrupted flow facilities would be two lane rural roads and freeways.

Interrupted Flow Facilities. On these facilities vehicle operation is likely to be


controlled by factors external to the driver and the roadway. For example stop
signs and traffic signals cause traffic to stop and hence interrupt the flow. Typical
interrupted flow facilities would be major urban roads and urban streets.

Where interruption to a flow occurs because of traffic signals it will be found that
vehicles tend to 'bunch' or 'platoon'. This bunching occurs when vehicles are facing a red
signal. When the green signal appears these vehicles move off as a bunch which will
gradually disperse if the flow is not interrupted again. It is generally recognised that if
traffic signals are spaced 3 km or more apart, some uninterrupted flow will develop. It
should be noted that uninterrupted flow and interrupted flow describe the type of road
facility, and not the quality of traffic flow on the road.
11.5 Capacity
Capacity is defined as the maximum hourly rate at which persons or vehicles can
reasonably be expected to pass a point (or uniform section of a lane or roadway) during a
given time period under the prevailing roadway, traffic and control conditions.
The following points should be noted with respect to this definition:

capacity is usually expressed as persons/hour or vehicles/hour;


the time period used to determine capacity may be less than one
hour e.g. 15 minutes;
if capacity is being analysed for a section of roadway (the usual
case), then prevailing roadway, traffic and control conditions
should be reasonably uniform for the section being analysed;
roadway conditions refer to the geometric characteristics of the
road e.g. type of road, number of lanes, lane width, shoulder width,
design speed, horizontal alignment and vertical alignment;
traffic conditions refer to the characteristics of the traffic stream
using the road e.g. vehicle types, lane distribution, directional
distribution; and
control conditions refer to the types and specific design of the
control devices, and traffic regulations.

The capacity of a road is an important characteristic. Roads are generally not expected to
operate at or near capacity for long periods, because operating conditions at capacity are
poor. Thus the ability to analyse the traffic carrying ability of facilities under better
operating conditions is a major aspect of capacity analysis.
11.6 Level of Service
A qualitative measure describing traffic operational conditions and their perception by
drivers is needed to assess the degree of congestion on a road. Such a measure is referred

to as a 'level of service' and is intended to take account of factors such as speed and travel
time, freedom to manoeuvre, traffic interruptions, comfort and convenience and safety.
Six levels of service are used for describing traffic flow conditions. These are designated
from A to F with level of service A representing the best operating condition and level of
service F the worst.
The levels can be generally described as follows:
o

Level of Service A. A condition of free flow in which individual drivers


have the freedom to select their desired speed. Drivers are virtually
unaffected by the presence of other vehicles in the traffic stream. The
general level of comfort and convenience provided is excellent.
Level of Service B. Drivers still have reasonable freedom to select their
desired speed and to manoeuvre within the traffic stream. However the
general level of comfort and convenience is a little less than with level of
service A.
Level of Service C. The flow is still quite stable but most drivers are
restricted to some extent in their freedom to select their desired speed and
to manoeuvre within the traffic stream. The general level of comfort and
convenience declines noticeably at this level.
Level of Service D. This is close to the limit of stable flow and is
approaching unstable flow. All drivers are severely restricted in their
freedom to select their desired speed and to manoeuvre within the traffic
stream. The general level of comfort and convenience is poor.
Level of Service E. This occurs when traffic volumes are at, or close to,
capacity. There is virtually no freedom for drivers to select their desired
speed, or to manoeuvre within the traffic stream. Flow is unstable and a
minor disturbance within the traffic stream may cause the flow to break
down.
Level of Service F. This is the zone of forced flow. The amount of
approaching traffic is greater than that which can pass and so queuing and
delays occur.

The concept of level of service may be used to analyse the operation of all types of road
facilities.
11.7 Factors Affecting Capacity and Level of Service
For the analysis of capacity or level of service the starting point is often to select values
that are applicable to ideal conditions and then to apply correction or adjustment factors
that reflect the actual roadway, traffic and control conditions. In general, an ideal
condition is one for which further improvements will not result in any increase in
capacity or level of service.

The factors affecting capacity and level of service include the following:

Roadway Conditions;
Terrain Conditions;
Traffic Conditions; and
Driver Population.

The NAASRA (1988) publication Guide to Traffic Engineering Practice, Part 2 Roadway
Capacity provides details for analysing the capacity and service volume of a variety of
facilities including:

uninterrupted single lane flow;


uninterrupted two lane two way roads;
uninterrupted multi lane roads;
freeways;
urban arterial roads with interrupted flow;
unsignalised intersections; and
signalised intersections.

In this module only the case of the uninterrupted two lane two way road situation will be
discussed, and will be based on the approach presented in the NAASRA (now Austroads),
publication.
11.8 Uninterrupted Two-Lane, Two-Way Roads
Two lane rural roads have one lane available for traffic travelling in each direction.
Overtaking of slower vehicles requires use of the opposing traffic lane, when convenient.
At low traffic volumes, drivers are able to choose their desired speed and overtaking of
slower vehicles is usually accomplished with minor, if any, delay. As volume increases
the need to overtake to maintain desired speed also increases, but the opportunities for
overtaking decrease due to an increased traffic flow of oncoming vehicles. It is found that
vehicles then tend to cluster in platoons or bunches.
Three types of analysis can be considered:

analysis of general terrain segments the segments usually being 3 km or longer


and having reasonably uniform roadway, terrain and traffic conditions;
analysis of specific grades generally with grades greater than 3 percent and
longer than 1 km; and
analysis for planning purposes.

For two lane, two way roads, ideal conditions occur when no restrictions due to roadway,
terrain and traffic conditions apply. Specifically, ideal conditions occur when:

o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o

design speed is 100 km/h or greater;


traffic lanes are 3.7 m wide or greater;
clear shoulder widths are 2.0 m or greater;
sight distance along the road is always greater than 450 m;
traffic consists of passenger cars only;
a 50/50 directional split of traffic occurs;
no restrictions occur due to traffic control or turning vehicles; and
terrain is level.

If all of these conditions are fulfilled the capacity of a two lane two way road is 2800
passenger cars per hour. This is the total of both directions of flow.

Traffic Studies
12.1 Purposes of Traffic Studies
A traffic study is the collection and analysis of measurable factual data relating to traffic
and its characteristics.
Traffic studies are carried out to:

provide a basis for planning and designing traffic facilities, including the selection
of geometric standards, economic analysis, and the determination of priorities;
assist traffic operation by determining the need for traffic control devices such as
signs, traffic control signals, pavement markings, and school and pedestrian
crossings;
evaluate the effect of changes made for traffic by conducting before and after
studies; and
determine the basic characteristics and the general laws of traffic behaviour.

12.2 Traffic Volume Counts


Traffic volume counts are made to determine the number of vehicles passing a point.
These counts may be comprehensive counts covering the entire main road system in an
area, counts on all roads intersecting a cordon line which encircles a particular area,
counts on screen line(s) which divide a city into two or more parts, or counts at specific
points. The information sought may include traffic volume and the direction of traffic,
volume of turning traffic at intersections, hourly, daily, and seasonal variations of traffic,
or proportion of cars, trucks and buses.
Traffic volume counts can be carried out either manually or by automatic traffic counters.
Manual counts are usually undertaken at points where it is necessary to record the
proportion of vehicles as well as the traffic volume, at intersections where the volume of
the various turning movements is required, or at sites being investigated for installation of
pedestrian crossings and guard-controlled crossings.

Equipment used in automatic counts normally consists of a device to detect the passage
of axles or vehicles, and a metering device to record the number of axles or vehicles
detected. The detecting device most commonly used in Australia is the pneumatic
detector. A rubber tube is laid across the roadway and as a vehicles wheels pass over it an
air impulse is sent along the tube to the meter. Two main types of counter are used to
measure traffic volumes, the non-recording counter and the recording counter. The nonrecording counter accumulates the number of vehicles detected and must be read at
regular intervals over the time it is desired to obtain traffic counts, e.g. if 24-hour counts
are required the counter must be read every 24 hours. The recording counter records the
traffic volume passing each hour (in some cases each quarter hour, or each five minutes)
by printing numbers on, or by punching holes in, a moving paper tape, by recording on
magnetic tape, or by recording in a microprocessor which is later downloaded to a
computer.
The method of presenting results will depend on the purpose of the study. In
comprehensive area traffic counts the Average Annual Daily Traffic (AADT) volumes are
usually presented as traffic flow maps in which flow bands proportional to the AADT
volumes are drawn along the route surveyed.
12.3 Origin and Destination Surveys
Traffic counts give the amount of traffic passing specified points on the road but they do
not indicate where traffic desires to travel, i.e. its origin and its destination. An origin and
destination survey is designed to obtain such information about the movement of vehicles
and passengers within an area. The survey is primarily for transportation planning,
particularly the location, design, and programming of new or improved highways, public
transport, and parking facilities. An origin and destination survey may range from a
relatively simple study to determine the amount of traffic that would by-pass a town to a
comprehensive transportation survey for planning and design of the transportation system
in a large metropolitan area.
Methods used for Origin and Destination surveys include:

Recording registration numbers;


Handing postcards to drivers;
Roadside interviews;
Tag-on-vehicle surveys;
Headlight surveys; and
Home interview surveys.

12.4 Speed Studies


Vehicle speeds can be measured in the following ways:
using a radar meter, which gives a direct reading of speed for each vehicle;

taking photographs of a section of road at a predetermined time interval t,


measuring the distance x covered by each vehicle, and computing speed from: v =
x/t
timing successive vehicles, or a representative selection of vehicles, over a short
predetermined distance of length a.

Results may be presented in tables, graphs and diagrams. These may include speed
distribution and cumulative frequency distribution curves. The more important quantities
are the mean speed and the 85th percentile speed.
12.5 Travel Time and Delay Studies
A modified form of the speed study is the travel time and delay study. It measures the
average journey time and journey speed of sections of a route (or routes) and is used in
traffic assignment, to assess the quality of the traffic route, or to evaluate the before and
after effect of traffic engineering techniques or other changes made for traffic. By
analysing the delays, the location and cause of the congestion can be identified and
remedied.
12.6 Accident Studies
The establishment of an accurate and efficient accident records system is of prime
importance to the traffic engineer. Accident records are used by the traffic engineer:
to identify hazardous locations and the causes of accidents at them;
as an aid in determining priorities for road improvements or the installation of
traffic control devices;
to evaluate safety improvements by before and after studies;
as a measure of the level of service provided; and
to carry out fundamental research into the relationship between traffic accidents
and the road environment.
Sources of data on accidents are reports of individual accidents, and the information
recorded varies from State to State.
Accident data may be conveniently represented by:

Accident

Spot

Maps

An accident spot map shows the location of each accident and the type of accident
by coloured pins, e.g. fatal accidents by red pins, injury accidents by blue pins,
etc. The maps which are large scale and attached to display boards are kept up to

date as accident report forms are received. The maps provide a quick visual guide
of where accident concentrations exist.

Collision

Diagrams

A collision diagram illustrated pictorially, by means of directional arrows and


symbols, the path and nature of collision of vehicles and pedestrians involved in
accidents at a particular intersection or stretch of road. The diagrams are not
usually drawn to scale, and distances between high frequency locations may be
shortened. The arrows do not show exact paths as they would overlap and become
confusing. Accordingly, accidents of the same type are grouped together. A study
of the accident pattern portrayed by a collision diagram may suggest possible
improvements such as installation of traffic signals, channelisation, removal of
obstructions etc. which may eliminate a certain type of collision.

Accident

Summary

Forms

The use of a standard accident summary form is recommended when routine


accident histories are required. The form contains the same type of information
for each accident occurring at a requested location between specific dates.
Although not having the visual impact of a collision diagram an accident
summary form provides more detail.
12.7 Parking Studies
Parking studies are carried out to indicate:
the number and location of existing parking spaces, both kerbside and off-street;
existing parking practices, including usage of available spaces, parking duration,
illegal parking;
the need to impose or vary parking time limits or to install parking meters; and
the adequacy of existing enforcement measures.
A suitable method for carrying out a parking survey in a small city is as follows:
o Select the study area. This should include the portions of the town or city
containing most of the business activity and should also include those
areas that generally cater for parking.

Carry out a parking inventory in the study area. This involves the
collection or preparation of suitable base maps of the study area showing
all streets, lanes, etc., the location and type of all buildings and vacant
areas, all kerb space available for legal parking (this is obtained from a
detailed survey), areas where vehicles cannot legally park (e.g. close to
intersections, school or pedestrian crossings, etc.), any off-street parking
lots, garages, or service stations with details of available spaces, fees, etc.
Carry out a cordon count. All vehicles entering and leaving the study area
should be counted at 15 or 30 minute intervals for the period from say
7.00 am to 7.00 pm. Determine the number of vehicles accumulated in the
area at any particular time and the time of day when it occurs. In small
towns cordon counts may be omitted.
Carry out a parking usage study. This study should extend from say 8.00
am to 6.00 pm, the active hours of the day. Observers should tour each
kerb and parking lot or garage every 15 or 30 minutes and record the
registration numbers and type of vehicles at each parking space. Illegally
parked vehicles should also be recorded. Close to certain generators such
as a post office, it may be necessary to make checks at shorter time
intervals (particularly if 30 minutes has been used as the general interval).
The area can be divided so that the survey can be spread over several days
which have a similar parking demand. At off-street parking stations the
actual distribution of the parking usage can be obtained from the tickets.

For larger cities, a comprehensive parking demand study may be required, which includes
the determination of parking usage, parking habits as well as the origin, destination, and
purpose of trip of drivers parking in the area. It is used primarily in determining the
demand for parking space by evaluating the individual parkers desires. The actual survey
is carried out in the form of questionnaire cards or direct interviews.

LINKS TO SITES ON TRAFFIC STUDIES.


The Australian Transport Safety Bureau has produced an informative report titled
Monograph 23 "The History of Road Fatalities in Australia" and this is available from
their Statistical Monograph Series page.

13. Parking
13.1 Types of Parking Facilities
The provision of adequate parking facilities is an essential part of the design and
construction of transport infrastructure.
Provision for parking may conveniently be thought of in three categories:

on road parking (kerbside or centre-of-the-road);

off road single level; and


off road multi-level.

Whichever type of facility is to be provided it will be necessary to design for a specific


size of vehicle, with certain manoeuvring characteristics. A design vehicle must
therefore be established as part of the design process.
Geometric design standards for parking facilities should take into account not only the
operational disadvantages of under-design but also the financial disadvantages of overdesign. In some sections of parking design standards lower than the ideal can be
tolerated. Sections of parking facilities can be divided into two categories critical areas
and non-critical areas. Non-critical areas will usually be designed to satisfy about 85% of
common vehicles and hence the 85 percentile design vehicle is used. Critical areas must
be designed to cater for all vehicles (or, economically, nearly all vehicles) so that a 99
percentile design vehicle is used.
13.2 Design Vehicles
The recommended minimum dimensions for design purposes are the dimension just
allowing movement by the appropriate design vehicle plus a clearance around the
vehicle. Austroads in its publication "Guide to Traffic Engineering Practice" gives the
following guide dimensions of a design vehicle for on-street parking:
Description

Dimension (m)
85 percentile

Dimension (m)
99 percentile

Overall length

4.74

5.37

Overall width

1.86

1.89

Front overhang

0.813

0.996

Rear overhang

1.100

1.300

Guide Dimensions for a Design Vehicle for Kerbside Parking


13.3 Kerbside Parking
The major purpose of a road is to provide for the safe and free movement of road traffic.
Another function of many roads is to allow vehicles to park at the kerbside to allow the
access of people to adjacent properties. However, the act of parking or unparking can
interfere with the free flow of vehicles in the adjacent lane. In addition parked vehicles
contribute to pedestrian accidents with persons entering the roadway between or behind
parked vehicles. The use of kerbside space on streets to accommodate stationary vehicles
therefore should be regulated to provide the optimum conditions for all road users
considering safety for motorists and pedestrians, vehicle flow, and the need for on-street
parking to serve adjacent properties.

Angle parking is more convenient than parallel parking but it invariably produces a much
higher accident rate than parallel parking at the same location. Angle parking is not
adaptable to commercial vehicles and requires substantially larger street widths. The
angle parking manoeuvre is easier to accomplish and causes less interference to traffic
than the parallel parking manoeuvre, but the unparking manoeuvre is not as easily
executed. Other disadvantages are that motorists drive more slowly when looking for
vacant spaces and the cars overhang at the kerb is greater interfering with pedestrians,
awning posts, and signs on the footway. Angle parking accommodates more cars for a
given length of kerb than parallel parking.
The decision on the type of parking allowed in any street must be based on:

the width of road;


the volume and type of traffic;
the turnover expected;
the nature of neighbourhood; and
the road classification.

Taxi stands should be distributed at convenient locations for patrons throughout business
centres. Stands should normally be restricted to accommodate no more than four taxis at
a time. If the demand is greater the main taxi stand should be fed from feeder stands
established nearby. The length of a taxi stand should be (5.5n + 1.5) metres where n is the
number of taxis to be accommodated.
Although some establishments provide off-street loading and unloading bays, most
loading and unloading takes place at the kerb and provision for loading zones must be
made. The length of loading zones can vary greatly depending on the number and type of
establishments served by each zone and the usual type of vehicles using the zone. The
recommended minimum length is 9 m.
13.4 Centre-of-the-Road Parking
This type of parking can only be considered for very wide streets and should be avoided
unless adequate provision is made to separate through traffic from parked vehicles,
motorists looking for spaces, and vehicles parking or unparking. One disadvantage is that
pedestrians leaving and returning to their vehicles have to cross the main traffic stream to
reach the footway.
Where vehicles have direct access to parking spaces from main traffic lanes they may
cause unnecessary interference with through traffic, reduce the traffic flow, and produce a
greater proportion of accidents.
13.5 Off-Street Parking
Off-street parking requirements normally depend on the extent and type of development
in the area, and the availability of on-street parking spaces.

The design problem for off-street parking areas is basically one of layout of parking
spaces, both to maximise the number of parking spaces and also to facilitate circulation
and access to those spaces. Layouts usually involve either angle or perpendicular parking.
Parallel parking is rarely used, except perhaps at the boundaries of the area where
insufficient space may remain to allow any alternative arrangement.
The majority of car parks in Australia are constructed with 90 parking because it
produces the most efficient layout in most cases.
Design for efficient circulation of vehicles within a parking lot should aim at ease of
movement around the site and safety for both vehicles and pedestrians. A definite
circulation plan should be developed, taking into account the different activities which
occur at the site; for example, the design for a supermarket parking area should allow for
pedestrian movements, parcel pickup, deliveries, etc.
Site entry and exit is always an important component of the design. The location of entry
and exit points depends not only on conditions and activities within the site, but perhaps
even more importantly on interactions with traffic on the road or roads adjacent to the
site. In some instances it will be more efficient to combine entry and exit at the one
location, while in other cases internal circulation and external traffic considerations will
indicate that separate entrances and exits should be provided. Allowance for adequate
queue storage space is another issue associated with entry and exit, especially the
avoidance of queues extending into the street at entrances.
Special problems may have to be considered in the design of parking areas for public
facilities such as sports arenas and concert halls, which have very large demands
concentrated over short periods. Circulation and entry/exit design must aim for maximum
efficiency to enable rapid evacuation of the parking area as the conclusion of the event
attended by the parkers.
13.6 Multi-Level Carparks
Multi-level car parks concentrate a high number of parking spaces into a small area, and
also have the potential to concentrate parking problems within the area. However, in
some respects they are simpler to design than single level car parks because heavy
vehicles and buses are usually excluded from their operation. Also the circulation system
for vehicles is often simpler. Multi-level car parks are normally only proposed in areas of
high density development where it is economical to construct a multistorey structure
rather than to acquire land for single level parking.
The special problems associated with multi-level car parks can be summarised as follows:

Presence of columns in the structure, which restricts access to parking spaces and
which may inhibit door opening of vehicles.
The geometry and grades of ramps between parking levels.

The concentration of queuing and circulation problems at the level or levels at


which entry and exit take place.
The often long driving paths to a vacant space encouraging operating speeds
higher than those desirable.
Provision of ticketing and pay facilities.

13.7 Operation of Off-Street Parking Facilities


Many off-street parking facilities are open to the public free of charge and provide for
each driver to park his or her own vehicle. These are usually surface lots and may be
provided by municipalities, retail complexes, etc. Such facilities require almost no
administration or control once they are established, apart from periodical maintenance
and, in some municipal car parks, the same enforcement of parking duration limits as is
necessary for on-street parking.
A significant proportion of off-street parking facilities, however, do not fall into the
above category and their method of operation depends upon whether self-parking or
attendant parking is to be used and involves the administration of parking fees.

1.1.20

LINK TO THE PICTURE GALLERY

The Picture Gallery contains photographs relating to Carparks .

LINKS TO SITES ON PARKING


The International Parking Institute in the USA has some useful and interesting
information at their Web site. The Frequently Asked Questions section (within the
Resources Center) mentions that there are an estimated 105 million parking spaces in the
USA, that there is estimated to be 5 million parking meters worldwide, and that the New
York City gains revenue of $300 million per annum from parking related fines!
Brisbane City have information on Carparking within the City. Some people that park in
Brisbane are not aware that in the Central Traffic Area (the Central Business District and
surrounding areas) the parking time limit is 2 hours, even if the parking space is not
designated with a time limit.
There is also a Web site for the European Parking Association , but the site contains little
technical information.

Traffic Control
14.1 Traffic Control Devices
Traffic control devices can be defined as all the signs, traffic signals, pavement markings,
traffic islands, or other devices placed or erected to regulate, warn or guide traffic.

These devices will only be effective if placed or erected by a traffic authority having the
necessary jurisdiction to enforce regulations pertaining to the devices e.g. a stop sign will
be of little use unless someone has authority and jurisdiction to prosecute those who do
not obey the sign.
Driver expectations must always be accounted for when installing devices and this means
that as far as practicable only standard devices should be used. Devices will only
command respect and attention from drivers if they can be readily seen and read, and if
their messages appear reasonable under the circumstances.
14.2 Standards, Guides and Warrants
Standards for signs, markings, etc. in regard to designs, sizes and usages can be found in
the following documents:

The Australian Standard Manual of Uniform Traffic Devices A.S. 1742. Part 1
contains description of the elemental devices which have been adopted as an
Australian Standard and provides the basis for signing and marking practices
throughout Australia. Part 2 contains standard applications of devices to traffic
situations.
The United Nations Convention on Road Signs and Symbols. This document is
notable for its wide use of symbols on regulatory and warning signs, and as
Australia is a signatory to the Convention, progressive inclusion of most of its
provisions in AS 1742 and future amendments has already commenced and can be
expected to continue.
Australian Standards AS1743 and 1744 which contain manufacturing standards
for signs and details of standard alphabets.
Manual of Uniform Traffic Control Devices. This document has legal significance
as it is the document referred to in the Traffic Act, Queensland.

14.3 Signs
Australian road signs may be classified into four types:

Regulatory Signs.
These signs are generally rectangular with the long axis vertical, and have a black
legend on a white background. Special shapes and colours are specified for these
signs where there is a need for easy identification e.g. Stop and Give Way signs.
Regulatory signs inform road users of traffic laws or regulations which it is an
offence to disregard.

Warning signs.

Warning signs are generally square with one diagonal axis vertical, and having a
black legend or symbol on a yellow background. They are used to warn traffic of
hazardous or potentially hazardous conditions in or adjacent to the road. Warning
signs advise the driver of conditions which require caution, and possibly a
reduction in speed.

Guide Signs.
These signs are generally rectangular with the longer axis horizontal, and the
usual colour combination is a white legend on a green background. However
several exceptions occur, including route markers, street name signs, tourist signs
and signs indicating roadside facilities. Guide signs inform and advise road users
about the direction and distances to destinations in the road system, inform them
of services or features of interest along the road, and give instructions which
although not regulatory should be obeyed.

Signs for Roadworks and Special Purposes.


These signs are used at road works to warn road users of temporary hazardous
conditions which, if attention is not directed to them, would either create a danger
to traffic or place the men engaged on the road works at risk from passing traffic.
Typical examples are road and bridge works, temporary road closures caused by
flood, landslides or other hazards, or a temporary re-routing of traffic. These signs
are rectangular with black letters and numerals on a reflectorised yellow
background, but certain signs used to protect workmen during daylight hours only
have a fluorescent yellow-orange background.

1.1.21

LINK TO THE PICTURE GALLERY

The Picture Gallery contains photographs of:

Regulatory Signs
Warning Signs
Guide Signs
Signs for Roadworks and Special Purposes .

14.4 Pavement Markings


Pavement markings are all the lines, symbols, patterns, messages, numerals, or other
devices set in the pavement or applied or attached to the pavement or kerb to regulate,
warn, or guide traffic. They may act as a supplement to other road devices but often they
are the only effective way to convey certain regulations and warnings to drivers.
Pavement markings have the following limitations:

they may not be clearly visible if the road is wet or dusty;


they are subject to traffic wear and usually require frequent maintenance;
they may be obscured by traffic;
their effect on skid resistance requires a careful choice of materials; and
they cannot be used on unsealed roads.

Despite these limitations their advantage under favourable conditions is that they convey
information to the driver without diverting attention from the roadway. A strong contrast
between the pavement and the pavement markings is a primary requirement. White is
used for most Australian markings, except that yellow may be used as an alternative for
barrier lines and for parking lines which indicate restricted parking areas.
Raised pavement markers may be used to supplement and, in some instances, replace
painted lines on the road surface. They may be reflective or non-reflective and in some
circumstances a combination of both types may be appropriate.
The following types of pavement markings are used.

Longitudinal Lines:
o Separation lines (Centre lines)
o Lane lines;
o Edge lines; and
o Barrier lines.
Transverse Lines:
o Stop lines;
o Holding lines; and
o Pedestrian crossing markings.
Other Markings:
o Turn lines;
o Diagonal and chevron markings;
o Pavement messages;
o Parking and loading area markings; and
o Kerb markings.

14.5 Guide Posts and Guard Fencing


Guide posts, with or without reflectorised delineators (commonly known as reflectors),
are placed in series on one or both sides of a road formation to indicate to road users the
alignment of the roadway ahead, especially at horizontal and vertical curves. The
delineators act as effective aids for night driving. Red delineators should be used on the
left side of the road and white delineators on the right.
The normal section for guideposts is currently 100 50 mm with the wider width facing
oncoming traffic. Posts are generally coloured white. Posts are generally made from sawn

timber, although other materials may be used provided the posts do not constitute a
hazard to vehicles.
Guard fencing is of particular value in delineating the roadway, in deflecting traffic from
hazardous locations, and in reducing the severity of accidents where vehicles may
otherwise leave the road formation. Corrugated guard railing is now commonly used,
although the older types of post and cable, post and chain wire, and wooden post and rail
can still be found.
The use of guard fencing is recommended in the following circumstances:

sub-standard curves;
road embankments (greater than 5 m in height and with side slopes greater than 1
in 4);
narrowing of formation;
on the outside of curves on steep down grades;
protection at structures (e.g. bridge piers);
protection for pedestrians; and
median separators.

14.6 Traffic Islands


A traffic island is a defined area within a roadway from which vehicular traffic is
intended to be excluded, and which is used for the control of vehicular movements or for
pedestrian refuge. The term island as used in this section includes medians and
separators.
Traffic islands are designed to perform one or more of the following functions:

direct vehicular traffic to minimise traffic conflicts;


separate traffic streams;
separate points of conflict;
prevent or redirect undesirable traffic movement and turns;
improve the efficiency of operation at intersections;
provide protection for pedestrians; and
provide suitable positions to locate other traffic control devices.

14.7 Traffic Control Signals


Traffic signals are an increasingly popular method of intersection control since they can
usually provide a quick and relatively cheap (compared to one-way street systems or
grade separations) remedy to intersection problems.

The basic principle of traffic signal design involves the allocation of green-time to
vehicle movements in proportion to the vehicle volumes entering and the available
approach saturation flows for the intersection.
14.7.1 Types of Traffic Signal Control
Pretimed Signals
With these signals green signals appear on each approach of a signalised
intersection and the time that signal remains green may be predetermined and
fixed in the signals equipment by a timing device. Signals which operate this way
are called pretimed signals, or fixed time signals. Pretimed signals cannot take
account of fluctuations in traffic flow and are not, therefore, highly efficient but
they are relatively cheap to install and maintain. If fluctuations in traffic flow are
small they are satisfactory. The efficiency of fixed-time signals can be improved
by providing a number of different cycle lengths, usually three, to control
morning peak, off- peak, and afternoon peak traffic.
Vehicle-actuated Signals
With this system vehicles on any intersection approach are sensed by some
detecting device, e.g. magnetic loops or pneumatic pads placed in the roadway.
By recording the vehicles as they cross the detector and by timing the intervals
between vehicles the signals are automatically adjusted to give preference to the
approach with the heaviest flow. Vehicle-actuated signals, as distinct from
pretimed signals, can take account of fluctuations in traffic flow so that in light
traffic conditions delays are less.
Pedestrian-actuated Signals
This type of signal should only be provided at mid-block locations to temporarily
interrupt the flow to permit pedestrians to cross the road.
14.7.2 Co-ordination of Traffic Signals
An urban arterial which has a series of signalised intersections may be coordinated for efficient movement of traffic. In business districts it may be
desirable to establish a comprehensive system which covers the entire area and
provides co-ordinated movement in all directions.
More recently attention has been given to using computers as a means of
optimising traffic flow which is controlled by traffic signals. Where there are a
significant number of signals over a wide area, and co-ordination for several
major road arteries is needed, on-line computers can economically and
functionally meet such a need.

LINKS TO SITES ON TRAFFIC ENGINEERING


The Arizona Department of Transportation has a site "Traffic Engineering: What Why
How " which contains a useful overview of what traffic engineering is about, what traffic
control devices are, how speed limits are determined, and other interesting issues related
to traffic engineering.
The Brisbane, Queensland traffic signal control system is known as BLISS (Brisbane
Linked Intersection Signal System) and the Web site contains a good overview of the
system, as well as some good pictures. {Web site being reconstructed at 1 July 1999, but
should be online for semester 2.}

15. Traffic Management


15.1 The Aim of Traffic Management
Traffic management can be thought of as the application of a defined traffic control
policy to an area or an extended length of road, with the aim of achieving a specified set
of community objectives. This means that traffic management is distinguishable from a
traffic control action which applies to a particular intersection or troublespot.
The types of objectives which may be required for a particular traffic management
scheme include:

improvement of traffic conditions e.g. reduction of congestion;


improvement of physical environment e.g. reduction in noise pollution;
improvement of access e.g. to commercial areas;
improvement of safety e.g. slowing of vehicles to improve pedestrian or child
safety; and
reduction of parking problems.

In some cases a traffic management scheme will be proposed in response to a particular


problem or set of problems, and the measures to be used will be fairly obvious. In other
cases the nature of the problem/s may be more complex and a range of alternative traffic
management schemes must be devised and assessed. Implementation of a traffic
management scheme will usually mean an alteration in traffic flow patterns. This in turn
will mean that some roads, or sections of road, will carry heavier volumes than
previously, while other sections will carry lesser volumes. The community will therefore
probably perceive that some members of the community are advantaged, while others are
disadvantaged with the introduction of the scheme. Trade-offs may therefore have to be
made between different benefits and disbenefits. This trade-off often occurs within a trial
implementation of the scheme.

In recent years the term Traffic Calming has been widely used, both in the technical
literature and in the popular press, to refer to a particular thrust of traffic management.
Objectives of traffic calming usually include:

reduction of vehicle speeds;


creation of conditions which encourage drivers to drive calmly;
removal of extraneous traffic;
enhancement of the environment; and
improvement of road safety.

15.2 Traffic Management Principles


The most important principle in traffic management comes from recognition of the fact
that each of the objectives of any traffic management scheme is influenced by the
volume, composition and speed of the traffic which occurs in the network. With this in
mind, the design principle may be stated in bland terms as decide where the traffic is to
go, and where it is not to go, and apply measures to achieve the desired traffic
distribution and flow characteristics.
In order to implement this principle a defined road hierarchy is required. This hierarchy is
established so as to produce categories of roads and streets which can be linked to their
functional purpose and appropriate traffic levels.
Each road in a system has a balance of traffic and access functions. These two functions
have an inverse relationship: if a road has a higher traffic function, then it has a lower
access function, and vice-versa. The particular point of balance between the functions is
used to classify roads into different levels of the hierarchy. Because the traffic and access
functions are seen as being continuous, the road classes are not clearly defined but merge
from one to the other. Most functional road classification systems currently used in
Australia reflect these characteristics. The measures applied to achieve desired traffic
levels in traffic management often comprise combinations of actions to reduce volumes
on some links and actions to increase volumes on other links. Actions to reduce volumes
may be absolute (e.g. street closure) or may be less stringent discouragement actions (e.g.
pavement narrowing). Actions of the latter type are usually aimed at increasing either the
capacity or speed of traffic on roads designated to carry major flows (e.g. introduction of
clearways).
15.3 Functional Classification of Roads and Streets
The purpose of road classification is to provide a common basis for establishing policy.
While these policies may cover a range of administrative, design or operational matters,
the fundamental classification from the viewpoint of traffic network planning and design
is a functional classification, i.e. a classification according to the traffic carrying purpose
of the road.
A functional classification system might identify the following road categories:

Access Roads being culs de sac not more than 200 metres in length and other
minor roads intended to be used for access to residential buildings.
Collector Roads being roads intended primarily to provide access to residential
buildings and to access roads.
Distributor Roads being roads intended primarily to provide access to
residential buildings and to collector roads, and to connect neighbourhoods to sub
arterial roads. These would also normally carry public transport.
Sub Arterial Roads being roads intended primarily to provide access to
distributor roads and to carry through traffic. Access to residential properties
would not normally be permitted.
Industrial Roads being roads intended primarily to provide access to land
developed or intended to be developed for industrial purposes.
Arterial Roads being roads intended primarily only to carry through traffic.
Access to residential property would not be permitted.

Although the traffic function of streets and roads is well understood, their (social)
function as social and community spaces is not. The principal social function is to
provide public space for social contact of various kinds, and therefore the primary design
objective should be to discourage through traffic from local roads.
The design width, grade, alignment and construction of a street or road should enable a
driver to immediately recognise the class and function of the road. Thus when a driver is
confronted with a narrow winding road they are forced to lower their speed, or take a
different route. The driver can then drive their vehicle accordingly. This is one of the
reasons that winding roads have become popular in the last few years. Another reason is
that curved streets look much better as the streetscape is constantly changing. The road
names, such as Court, Crescent and Drive also indicate the class of road.
15.4 Traffic Management Strategies
The road classification plan provides a framework for the development of traffic
management strategies which address the specific issues associated with particular roads
and streets.
A procedure for the development of a strategy for a road network is:
(a) Define the area of the network for which a traffic management strategy is to be
developed.
(b) Conduct a survey of the study area, including traffic volumes, travel times,
traffic problem locations, identification of different interest groups, views of
interest groups, etc.
(c) Identify the desired objectives of the traffic management scheme, together
with measures of their achievement.

(d) Develop alternative proposals to achieve the desired objectives.


(e) Carry out initial assessment of the various proposals, including prediction of
changed traffic flows, impacts on all relevant groups, and general performance of
each scheme relative to the stated objectives.
(f) Select the preferred scheme and undertake more detailed design and analysis.
(g) Implement the scheme on a trial basis, monitoring feedback and modifying the
scheme as appropriate.
(h) When satisfactory operation of the scheme occurs, complete final
implementation.
This procedure will need to be carried out with appropriate input and feedback from all
interested stakeholders. If this does not occur it is likely that any final proposal will not
receive community support.
15.5 Major Urban Road Networks
Traffic management schemes will seek to make travel on the major road system (arterials
and sub-arterials) as attractive as possible so as to encourage their use. Measures to
achieve this may include the following:
Parking Bans. Parking bans, including the introduction of clearways during peak
hours, provide additional traffic lanes without the need for construction work.
Such bans may of course provide a disbenefit to adjacent landholders.
Access Control and Reduction. The performance of arterial roads is greatly
improved if the arterial traffic has absolute priority at intersections with minor
streets. This can be achieved by the use of Stop or Give Way signs. However,
even if this absolute priority exists significant interference may still occur, and
consideration may be given to limiting the number of intersections at which
access to the arterial is possible.
Intersection Improvements. The critical points on most arterial roads are the
intersections. Hence there is potential for intersection improvements to greatly
influence the performance of the road.
Coordination of Traffic Signals. Coordination of traffic signals along an arterial
road or throughout a road network can have the effect of increasing the overall
capacity of the network without reconstruction of the individual intersections.
Designation of Heavy Vehicle Routes The removal of heavy vehicles with large
dimensions and slow acceleration characteristics to particular routes may allow
the rest of the network to perform more efficiently.
15.6 Residential Areas
The preparation of traffic management schemes for local residential areas must be
undertaken in the context of overall traffic management. Actions taken on arterial roads

will have significant impact on local roads and vice versa. A local traffic area is an area
bounded by arterial roads in which through traffic is of limited importance, and can
therefore be justifiably restrained.
Modern subdivision design will usually attempt to design in Local Traffic Areas and so
encourage through traffic to use the arterial road system. Older established areas may be
able to encourage the development of local traffic areas by the following types of
treatments on local streets:

Reduction of intersection conflicts by the use of Stop or Give Way signs.


Reduction of statutory speeds.
Reduction of local street connectivity by full or partial intersection closure.
Reduction of local street connectivity by partial prevention of access from major
roads.
Discouragement of through traffic by reducing width of intersection openings
from major roads.
Reduction of speeds by changes of road format.
Discouragement of through traffic by change of nature of street entrance.
Reduction of intersection speeds by use of roundabouts.
Reduction of speeds by physical speed control devices e.g. bumps, humps, dips,
rumble strips, etc.
Prohibition of large vehicles.

15.7 Rural Roads


The objectives of traffic management for rural roads can be broadly classified as:
capacity (e.g. increasing capacity at slow points by the use of auxiliary lanes);
safety (e.g. reinforcing a driver's perception of safety by the use of consistent
signing of hazards); and
quality-of-service (e.g. providing motorists with sufficient rest areas).

LINKS TO SITES ON TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT


The recently constructed CityLink project in Melbourne, Australia provides many
examples of modern traffic management in a large metropolitan area. A description of
some of the systems used in contained in the 'Road Features' frame at the CityLink site.

16. Railways
16.1 Characteristics of Rail Transport
Railways have had significant impact on development in many countries. Trains are able
to carry very large loads with relative speed at low cost.

The greatest advantage of a railway over a road is the saving in tractive effort. The
resistance of steel tyres on steel rails is of the order of 0.5 percent of the load, compared
with about 2.5 percent for rubber tyres on good road surfaces.
Rail transport has its advantage in transporting large consignments of bulk products over
long distances. As the vehicles are confined to a limited network of tracks rail transport is
often less convenient than road transport. Environmentally rail transport is far less
polluting than road, particularly if the rail system is electrified. The accident rate for rail
transport is also far less than for road transport.
Rail transport suffers from a lack of convenience, the need to double handle
consignments and the inability to provide door to door service.
16.1.1 Transport Tasks Most Suited to Rail
The following transport tasks are those most suited to railways:
haulage of large quantities of bulk commodities e.g. coal, iron ore,
bauxite, grain, etc.;
unit train operation point to point transport of a load of cattle,
military equipment, vehicles, etc.;
long distance traffic non-stop fully loaded trains with nothing to
unload or load between the origin and the destination; and
suburban passenger traffic with large numbers of people e.g. peak
hours for a large metropolitan area.
16.1.2 Transport Tasks Least Suited to Rail
The transport tasks least suited to rail are:
long distance passenger transport, particularly when sleeping
accommodation is required;
parcels and small package transport;
less than wagon load consignments;
short freight trips; and
stop-start train operation such as stopping every 10 km to pick up
or set down wagons.

1.1.22

LINK TO THE PICTURE GALLERY

The Picture Gallery contains photographs of Railway Rolling Stock .


Top

16.2 Location and Design


The fundamental consideration in the planning of a railway is the selection of the best
route, because of the large capital investment required and because of the effect of
location on operating and maintenance costs.
A fundamental characteristic of normal duo-rail (or two rail) systems is the gauge of the
railway. The gauge is the distance between the inside or running faces of the rails. The
accepted standard gauge is 1.435 m (4 ft 8 in imperial measure). Broader gauges of 1.52
m and 1.60 m are also used. Narrow gauge (1.067 m) is used in Queensland.
The planning and design of railways follows similar methods to those used for roads, but
greater limitations on grades and curvatures exist. The use of curved track is required in
all but very flat country, but the total amount of curvature needs to be kept to a minimum.
Curvature results in reduced speeds and increased wear on rail and rolling stock.
The greatest constraint on design is the need to strictly control gradient. A ruling grade is
the steepest slope over which a fully loaded train can be hauled by one locomotive from a
standing start. This is not necessarily the steepest grade which may be used, as some
momentum from a moving train may be used to overcome grade resistance.
In bridge design the main difference between a rail bridge and a road bridge is that the
live load in the case of rail bridges is a large proportion of the total load whereas in road
bridging the dead load predominates. The result is that in rail bridge design greater
attention needs to be given to the effects of impact and fatigue.
16.3 Earthworks, Formation and Drainage
Railway terminology:
Right of Way the strip of railway property, which may or may not be fenced.
Total width of the reservation for a single track is typically 40 m, increased to 60
m where stations and sidings are located.
Formation the prepared surface on which the ballast is placed (also known as
roadbed, or subgrade).
Formation Width distance between the edges of the prepared surface.
Cess part of the formation between the ballast and the embankment edge (also
known as formation shoulder).
Sleeper a beam passing under the rails of the permanent way, providing support
for the rails, and holding them at the correct gauge.
Rails rolled steel sections with a flat bottom flange, and a heavy head on which
the steel wheels of trains run.
Ballast material placed on formation to support the sleepers, and to distribute
the load from the track structure to the formation.

Railway construction is similar to road construction in the initial stages as cuttings and
embankments must be formed, and a finished construction surface prepared in readiness
to receive the ballast, sleepers and tracks.
Top
16.4 Track Materials
16.4.1 Ballast
Ballast consists of clean, durable, preferably angular crushed rock. The
specification for ballast will usually stipulate grading requirements (38 + 9 mm
is typical) and abrasion and crushing properties. An important requirement of
ballast is its ability to pack to provide a stable track foundation. Ballast must also
be free draining.
16.4.2 Sleepers
In Australia sleepers are cut from durable native hardwoods, in sizes of about 2.15
m x 115 mm x 230 mm for most uses, but increased to 150 mm depth for heavy
haul lines. If termites or decay are likely to be a problem, the sleepers must either
be cut from a resistant species, or treated with preservatives. The life of a sleeper
varies from about 10 to 25 years depending on timber type, location, climate, etc.
Prestressed concrete and steel sleepers are also being used where it is economical
to do so.
16.4.3 Rails
Rails are manufactured to an Australian Standard and are designated by their
weight per lineal metre. Lighter rails for branch lines may be as light as 21 kg/m,
but the typical rail section is 41 to 47 kg/m for urban rail and 53 to 60 kg/m for
heavy haul railways.
16.4.4 Fastenings
Fastenings include the means on joining rails together, and of attaching the rails to
the sleepers.
Individual rail lengths may be joined by using two rolled angle sections called
fish-plates. Fish-plates are usually about 760 mm long and have 6 holes through
which fishbolts are passed (3 through each rail end). In addition to joining the
rails, provision is made within the fishplated joint for thermal expansion and
contraction of the rail. A fishplated joint has about 40 to 50% of the strength of
the parent rail, and these joints are a major maintenance problem.

The fastening of rails to sleepers may be achieved in a variety of ways. The


simplest attachment is formed by driving a 16 mm square dogspike into a 16 mm
diameter hole. In the easiest method of rail attachment, four dogspikes are driven
into each sleeper (one each side of each rail). As axle loads and speed increases,
greater holding power than dogspikes will be required. For heavy traffic, and/or
for small radius curves, the rails will be laid on sleeper plates. These plates spread
the load from the rail and also allow composite action from all dogspikes in
resisting rail movement.
In recent years there has been a trend towards indirect elastic fastenings. These
devices provide sufficient force to clamp the rail and sleeper so that rail creep is
controlled, and they are sufficiently flexible to prevent the fastening being
loosened in the sleeper (which does occur with dogspikes).
For smooth riding the number of joints between rail sections should be
minimised. Modern practice is to weld up long lengths of rail prior to laying using
flash-butt welding. In the field these lengths may be joined to form continuous
rails by the Thermit welding process. Great care must be taken to ensure the
correct length of rail is used to form a continuous rail. A neutral rail temperature
must be established for the area and the rail laid at this temperature or with
allowance for the temperature variation. Rail heaters and coolers are often used
for rail laying operations to achieve neutral rail temperature.
16.5 Switches, Crossings and Crossovers
The provision of connections between tracks is an essential component of a rail system.
There are a large number of such connections which vary in detail and with the
configuration of the track. The most common connection is the turnout or lead which
provides the means to move a train from one track to another. It consists of a set of points
(or switches) and a special rail crossing fitting or frog.
A crossover is a connection between two parallel tracks and comprises two sets of points
with two crossings. A crossover will be either left or right handed (depending on whether
it is has two left hand or two right hand leads). When one track simply crosses over
another, a diamond crossing is required. If a turnout from one track to the other is also
provided, it is known as a slip.
Turnouts require a set of points and these are known as facing or trailing points
depending on their operation with respect to the direction of travel. Facing points may be
used to divert traffic into the lead when moving along the line in the direction of travel.
Trailing points become facing points when travelling in the opposite direction to the main
direction of travel. For single track railways, where travel occurs in both directions, a set
of point will be facing for one direction of travel and trailing for the opposite direction of
travel.

1.1.23

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16.6 Signalling
Various methods of signalling have been used in railway systems to achieve safe
operating conditions. The most common methods are:
Train Order
Orders are received by the train crew via a telephone or radio from a central train
control centre, which has the track divided up into sections of up to 160 km.
Safety of the system is totally dependent on the train controller as no signalling or
interlocking safety devices are used.

Staff and Ticket


This system requires the train crew to be in possession of a token (staff) before the
train proceeds onto a single line section between crossing stations. The staff is
carried by the last train over the section to then allow an opposing train to proceed
onto the section. Staff and ticket is used as the safeworking method where the
traffic density increases beyond the 12 trains per day that can reasonably be
handled by a train controller.

Electric Staff
Again the staff must be in the possession of the train crew before the train can
proceed onto the single lane section. The staves vary in shape of head and colour
and are housed at each crossing station in instruments which are electrically
connected by wiring and operated in such a manner that only one staff can be
withdrawn from either instrument applying over the section. Electric staff
working normally applies to single lines where there are 20 or more trains per
day.

Centralised Traffic Control


This method allows for operation of points and signals from a remote location and
total track detection and indication. Trains proceed according to a favourable
signal indication, operated from the centralised traffic control centre. The two
main benefits from CTC systems are the reduction of station staff and the
increased operational efficiency of trains.

Top
16.7 Alternative Forms of Railway
16.7.1 Light Rail Systems (Tramways)
Light rail systems use vehicles with steel wheels on steel rails and the rail system
is duo-rail. Both the vehicles and the rails are of lighter construction than those in
a traditional rail system. Often light rail systems will not have an exclusive right
of way and will operate on partially segregated or non-segregated routes. They are
passenger rather than freight oriented. In Australia, light rail systems would often
be referred to as tramways. Light rail systems are usually characterised by the
following:
overhead electricity supply system;
non-automated, manually driven vehicles;
articulated vehicles to reduce swept area and to improve curving
ability;
where the system is integrated with normal road transport, grooved
rails flush with the road surface;
cost-effective passenger transportation for 5,000 15,000 per hour
in the peak direction; and
passenger stations at 250 m to 1000 m spacing.

LINKS TO SITES ON LIGHT RAIL


Light Rails' Home Page gives details on many aspects of light rail.
16.7.2 Monorails
As the name implies monorail systems use a single guidance rail rather than the
traditional two rail system. Monorail systems take one of two forms:
o where the vehicle sits astride the single rail; and
o where the rail is elevated and the vehicles are suspended below the rail.
Several monorails have been built in different countries around the world but they
generally are of fairly limited length and capacity. The concept of using a
monorail for a large urban rail system has not been used at this time.
One aspect of monorails, particularly those where the vehicle is suspended below
the rail, is that they are likely to have a high visual intrusion. This has initiated
against their adoption in several cases.

LINKS TO SITES ON MONORAILS.


The Monorail Society has a Web site which gives details of monorail systems
around the world, and argues for monorails as a viable form of public transport.

Their Monorails of Australia page gives three examples (including photos) of


monorail systems within Australia.
16.7.3 Rack Railway
The rack railway is a specialised type of railway which enables gradients in
excess of those usually negotiated with steel wheels on steel rails. The system
uses a third cogged rail laid between the normal running rails, and pinions on the
train engage the cogged rail. This type of railway has been used in mountainous
regions, particularly in Switzerland.
16.7.4 Cable Lines
For gradients too steep for even a rack railway, a cable may be used. These cables
are set either between or beneath the tracks and are able to haul railed vehicles up
a very steep incline. In some instances two vehicles of similar weight are linked
by cable. When one vehicle is at the base of the line, the other is at the summit.
The vehicles balance each other as they ascend and descent respectively. If only a
single track is provided a passing loop is required at the centre point.
16.7.5 Pneumatic Tyred Trains
Pneumatic tyred trains use rubber tyred vehicles on two parallel strips of concrete
or other supporting system. The pneumatic tyred train has the advantage that it is
quiet (a distinct advantage in underground tunnel systems) and gives a smooth
ride. The major disadvantage is that by using a pneumatic tyre it develops a
rolling resistance comparable to that of a road vehicle. The three major systems
which use this technology are Paris, Montreal and Mexico City, and are basically
underground railways.

1.1.24

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16.8 Australian Railways
Australian railways form an extremely large industry of significant national importance.
As well a significant manufacturing industry is well established which supplies products
to the railway systems.
Railway operations in Australia are a combination of both Government and privately
funded systems. Both carry approximately the same amount of traffic but, since
government railways operate mainly multi-purpose, low density lines, the resources

within the government sector required to finance the transport task are comparatively
much greater.
The major private sector railways of Hamersley Iron and Mt. Newman Mining in northwest Australia are high density, single product lines, operating to the highest international
standards.
The main functions of both public and private rail operators in Australia are freight rather
than passenger oriented. About seventy-five percent of total earnings come from freight
operations, seventeen percent from passenger operations and the remainder from
miscellaneous activities.
The physical location of railways in Australia closely mirrors the development of the
continent with coastal centres operating as terminii for inland areas. An important feature
of the Australian system is the variety of gauges which is a remnant of the development
of colonies prior to Federation. There are three principal gauges in use in Australia
narrow (1067 mm), standard (1435 mm) and broad (1600 mm). Although it is now
unlikely that Australia will ever convert all its railways to standard gauge, there is a
continuing programme of upgrading main interstate routes to standard gauge where
traffic volumes are significant.
16.8.1 Freight Transport
o

Bulk Hauls
On many railway systems there are examples proving that rail can
transport materials in bulk in a manner which is efficient and cost
effective.

Non-bulk Freight
While the cost of transport is important, the high intrinsic worth of much
non-bulk freight means that a lot of emphasis is placed on the quality of
the transport service, particularly reliability. Australian rail systems have
for a long time suffered from institutional problems (work practices,
industrial relations problems, organisational structures, etc.) which have
made them not very efficient in this area.

Less-than-carload and Parcels Tasks


Most Australian railways offer reasonable less-than-carload and parcel
services of reasonable quality and at low rates. However this traffic is
often carried at considerably below its cost.

16.8.2 Passenger Transport


o

Rural Local Passenger Task


There are still some places where rail motors and mixed trains provide
rural train services as they have for generations. However these generally
run at considerable loss. Over the last few decades there have been many
services of this type which have been closed down, usually accompanied
by heated political debate.

Urban Passenger Task


This is a task that rail performs well although often at a financial loss. The
transport of large numbers of peak period commuters in metropolitan areas
is probably best handled by rail and can usually operate at a profit.
However the need to provide off-peak services when patronage can be
relatively small, and institutional problems, make the whole urban
passenger task one where it is difficult to achieve complete cost recovery
by fares.

Intercity Passenger Task


At present air travel dominates the public transport component of the nonurban passenger task. However there is significant potential for rail to play
an increased and improved role in this area. The criteria that probably have
to be set for success to occur are:

high quality rollingstock and associated services (e.g. bookings);


journey times between capital cities of around 8 hours;
commercial average speeds of 100 km/hr or more;
intensive utilisation of expensive rolling stock;
train sizes of more than 200 seats and occupancy rates greater than
75 percent; and
entertainment for travellers.

Top

LINKS TO SITES ON AUSTRALIAN RAILWAYS.


The RailPage Australia site contains some useful and interesting information on
Australian railways. As with many rail sites, quite a bit of the information seems to be of
an historical nature. However the Collected Pictures section, and the XPT link are up to
date and informative.

16.9 High Speed Railways


Over the past few decades there has been world wide interest and activity in the
development of high speed rail systems. Initial development occurred in Japan, but by the
end of the 1980's new high speed railways were operating in France, Germany, Italy and
Spain. Both the French and the Germans had achieved speeds in excess of 400 km/hr.
Further development of high speed lines is occurring in many European countries, and
proposals are also being considered in South Korea (Seoul-Pusan), Canada (QuebecWindsor), Taiwan (Taipeh-Kaohsiung), China (Beijing-Shanghai, Fuzhou-Xiamen), USA
and Australia.

LINKS TO SITES ON HIGH SPEED RAILWAYS.


The history of the development of a high speed train concept in Australia is covered in
the Parliamentary Background Paper 16 ' Australian Very Fast Trains - A Chronology ' by
Paula Williams.
The Federal Government instituted a Scoping Study in early 2001 for a very high speed
train system linking Melbourne, Sydney and Brisbane (and including Canberra).
However the Scoping Study was abandoned before completion, after the Government
decided the project was non-viable.

17. Air and Water Transport


17.1 Air Transport
It is less than 100 years since the flight of the first powered, heavier-than-air machine in
1903. However air transport now plays a vital part in the transport system of most
countries.
Today, air transport is the major public transport carrier of inter-capital city passengers,
and plays a major role in intra-state passenger transport.
Air transport has two distinctive characteristics:

it is the fastest mode of transport available over long distances (due to use of a
very fast moving vehicle and an almost direct line of travel); and
it is generally the most expensive mode of transport over any distance.

These two characteristics have led air transport to specialise in transporting passengers
and high value commodities.

17.2 Air Traffic Control


The task of air traffic control is basically to prevent aircraft from colliding by ensuring
orderly and safe take-off, flying and landing operations. To do this two things are
necessary:
the position of each aircraft must be known at all times; and
safe separation distance between aircraft must be established and maintained. The
problem of fixing the position of an aircraft may be complex.
The accuracy of defining the position depends on the nature and reliability of available
equipment; the aircrafts distance from the position fixing equipment; the weather; and
the time of the day. The error in fixing the position of an aircraft can often be large up
to the order of several kilometres. Therefore every aircraft flies in its own volume of
uncertainty, and it is the task of air traffic control to prevent the volume of uncertainty
of different aircraft overlapping.
Air traffic control usually divides airspace into one of three types:

terminal airspace, in the vicinity of airports, where movements are


controlled by ground located air traffic controllers;
airways, which are designated flight paths between terminal
airspaces or airports; and
uncontrolled airspace.

Aircraft flying outside terminal airspace operate on either visual flight rules (VFR) or
instrument flight rules (IFR). In visual flight rule mode it is the pilots responsibility to
make visual contact with other aircraft i.e. it works on the principle of see and be seen.
A flight begins with the pilot filing a flight plan which details departure time, flight route,
altitude, destination, etc. The flight plan must account for the anticipated weather
conditions along the route, and the load to be carried. When the flight is ready to
commence the air traffic controller advises the pilot by radio when taxiways and runway
may be used. Once the aircraft is airborne a climb-out path from the airport is indicated
by the air traffic controller. This climb-out path depends on factors such as the aircrafts
performance and load, wind speed, and restrictions on noise, etc. On reaching a
predetermined height the aircraft turns onto the first airway and climbs to cruising height.
Aircraft flying along airways in opposite directions are separated in altitude:
o
o

up to 8700m, by 300m; and


above 8700m, by 600m.

As the aircraft approaches its destination it again enters terminal airspace and is
controlled by ground based air traffic control. If congestion occurs in the use of runways
at the airport, incoming aircraft will be held in stacking areas, which are usually oval
shaped, about 8km long and 5 km wide. The aircraft will circle in these stacking areas,

separated vertically by about 300m, until directed to move down the stack or to land by
air traffic control.

LINKS TO SITES ON AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL.


The airtraffic control system in Australia is outlined in the Parliamentary Background
Paper ' Airspace Safety: Air Traffic Control and Airline Operations in Australia ' by
Matthew L. James.
Top
17.3 Airports
Airports are a key element of air transport. They encompass a variety of air and ground
activities. The efficiency of operation of airports is very important from economic and
safety viewpoints, particularly in large city airports where most aviation activities occur.
Today, air traffic congestion at major airports is one of the critical problems facing the
future of air transport.
17.3.1 Site Selection
The task of selecting an acceptable site for a new airport can be very difficult. Not
only must technical, economic and financial factors be considered, but the often
intangibles of social, political and environmental issues must be addressed. This is
particularly true in areas where population density is reasonably high and/or
where land use is intense.
The technical factors to be considered include:
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o

Safety Factors
Topography
Foundation Conditions
Usability
Noise
Extension Possibilities
Navigational Aids
Land Use Compatibility

17.3.2 Runway Configurations


Each runway is numbered, indicating its magnetic alignment. For example an
east-west runway would be designated 0927: 27 at the eastern end (270); and 9
at the western end (90).
The choice of runway configuration depends on a number of factors, including:

Traffic
Wind
Slope
Avoidance of Bird Hazards
Runway Length
Environmental Factors

17.3.3 Runway Length


The length of runway required depends on:
o the type of aircraft which will use the runway;
o the maximum weight of aircraft (as weight increases, so the length of
runway required increases);
o aircraft trip length (longer trips require more fuel, and hence heavier
weights);
o airport elevation (the higher the elevation above sea level the less the
atmospheric pressure, the less the lift and the longer the runway required);
o airport temperature (the higher the temperature, the thinner the air, the less
the lift and the longer the runway required);
o surface winds (headwinds decrease the take-off length, tailwinds increase
the take-off length);
o runway gradient; and
o runway surface (smooth asphalt means shorter take-off length than grass).
Average runways for major airports are about 2500 to 3500 m in length, when the
airport is at sea level.

LINKS TO SITES ON AIRPORTS.


The Airline and Airport Links.com site contains links to the home pages of a lot of
airports around the world. The Australian airports accessible from this site include
Brisbane, Melbourne, Sydney and Perth. There is also a link to the new Chek Lap Kok
airport in Hong Kong which opened on 6 July 1998. (However info from the Hong Kong
site appears to take a fair while to download).
Planning and development of a new airport can be a very lengthy task. This is well
illustrated by the attempts to select a site for Sydney's second airport. The history of the
proposal is detailed in a Parliamentary Background Paper ' Second Sydney Airport - A
Chronology ' by Paula Williams.
Top

17.4 Water Transport


Water transport is one of the oldest forms of transport. The colonisation and early
development of Australia were greatly influenced by water transport. In fact, shipping has
always been a vital lifeline for the island continent of Australia.
Goods moved by sea may be categorised into:

dry bulk cargo;


liquid bulk cargo; and
general cargo.

The size of a ship is expressed in tons. There are different methods of assessing tonnage;
the common methods being:
Displacement tonnage the weight of water the ship displaces in accordance with
Archimedes Principle. This equals the total weight of the ship plus all that it
contains.
Deadweight tonnage a measure of the load that the ship is designed to carry, i.e.
cargo, passengers, stores, etc. This is the difference between the displacement
tonnage when the ship is fully loaded and unloaded.
Gross Registered tonnage (GRT) a measure of the total cubic capacity of all
enclosed space. In this case the ton is taken as 100 cubic feet.
Net Registered tonnage (NRT) the gross registered tonnage less space required
to run the ship e.g. machinery space, crews quarters, etc.
For efficient ship operation the time spent both at sea and in port must be kept to a
minimum. Speed of operation depends on the technical design of the vessel. Speed of
port operation requires high level of mechanisation. This may be difficult to achieve for
general cargo as there is a need for different equipment for different goods.
The development of specialist ships such as bulk cargo ships, and the introduction of
containerisation has helped to achieve greater port efficiency for loading and unloading
ships.
17.5 Ship Types
Road, rail and air vehicles feature a high degree of standardisation and are usually
produced using a mass-production system. Ships, on the other hand, are not massproduced and usually feature a high degree of individuality. Even sister ships are
unlikely to be exactly the same.
However ships do fall into a relatively small number of distinct groups, usually related to
the task which they are designed to perform. Some of the common types of commercial
ships are:

General Cargo Ships. Generally these are of modest size, mostly under 15,000
GRT. They fill the gaps left by more specialised vessels, but are still the most
common type of vessel for goods transport. One advantage of general cargo ships
is that they can be switched between different types of haulage, and therefore may
have a greater usability than more specialised vessels.
Container Ships. These vary greatly in size, depending largely what route they are
operating. Ships operating on larger international routes would often have a
capacity of 2000 containers, of which about 300 would be carried as deck cargo.
Smaller ships used on shorter routes may have a capacity of only 300 containers.
The ships may be provided with gantry cranes if they are likely to use ports
inadequately equipped with heavy lifting gear. Because of their high volume, high
speed and relatively high port turnaround, container ships can carry many times
the cargo of a general cargo ship in a year.
Large Crude Carriers. The largest of these vessels are known as Very Large Crude
Carriers (VLCC) and Ultra Large Crude Carriers (ULCC). These ships range in
size from 250,000 to 400,000 tons and are designed to operate from oil-producing
countries to a limited number of ports in consuming countries. Design is based on
ensuring stability of the large volume of liquid cargo. To prevent excessive
surging of the liquid when the ship rolls and pitches, a series of separate
compartments is used to hold the liquid. A feature of tanker operation is their
relatively quick turnaround and they consequently can spend a large proportion of
their time at sea.
Dry Bulk Carriers. In concept these are similar to large crude carriers, although
they are usually less than 200,000 dwt (deadweight tons).
Ro-ro Ships. Roll-on, roll-off ships are designed to minimise the time of loading
and unloading of general cargo by allowing it to be driven on and off the vessel.
Loading is generally through a stern door with ramps to different levels. Some
ships will also incorporate an opening bow which permits a movement of vehicles
through the vessel. Ships of this type may need specialist port facilities, although
the need for complex lifting equipment is dispensed with.

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17.6 Liner Trades and Shipping Conferences
A liner service is one which offers regular scheduled services on fixed routes. They can
generally handle a range of cargo, and may use general cargo or container vessels.
Where several liner companies operate over the same route, it is common for them to
form an association known as a conference . Basically, a conference is simply a meeting
of all the liners serving any particular route, for the purpose of achieving a regular pattern
of sailings to give the maximum service to shippers and to reach common agreement on
rates.

Conferences range from informal agreements to well developed organisations with


permanent secretariats. Shippers rely on liner services for their transport needs, just as the
shipping lines depend on the shippers for their trade. This mutual support is necessary if
liner operators are to make large investments in new ships. To make such investments
liner operators desire protection against competitors who might undercut prices for a
relatively short time and then disappear from the business. Hence the voluntary system of
liner conferences has evolved.
Conferences may be 'open' where entry is not restricted but where new members must
adhere to freight rates, or 'closed ' where entry is limited by the conference itself. Because
of the monopolistic nature of conferences, Australian shipping conferences require
exemption by the Federal Government from the restrictive trade provisions of the Trade
Practices Act.
17.7 Ports and Harbours
A harbour is a partially enclosed area of water which serves as a safe refuge for ships.
They are used as areas of accommodation for protection during storms, and for
replenishing supplies, loading and unloading cargo, and repairs.
The term port refers to a portion of a harbour which acts as the base for commercial
activities.
Harbours may be classified into the following broad categories:

natural harbours, where protection is offered by natural topographical features;


seminatural harbours, where protection is given on the sides by land but which
require artificial protection to be constructed at the entrance; and
artificial harbours, where construction of breakwaters and jetties is required to
provide suitable protection against wave action.

To fulfil its function a harbour must satisfy three basic requirements:


sufficient depth for the size of vessels to be accommodated;
protection against destructive wave action; and
the bottom should furnish a secure anchorage.
The selection of a harbour site should aim to find a suitable location that will offer
shelter, convenience and ease of operation. Convenience includes the potential to
establish shore based port facilities.
Investigation for harbour sites must collect information on the following aspects:
o
o
o
o

wave exposure height, direction and frequency of occurrence;


natural protective features;
water depth;
sediment movement;

o
o
o

tide range;
land base area available; and
expansion potential.

LINK TO THE PICTURE GALLERY


The Picture Gallery contains photographs relating to Port Facilities .

LINKS TO SITES ON PORTS


The Sydney Ports Australia Web site contains a lot of information about the port facilities
available in Sydney. In particular, details of all docking and storage facilities are given in
the Sydney Harbour Directory and the Botany Bay Directory within the "Port Facilities"
link.

18. Transport Economics


18.1 The Scope of Transport Economics
People all over the world must use the earths natural resources to satisfy the necessities
of life food, clothing and shelter. In addition, people will often seek items beyond the
necessities in order to make life more pleasant, comfortable or rewarding. The natural
resources of the earth are not uniformly distributed and therefore transport is required to
bring the resources to people, or to bring people to the resources. As well, people will
transport in order to bring services to others or to seek services e.g. medical services.
Economics is primarily concerned with the production, distribution and consumption of
goods and services which are of value to people.
Economists conveniently divide the broad area of economics into two main streams:

Macroeconomics is the study on the national or international scale, of the wealth


of society. It deals with the behaviour of economic aggregates such as gross
national product and the level of employment; and
Microeconomics concerns itself with the study of economic laws on a small scale.
It deals with the economic behaviour of individual units such as consumers and
firms.

Transport engineers generally work in the microeconomic area because they are involved
in the detailed planning, construction and maintenance of specific transport projects.
These projects all lead to small savings in economic resources which generate
microeconomic benefits and an increase in the welfare of the community. However it
should be noted that the sum total of the microeconomic effects of individual transport
projects will impact on macroeconomic factors such as infrastructure spending and
employment.

18.2 Transport Demand


The demand for goods and services depends largely upon consumer income and the price
of the particular good or service relative to other prices. For example the market for
expensive luxury cars is fairly restricted as only a small number of people in society have
an income large enough to consider the purchase of such an item, particularly when lower
priced cars will still fulfil the requirement of getting the motorist from one point to
another.
In a more general way, the demand for travel will depend on the income of the traveller.
The choice of travel mode depends on several factors such as the purpose of the trip, the
distance to be travelled and the income of the traveller.
A demand function for a particular product represents the willingness of consumers to
purchase the product at alternative prices. A demand function shows, for example, a
number of passengers willing to use a bus service at difference price levels between a pair
of origins and destinations, for a specific trip, during a given period.
The term price represents all the perceived outlays that the traveller will have to make for
a given trip. This would include the cost of the fare, but would also include the cost of
travel time, comfort, safety, reliability. The fare of course is a tangible cost but several of
these other factors are intangibles. Most of the components of the perceived price for
travel are measured and expressed in monetary units. This synthetic price is sometimes
called a generalised price.
18.3 Sensitivity of Travel Demand
A knowledge of the functional form of travel demand can be used to forecast changes in
the volume of travel caused by specific changes in price in the short run.
A useful description for explaining the degree of sensitivity to a change in price (or some
other factor) is the elasticity of demand. The elasticity of demand is the percentage
change in quantity of trips demanded which accompanies a 1% change in price.
If for example a 1% increase in the price of bus trips results in a 5% decrease in the
number of trips, the elasticity of demand for trips is 5.0.
When the elasticity is greater than 1 the demand is described as being elastic, meaning
that the resulting percentage change in quantity of trip making will be larger than the
percentage change in price. In this case demand is relatively sensitive to price change.
However, when the elasticity is between 0 and 1, the demand is described as being
inelastic or relatively insensitive.

18.4 Consumer Surplus


Consumer surplus is a measure of the monetary value made available to consumers by the
existence of a facility. It is defined as the difference between what consumers might be
willing to pay for a service and what they actually pay. For example a commuter may pay
$3 per trip, but may be willing to pay up to $4 per trip. In this case the consumer surplus
would be $1.
In general, a transport improvement can be measured in terms of the change in
consumers surplus.
18.5 Costs
It is essential to have a knowledge of costs, or the value of a product or service.
Fixed costs are inescapable costs which do not vary with the quantity of production. For
example if we are operating a fast food restaurant we will have fixed costs of rent, hire or
lease of equipment, etc. which will have to be met whether we sell one hamburger or
10000 hamburgers. However the fixed cost per unit of production will decrease with the
more units produced.
Variable costs, on the other hand, increase with output or production. For example we
use 1000 times more meat in 1000 hamburgers than we use in one. However if it costs us
$0.50 in labour and heating to cook one hamburger, it may only cost $0.47 per hamburger
for the production of two, or $0.42 per hamburger for one hundred.
The total cost of production is the sum of the fixed and variable costs and will increase
with production. For any particular level of production, the average cost per single unit
can be found by dividing the total cost for that level of production by the number of units
produced.
The marginal cost of a product is defined as the additional cost associated with the
production of an additional unit of output. This is an important concept.
18.6 Pricing of Transport Services
Pricing is a method of resource allocation.
There is no such thing as the right price but rather there are optimal pricing strategies
which permit specified goals to be obtained. The optimal price, for example, to achieve
profit maximisation (say for a private bus operator) may differ from that needed to
maximise welfare (e.g. for a government operated bus service) or to ensure the highest
sales revenue. In some cases there is no attempt to set a price which maximises or

minimises anything, but rather prices are set that permit some other objectives to be
achieved (e.g. security, minimum market share, etc.).
Further, prices may be set to achieve certain objectives for the transport suppliers
welfare, while in other fields prices may be set to improve the welfare of consumers.
One of the major problems in discussing pricing policies in practice is to decide what
exactly the objective is. Profit maximisation is the traditional motivation of private
enterprise undertakings. The actual price level in this case depends upon the degree of
competition in the market. Where competition is high, then no single supplier has any
control over price and must charge that determined by the interaction of supply and
demand in the market as a whole. Within such a competitive environment it is impossible
for a supplier to make super-normal profits in the long run because if super-normal
profits exist, other competitors will enter the market and increase overall supply.
In contrast, if a transport supplier has a monopoly on the supply of services, and has no
fear of new entrants increasing supply, then prices can be set at any level the supplier
desires, or the supplier can specify what level of service is to be provided.
However there are few natural monopolies in transport. Modes are normally competitive
even if they have a tendency towards a monopoly. Also users of transport services often
have the alternative of either changing their method of production (in the case of freight
transport) or pattern of consumption (in the case of passenger transport), so that transport
is itself competitive with different forms of human activity.
Welfare economics takes a wider view of pricing, looking upon price as a method of
resource allocation which maximises the welfare of the society rather than simply the
welfare of the supplier. In some cases, when the good or service is provided by a public
agency, the suppliers welfare and social welfare will be the same thing. In other
instances controls or incentives may be applied to private companies so that their pricing
policy is modified to maximise social rather than private welfare.
18.7 An Example of Pricing in Practice - Charging for Roads
One of the most important forms of transport infrastructure in Australia, as in most
countries, is the road system. The pricing problems that have been alluded to in the
previous section can be illustrated by examining some of the main issues involved in
charging for road space.
In Australia no direct charge is usually made for using a public road, although motorists
are required to pay tolls on a small number of expressways, motorways and bridges. Road
space is thus provided free in most circumstances. However road users can be said to
contribute towards the cost of roads via fuel levies and other motoring charges such as
licence and registration fees.

Consider some figures for 1994/95. Governments in Australia (predominantly the Federal
Government) raised $9494 million in taxes on fuel. Another $4183 million was raised
through taxes based on vehicle ownership of vehicles (as distinct from the amount of
their use). A total of $15 588 million was raised as revenue from road users.
The total expenditure on roads was $5707 million, and the difference (approx. $9900
million went into consolidated revenue (i.e. was spent on other Government spending
initiatives not roads). It is this differential between revenue collected and funds spent
which gives rise to a lot of argument from the motoring public, motoring organisations,
state and local highway authorities, and other groups.
The other method of charging for road use is via direct user charges whereby the actual
time or distance of vehicle travel is monitored and charged. Traditional toll collection
consists of payment at a point or barrier for entry onto a facility (e.g. road, bridge or
tunnel). Developments in direct charging include the use of electronic systems using
fixed beacons and on-vehicle transponders. Many road authorities are now considering
charging not only for special purpose facilities (e.g. toll roads and harbour tunnels) but
also for use of the normal road system, particularly in areas subject to traffic congestion.
The concept is that with a limited supply of physical resources, the only realistic option is
some form of traffic restraint and stricter management of actual traffic demand. This is
best achieved through using effective pricing mechanisms in order to attain better
utilisation of the existing road space.
Another issue associated with road funding has received a significant amount of attention
in recent years. This is the issue of the contribution made by different categories of road
users, and in particular whether heavy vehicles pay their fair share for road use. From
engineering considerations there is no doubt that heavy vehicles result in increased road
costs through their damaging effects. It has been argued that there is a case for increased
taxation of road vehicles and that such taxation should be directly related to the damage
being caused to the road.
Although it may be possible to reach consensus that a relationship should exist between
the taxing of commercial vehicles and the extent of costs which have to be borne by
public authorities in maintaining roads, the problem of deciding on the basis of allocating
those costs between different types of vehicles and scales of operation remains extremely
difficult. The importance of devising an equitable basis of allocation increases as the
move to allow heavier goods vehicles gains political momentum.
However, it may also be considered that no vehicles cause road expenditure. Rather,
they have an effect on design standards and maintenance which is a response to their
effect. Therefore to burden heavy transport operators with charges above those of other
road users is unfair, as road authorities have as their charter to provide safe and trafficable
roads for all road users.

Both the overall funding and heavy vehicle issues tend to be argued largely from the
point of view of cost recovery, i.e. the road user generally, or truck operator in particular,
paying for the use of government provided roads.

19. Environmental and Energy Issues


19.1 Environmental Impact of Transport
While transport plays a vital role in the economic, social and private functioning of
communities it also has some negative consequences. Adverse impacts on the
environment and the quality of human life from the provision of transport include the
damage to health from noise and air pollution, the run-off from roads, the emission of
greenhouse gases, ecological damage and visual intrusion.
In addition to direct impacts on the environment there can also be upstream and
downstream effects. An example of an upstream effect is the emissions from coal-fired
power stations producing the electricity to run trains. A downstream effect might be the
damage to bushland and waterways from dumping old cars, oil and tyres. In other words,
some of the environmental degradation caused by transport takes place outside the area of
the transport system.
19.2 Noise
The perception of sound by a human is a remarkable process. The individual evaluates
sound by at least four distinct criteria. These are loudness, frequency, duration and
subjectivity.
Loudness
The loudness or intensity of sound is directly related to the amplitude of the pressure
fluctuations transmitted through the air. The pressure fluctuations cause the ear drum to
be flexed and thereby create the sensation of sound. The ear can sense pressure
fluctuations as low as 50 micro Pa (the threshold of hearing) and up to about 5 Pa which
is considered the threshold of pain.
This large range of pressure fluctuation is clumsy to use in reporting. In addition, as a
protective mechanism, the auditory response is not linearly related to pressure
fluctuation. To overcome these difficulties another unit is used to describe loudness the
decibel (dB). In outdoor situations a change of 3 dB is required to be noticeable. A
change of 10 dB is generally perceived to be a doubling of the sound level.
Frequency
The human ear can hear a large range of frequencies, or changes in the rate of pressure
fluctuations in the air. The pressure changes per second, or oscillation per second, have
the unit of hertz (Hz). The ear can detect a range of frequencies from about 20 Hz to
20,000 Hz. However, not all frequencies are heard equally well with low frequencies

(less than 500 Hz) and high frequencies (greater than 10,000 Hz) being more difficult to
hear.
Duration
A gunshot may be loud but it only lasts a fraction of a second. Road traffic noise may not
be as intense but it is continual. Therefore measures have been developed to describe how
sound varies with time.
Subjectivity
Individuals have different responses to various sounds. What one person perceives as
music another person may regard as a noise. Unwanted sound is commonly referred to as
noise. Transport noise is a common problem in urban areas. Noise annoyance is a
subjective thing and criteria for noise control are usually based on attitudinal surveys.
Single loud noises may result in hearing loss and these noises may need to be controlled
from a community viewpoint. However transport noise is usually of a longer duration and
not as loud. Short term effects are likely to be annoyance or irritation. Transport noise can
lead to problems in emotional well being and cause increased tension by interfering with
sleep patterns or causing disruption to the routines of daily life. Long term exposure may
result in reduced hearing ability.
19.2.1 Assessing Transport Noise Impacts
Transport noise prediction is undertaken using mathematical modelling
procedures. The basis of the models is the use of reference noise emission levels
from a range of standard vehicles. Noise reduction occurs with increased distance
from a source and is referred to as geometric spreading. The source may be
characterised as a point source (e.g. an individual road vehicle or aircraft) or a line
source (e.g. a road with a stream of traffic).The amount of attenuation which
occurs with distance from the source depends on the type of source used and the
geometrics of the noise travel path.
19.2.2 Mitigation of Transport Noise
The problems associated with noise from transport need to be appreciated in the
planning and design phase of new facilities. For existing facilities and operations
the undesirable effects of transport noise may be minimised by introducing
reduction measures at the noise source, in the propagation path of the noise,
and/or at the receiver.
Noise is generated by the engine and exhaust systems of vehicles, by aerodynamic
friction, and by the interaction between the vehicle and its support system (e.g.
tyre-pavement interaction for road vehicles and wheel-rail interaction for railway
vehicles). Insulation in the engine compartment is used to reduce engine noise,
mufflers are used for exhaust noise and pavement type selection may reduce
tyre/pavement noise production for road traffic.

The path may also be altered to reduce noise. Increased distance between the
source and the receiver results in reduced sound levels due to geometric
spreading. It therefore follows that increased path distance results in traffic noise
abatement. This abatement measure may be a possibility if sufficient right-of-way
widths are available. However the establishment of a green-belt between source
and receiver may be a very costly exercise in an urban area.
A more common strategy for noise abatement in urban areas is the use of noise
barriers. The barrier is designed so as to reflect and diffract the sound. The
difference in noise levels with and without the wall is referred to as insertion loss.
Although vegetation is sometimes used as a noise barrier, it is generally found
that a more solid, fabricated structure is most effective in noise amelioration.
In some cases it is not practical to mitigate noise in the path e.g. near airports. In
these cases it may be possible to improve the situation by insulating the buildings.
Measures which can be used include increased insulation of walls and roof,
double-glazed windows, acoustic vents and storm doors. These measure are
frequently used near large airports, and to protect buildings such as schools near
busy roads.
Top
19.3 Air Quality
Although the release of pollutants into the atmosphere does occur naturally in our world,
there are many pollutants which are the direct result of human activity. Particularly in
cities, the release of man-produced pollutants is dominant.
The combustion of fossil fuels for transport use results in the release of several
contaminants including carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, hydrocarbons, oxides of
nitrogen, and lead and other particulate matter. Hydrocarbons are the result of the
incomplete combustion of the fuel. Particulates are minute particles that are suspended in
the atmosphere and include aerosols, smoke and dust particles.
Once emitted into the atmosphere, air pollutants undergo mixing or diffusion, the degree
of which depends on topographic, climatic and meteorological conditions. Other
pollutants not directly emitted from the source may form in the atmosphere using the
directly emitted pollutants as feed material. These include nitrates, sulphates and
photochemical oxidants (ozone). Photochemical smog is the result of complex chemical
reactions of the oxides of nitrogen and hydrocarbons in the presence of sunlight.
Air pollution can be associated with respiratory damage in humans (bronchitis,
emphysema, pneumonia and lung cancer) as well as eye, nose and throat irritations.
Societal effects include damage to structures and materials, damage to crops and animals,
and atmospheric haze. Global effects from acid rain, global warming and ozone depletion
are also of concern.

Fossil fuel combustion, particularly by motor vehicles has been identified as the largest
single contributor to atmospheric pollution, particularly in urban areas. Judgement about
this must be tempered by the fact that motor vehicles are responsible for most of the
urban passenger task and virtually all the urban freight task.
The importance of transport pollution must also be considered in the context of air
pollution as a whole. For instance, although cars have higher rates of carbon dioxide
emissions per passenger kilometre than buses and rail, motor vehicles contribute less than
25% of total carbon dioxide emissions. The bulk of carbon dioxide emissions come from
coal-fired power stations which are usually located well clear of major urban areas. They
do however provide the motive power for urban rail services.
The rate of emission and the concentration of particular pollutants is also affected by the
speed of road vehicles. Emissions increase markedly when vehicles accelerate and are
low when they are idling. The impact of congestion on pollution levels is a complex
question but it is widely accepted that traffic congestion increases local air pollution.
19.3.1 Assessment of Air Pollution
The assessment of air-pollution effects of transport may be undertaken at three
levels:
o microscale analysis in the immediate vicinity of a transport facility, such
as a road;
o mesoscale analysis in areas that are somewhat removed from the source,
and which may include the contribution of other mobile and stationary
sources of pollution; and
o macroscale analysis extending from the regional to the global levels.
Common units of measurement for air pollutants include parts per million (ppm)
and micrograms per cubic metre.
Pollution levels at a location vary considerably depending upon the type of
vehicle operation, the time of day and the atmospheric conditions. In some cities
the peak condition for carbon monoxide concentration follows very closely the
chronological sequence of peak-hour vehicle operations, but in other cities this
relationship does not occur. Vehicle age is a factor in the level of pollution,
primarily because of innovations in anti- pollution equipment.
19.3.2 Control of Transport Produced Air Pollution
The most effective abatement for air pollution occurs at the source. In most
countries emission standards and test procedures have changed substantially since
the first emission standards were introduced (often in the mid 1960s). In Australia
all states have Clean Air Acts which usually include controls over emissions of
exhaust fumes from motor vehicles. The design and production of new vehicles is

controlled by Australian Design Rules, and these include standards for carbon
monoxide and hydrocarbon emissions for new vehicles.
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19.4 Water Quality
Transport systems may affect water quality or can interfere with the natural flow of a
waterway. For example, road, airport or railway runoff can add pollutants to watercourses
and bodies of water. These transport systems may also concentrate runoff water so as to
cause scour or flooding. Transport construction activities may also result in soil erosion
or alteration to the natural flow of water.
19.5 Ecological Impacts
Transport projects can have major impacts on ecological systems. Physical removal of
vegetation, compaction of soils, paving of surfaces, drainage works, and construction
vehicle operation can all destroy natural fauna and flora habitats during the construction
of transport facilities. Mowing, application of herbicides, accidental spills, vehicle
operations and human activity can interrupt normal ecosystems during the operation of
transport systems. Accordingly, these impacts should be considered during transport
planning.
In addition to these considerations, other ecological considerations are required. Coastal
zone management must be considered if the project is located near a coastline. The
effects on agricultural production must be considered if the project goes through or is
adjacent to arable land. If the project is in a floodplain special considerations will be
required. It becomes apparent that ecological impacts are very important and that many
players will need to be involved during the planning stage.
19.6 Social Impacts
Sociological impacts of transport proposals, such as impacts on historical properties,
cultural artefacts and other heritage issues must be considered. In addition,
socioeconomic impacts such as disruption of community cohesion, prevention of access
to community facilities and general social and economic disruption, should be taken into
account.
19.7 Aesthetics
The quality of a transport project is often judged by the public on its visual impact. A new
airport terminal for example is likely to be judged as much by its appearance as by its
functionality. Clearly many purchasers of new cars are as interested in what the vehicle
looks like as to how it performs. It is therefore important to evaluate the aesthetics of
transport facilities, from the viewpoints of both the traveller and the non-traveller. For
instance, a new road should be considered aesthetically from the viewpoints of the driver,

the passenger, and the pedestrian (all users of the facility) as well as the person whose
abode overlooks the new facility (a non-user).
19.8 Environmental Impact Assessment
The Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) concept is used by the Federal and State
Governments in Australia. The object of EIA is to provide for environmental matters to
be taken into account in the making of decisions. It also aims, in the interest of sound
environmental management to ensure that the potential environmental effects of activities
are considered in the early stages of development planning and prior to a decision being
taken to proceed with each stage of the project.
The requirements for environmental documentation vary depending upon the different
legislative and procedural arrangements adopted by differing governments. Most
however have the following common features:

Provision of initial information to environment authorities this is a brief


summary of the nature of the proposal, the existing environment, the principal
environmental impacts, and proposals for preventing or ameliorating these effects.
EIA document (known variously as Environmental Impact Statement or
Environmental Impact Study (EIS); Environmental Effects Statement (EES); or
Environmental Review and Management Program (ERMP)) usually a
substantial document supported by technical appendices and addressing in detail
matters such as the need for the development, possible alternatives to the project,
the existing environment, the environmental impacts of the proposal, proposals
for environmental safeguards, etc.

Under all EIA procedures in Australia, the responsibility for preparation of the
documentation rests with the person proposing development.
It is now usual for the public to be involved in the basic decision-making process.
Involvement of the public from an early stage is desirable in order to minimise major
conflict after a project is committed or has reached a stage where modification is difficult.
The essential aspect is that public comment should be initiated before a commitment is
made to the project so that it is publicly evident that comments have the potential to
influence the course of the project.
The evaluation of EIA documents is carried out by the appropriate authorities both as an
aid to government decision making and to enable the identification of any environmental
conditions which need to form part of the approval.
Top

19.9 Energy Use in Transport


In the early days of transportation, the transport energy process was a fairly simple one.
The sun provided energy which enabled plants to grow. These plants were then consumed
by man and animals to produce muscle energy, which provided the power for transport.
Subsequently it was found that some of the energy from the sun that had been absorbed
by growing plants was retained when the plants died. The dead vegetation was
transformed over a long period of time into fossil fuels such as coal and oil.
Developments in the Industrial Revolution showed that these fuels could be utilised to
provide motive power via steam and internal combustion engines.
Throughout the twentieth century the majority of the worlds population has become
dependent on the use of fossil fuels to keep industry and communication going. Transport
in particular has come to rely almost exclusively on liquid fuels derived from crude oil.
This is because these liquid fuels are convenient and economical to use, and because their
energy content (in terms of energy per unit mass of fuel) is much higher than alternative
fuels.
However, the fuels on which we currently place so much reliance are nonrenewable and
are being rapidly depleted. There is therefore a need for society to conserve energy, to
develop alternative energy technologies, to increase the efficiencies of various
components of societys infrastructure (particularly transport), and to improve its
understanding of energy issues.
19.9.1 Energy Issues in Transport
Spatial Form and Structure
Spatial structure refers to the order and relationship among physical elements and
land uses. This structure evolves over time from the interaction among
individuals, households, firms and institutions. Land use planning generally uses a
prescriptive approach in deciding what future spatial structure should be
developed. This prescription is based on a land-use arrangement that is most
efficient and least costly to government and its citizens, considering elements
such as health, safety, convenience, environmental quality, social equity and
social choice. In recent times, studies relating to energy-efficient patterns of land
development have assumed importance.
Energy efficiency is a special case of cost efficiency. The transport sector is a
heavy consumer of fuel, and it can be concluded that land-use alternatives which
minimise travel are usually fairly energy efficient solutions in the use of land.
Another consideration is the development intensity which is used for land. For
example a city that suffers from urban sprawl and ribbon development will have
more kilometres of streets and services (water pipes, sewer pipes, electricity
cables, etc.) than would a more compact city. In this case initial development

costs will be higher, but so will the cost of ongoing maintenance and replacement.
In reality, the crucial issue is the costs the citizens are willing to pay in order to
satisfy their wants. This willingness to pay is a function of a societys values,
attitudes, and preferences.
Energy Demand
Energy use may be thought of as occurring in four basic sectors: transport,
residential, commercial and industrial. Transport accounts for a significant
proportion of total energy use in most industrialised countries. Public policy in
Australia has been to provide relatively cheap energy and social, community and
industrial development has progressed on this premise from the end of World War
II (1945) until recent times. This has been one factor that has contributed to urban
expansion in Australia. Other factors include rapid increase in real per capita
income, rapid diffusion of the car, development of the major road system in
preference to the development of public transport, and land-use planning policies
which have encouraged low-density residential development. However changes in
factors such as the decline of household size, new environmental controls and
energy policy are now occurring which could change this pattern in the future.
Transport uses about 30% of the energy used in Australia. About one third of that
(10% of the total) fuels urban car travel. If the urban car usage could be halved
some increase in public transport energy usage would occur, but an overall
reduction of about 3% of national energy use may be possible. This is just one
way in which our national energy use could perhaps be reduced. The challenge is
for society to be willing to tackle the hard decisions involved in reforming our
energy usage.
19.9.2 Energy Conservation
There are at least three basic strategies for meeting future energy requirements:
develop new sources of energy;
reduce energy waste; and
adjust to lifestyles that use less energy.
Although a combination of all three strategies is needed, the one that holds the
most immediate promise is to reduce energy waste. Energy conservation, or the
more efficient use of energy, aims to reduce consumption levels while still
enjoying current living standards.
A major area for potential saving is the transport sector. A great deal of
investigation and research has been carried out in recent times to consider ways in
which transport energy usage may be reduced. The solutions proposed are quite
varied, and the following presents just a few of the ideas which have been
investigated or are being implemented:
o

Vehicle technology improvements:

reduced car size


design improvements
reduced drag
reduced weight
improved transmissions
Ride sharing
Traffic flow improvements:
traffic signal improvements
intersection improvements
ramp metering
freeway surveillance and control
Goods movement improvements:
improved routing procedures
truck size and weight changes
Public transport improvements:
park and ride facilities
improved service
preferential road lanes
fare rationalisations
Improved vehicle control
radial tyres
travel planning trip linking
intelligent vehicle systems

o
o

LINKS TO SITES ON ENVIRONMENT AND ENERGY ISSUES IN


TRANSPORT.
The National Transport Library in the USA has a link page Energy and Environment
which contains links to a number of documents dealing with these issues.

19.10 Sustainable Development of Transport


The Brundtland Report (World Commission on Environment and Development 1987) has
defined sustainable development as: development that meets the needs of the present
without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.
Environmental Principles for Engineers (Institution of Engineers, Australia 1992)
expands on this description to make it more applicable to the broad scope of engineering
works. Important issues with respect to transport planning are:

conservation of non-renewable resources and the development of renewable


alternatives;
reduced emission of greenhouse gases to reduce global warming; and
promotion of energy conservation and low energy use transport modes.

The World Bank (Sustainable Transport: Priorities for Policy Reform 1996, The World
Bank, Washington, D.C.) has indicated that to be effective, transport policy must satisfy
three main requirements. First, it must ensure that a continuing capability exists to
support an improved material standard of living. This corresponds to the concept of
economic and financial sustainability. Second, it must generate the greatest possible
improvement in the quality of life, not merely an increase in traded goods. This relates to
the concept of environmental and ecological sustainability. Third, the benefits that
transport produces must be shared equitably by all sections of the community, and this is
termed social sustainability.
Economic, environmental and social sustainability are often mutually reinforcing. Road
or public transport systems that fall into disrepair because they are economically
unsustainable fail to serve the needs of the poor and often have environmentally
damaging consequences. Hence, the three types of sustainability are closely linked and a
policy on sustainable transport must therefore consider all three aspects in order to be
comprehensive and effective.

LINKS TO SITES ON SUSTAINABLE TRANSPORT.


The Australian Greenhouse Office has a Web page on Sustainable Transport . The site is
interesting but there is not a lot of detail.
A fairly detailed paper on the challenge of sustainable transport in cities is presented by
Ainsley Jolley, from the Centre for Strategic Economic Studies at the Victoria University
of Technology. The paper is Sustainable Transport for Tomorrow's Megacities , and was
delivered in 1999.

20. Transport Futures


20.1 The World of the Future
Looking into the future is never easy, and subsequent events usually show that even the
most intelligent forecasts are not entirely accurate. However it is important to realise that
our society as it exists at the present time will change, and that as transport planners we
must respond to change. Not only must we respond to change, we will probably also be
thrust into a role where our decisions will cause change to occur. Therefore, it is useful to
look in a broad perspective at what changes are occurring in our society, what changes
may take place in the future, and the impacts that these changes will have on our
transport system.
The term transport futures, for some people, will conjure up visions of spaceships and
high speed trains, rocket belts and flying cars, i.e. advanced transport technology.
However while advanced technology will certainly be a part of transports future, there
are other factors which will greatly influence the transport of tomorrow. For example, the
interaction between transport and land use plays a major role in determining the demand

for travel and the viability of modes of travel.

LINKS TO SITES ON THE FUTURE OF TRANSPORT.


A paper presented on 9 June 2000 by Robert E. Skinner, Executive Director,
Transportation Research Board in the USA appeared in the September/October 2000
issue of the TRB magazine Public Roads. The paper is titled Transportation in the 21st
Century and provides a good background of the issues involved in the future of transport.
20.2 Factors Influencing Change in Transport
Several factors can be identified which are likely to have an influence on the operation of
transport systems. These factors include:
Transport/Telecommunications Substitution
Predictions have been made that developments in telecommunications technology
will have a radical effect on the need for travel. Changes in work techniques,
shopping methods and educational teaching processes could be widespread with
telecommunication advances. For example shopping may be able to be carried out
from the convenience of home, without the need for personal travel and the type
of trip involved will change to a goods delivery trip.However several transport
planners who have researched this area consider a 10 to 20% replacement of
existing trips by telecommunications is the maximum that is likely to occur. At
this time it seems that telecommunications technology will have a more profound
effect on social behaviour than on transport.
Demographic Changes
Demographic trends indicate that in Australia and many other developed countries
an older population profile is developing. This is due to an increase in longevity
and a decline in birth rate. Currently the transport needs of the elderly are not well
catered for but an increase in their number can be expected to increase research
interest. In many countries a long term trend has developed of increasing
urbanisation of the population. However this trend may be declining. An
important demographic variable is household size, which has also been showing a
downward trend. Household size determines the need for housing and affects
urban form and transport requirements.
Recreational Travel
Rising incomes and shorter working hours have contributed to an increase in the
demand for recreational travel over past decades. This trend is likely to continue,
although long term forecasting of the quantity of recreational travel, or
destinations, is likely to be prone to large errors.
Land Use
There are many ways in which changes in land use are likely to influence future
travel patterns, although the changes are likely to be gradual. Long term land use
changes in large urban areas could include a tendency towards a clustering of
activities so that the amount of trips involving long travel times for work,
shopping and education are reduced. This would occur if people chose to live
more within a local village. It is also likely that a higher density of housing

development will occur around public transport modes, and this trend has been in
evidence for some time.
Transport Technology
A great deal of research effort has been put into the development of innovative,
new transport technology. However, it is likely that any change that occurs will be
more evolutionary in character than revolutionary. Certain criteria can be
identified that will have to be met for the acceptance of any new system:
technical reliability;
acceptable cost;
fulfilment of a need not currently adequately met;
political acceptability;
social acceptability;
efficiency in the use of dwindling fossil fuel reserves; and
environmental acceptability.
Socio economic Climate
The effect of long term social and economic developments in our societies is
likely to be great. However, it is generally agreed, that it is extremely difficult to
forecast future economic scenarios. For example will Australia prosper
economically over the next 20 years or will the situation be one of declining
growth and prosperity? Changes in social attitudes are perhaps even more
unpredictable than economic conditions. However at least three trends can be
identified which are likely to continue in the long term:
o community concern for the environmental impact of transport systems;
o the desire for the public to be more involved in the decision making
process; and
o the desire for greater equity among the members of society, including the
recognition of the needs of minority groups, such as the disadvantaged, in
transport provision.
Transport Energy
The oil crises of 1973/74 and 1979 brought the realisation that a longer term
problem of oil demand exists. These events also brought into focus the links
between energy, economic growth and the balance of payments.

20.3 The Future of the Motor Vehicle


Few technological developments have affected societies as profoundly as has the motor
vehicle. Cars and trucks have transformed urban development patterns, reduced rural
isolation, opened up new forms of recreation, and change the behaviour and lifestyle
pattern of most individuals. Motor vehicle and related industries employ millions of
people worldwide. More than any other contemporary invention, the motor vehicle has
left a deep and permanent imprint on virtually every aspect of life in the late twentieth
century.
But in many respects the development of the motor vehicle has worked to societys
disadvantage. When motor vehicles were scarce their effects were minimal. As numbers
increased so did the problems of road accidents, congestion, air pollution and noise. More

insidious consequences of mass car-ownership have been the effects on public transport
and the structure of towns. The growth in the proportion of trips by car is mirrored by the
corresponding decline in trips by public transport. The effect on the structure of towns is
shown particularly in the pressure for new developments on the periphery of urban areas.
An unknown in this situation is whether large-scale peri-urban development, and the
roads and parking areas which serve them, actually induce more trips to be made. The
need to provide a road network to cope with increasing vehicle numbers has also severed
many older neighbourhoods. People who cannot drive because of financial or physical
limitations now find their access to lifes opportunities seriously impaired and society has
divided into the transport haves and have nots.
Above all, mass use of cars has placed a tremendous burden on the worlds liquid energy
resources. More than half of the petroleum produced in the world today is used for
transport purposes, and about 80% of that is for cars. However, the possibility of reducing
societys reliance on the private car appears small. Most people in developed countries
seek to be able to have the freedom of movement associated with individual car
ownership and the concept of universal car ownership is not impossible. Very many in the
poorer countries of the world aspire to this as well, and car ownership in these countries
is often increasing at a much greater rate than population increase. Currently global car
ownership works out at about 100 cars per 1000 population and this is expected to grow
to about 120 cars per 1000 population by the year 2010. However rates in countries such
as the USA and Australia are about 600 cars per 1000 population and only slight
increases in this level are likely to occur. The bulk of the increase in total vehicle
population (from about 550 million now to about 800 million by 2010) will occur in the
rapidly developing countries of the world.
Suburbanisation of our cities and towns has made the car an essential component of daily
life in all areas except the central cores of our largest cities. Individually, people rely on
their cars and cherish the freedom, convenience and instant mobility that it provides.
Collectively, however, their attachment to the car has created conditions that increasingly
threaten to compromise the independence they value. Over the last two decades
governments have become increasingly aware of the cost to society of large scale
dependence on the car and have begun to formulate policies to met the challenges created
by continued high levels of car usage. These policies have included:

greater regulation of car and engine design to provide safer, cleaner and more fuel
efficient vehicles;
increased emphasis on encouraging collective forms of urban transport; and
greater stress on efficient and intensive use of the existing road network in
preference to the construction of new facilities.

Improvements in fuel economy are likely to offer some reprieve from the growing
demand for liquid petroleum fuels, but only in the short term. New cars are certainly
becoming more fuel efficient but total kilometres travelled is also growing. Therefore
something more than a marginal improvement in fuel efficiency is required; perhaps the
development of vehicles that can radically alter fuel usage. It would appear that the

development of relatively small light weight vehicles with small high compression
engines would achieve this, particularly in city areas. Such a vehicle, the city car would
be intended for commuting and for short intra metropolitan travel. This would account for
up to 80% of car travel in metropolitan areas.
But what of the other 20%? People do not use cars only for commuting. They are also
used for the 5000 km annual holiday and the like. Unfortunately we have grown up with
the concept that the one vehicle is suitable for all trip purposes when of course it is not. It
may be that in the future all purpose cars are not able to be sanctioned by society and
more specialised vehicles are developed and used.
20.4 Intelligent Transport Systems (ITS)
Advances in the fields of electronics, communications and computing are now being
applied to transport to improve efficiency, reduce costs, reduce negative environmental
impact and improve transport safety. These systems are commonly called Intelligent
Transport Systems (ITS). The systems that specifically apply to the road network are
frequently referred to as Intelligent Vehicle and Highway Systems (IVHS). They involve
integrated applications of advanced surveillance, communications, computer display and
control process technologies both in the vehicle and on the road. The systems have the
potential to improve the operation of transport systems and to provide feedback to
planners, designers and operators.
The essence of IVHS as it relates to transport operations is the improved ability to
manage services using accurate, real time information and hence to greatly enhance the
control of traffic flow and individual vehicles.
Six broad and interrelated categories can be identified in the area of ITS.

Advanced Traffic Management Systems (ATMS)


ATMS is concerned with the overall management of traffic.These systems permit
real time adjustment of traffic control systems and variable message signs for
driver advice. To implement these systems real time traffic monitoring and data
management capabilities are needed, including advanced detection technology.
This includes the use of image processing systems, automatic vehicle location and
identification techniques and the use of vehicles as probes.
Advanced Traveller Information Systems (ATIS)
These systems will provide drivers with information on congestion and alternate
routes, navigation and location, and roadway conditions. Information will be
transferred to drivers through audio and visual means. Information to assist in trip
planning could be conveyed to homes or workplaces, or to operators of vehicle
fleets, before journeys commence. However once a trip is underway further
information would need to be relayed directly to the vehicle, and this could
include information on fog, alternate routes, recommended speeds and lane
restrictions.

Commercial Vehicle Operations (CVO)


CVO systems are involved with the management and operation of commercial
vehicles.
Advanced Vehicle Control Systems (AVCS)
AVCS seek to improve safety and operational efficiency by providing information
about the immediate environment and assuming partial or total control of the
vehicle. Simpler systems will probably incorporate technologies to aid the driving
task, such as sound or light alarms which register the presence of hazardous
conditions near the vehicle. More complex systems will probably utilise adaptive
cruise control and lane keeping systems that automatically adjust vehicle speed
and position (e.g. by the use of radar systems which detect the speed and position
of lead vehicles).
Advanced Public Transportation Systems (APTS)
APTS seeks to use advanced technologies for the improved safety, efficiency and
effectiveness of the public transport system. Benefits for the public transport user
include the minimisation of delays, ticketing convenience, improved security, and
precise and up to date route and schedule information.
Electronic Toll Collection (ETC)
ETC uses ITS technology to provide a cost effective way of collecting vehicle
tolls. The aim is to minimise delays in the collection of road tolls, and hence to
reduce traffic congestion.

LINKS TO SITES ON INTELLIGENT TRANSPORT SYSTEMS.


ITS is a subject of world-wide interest and a number of goups or organisations have been
set up to share information. ITS Australia , contains information on what is happening in
Australia. ITS America is a similar source of information for developments in the USA.
The National Transportation Library in the USA contains an area on Intelligent Transport
Systems which continually adds new material on the latest developments in ITS. For
example an article " Actual Hands-Off Steering: And other Wonders of the Modern World
" describes Demo '97 which was a demonstration of an automated highway system in San
Diego where platoons of vehicles drove at 105 km/h with drivers not touching the
steering wheels or floor pedals

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