Data Structure

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INTRODUCTION TO C
C has emerged as the most widely used programming language for software
development. Its features allow the development of well-structured programs. Most
computers directly support its data types and control structures, resulting in the
construction of efficient programs. It is independent of any particular machine
architecture or operating system, which makes it easy to write portable programs. It is
this contribution of rich control structure and data types, portability and conciseness that
has contributed to the popularity of C.
History of C
C programming language is basically developed for UNIX Operating System.
UNIX was developed in 1969 at bell telephone laboratories. It was entirely written on
PDP 7 assembly language. After UNIX has been implemented Ken Thompson
implemented a compiler for a new language called B used for transporting UNIX onto
other machines. B was heavily influenced by BCPL (Basic Cambridge Programming
Language) written for writing system software. B was latter modified by Dennis Ritchie
who was also working at bell Labs. He named the successor C. Unix was later rewritten
in C by Dennis Ritchie, Thompson and others by 1973.
C Program Structure
A basic fact about computer programming is that all programs can be written
using a combination of only three control structures: Sequential, Selective and repetitive.
The sequential structure consists of a sequence of program statements that are executed
one after another in order, the selective structure consists of a test for a condition
followed by alternative paths that the program can follow, and the repetitive structure
consists of program statements that are repeatedly executed while some condition holds.
The sequential structure can be pictorially represented as follows
Entry
Statement 1
Statement 2
Statement 3
Exit
All C programs are made up of one or more functions, each performing a particular task.
Every program has a special function named main. It is special because the execution of
any program starts at the beginning of its main function.
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A typical C program has following sections
1. Preprocessor Directives
2. Global Variable Declarations
3. Functions
In a C program, preprocessor directive, if present, should come first followed by global
variable definition if any.
Variable Declaration in C
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
The variable can be 31 characters long.

The variable can be any of a-z, A-Z, 0-9 and the underscore.
Should not be a keyword.
First character must be an alphabet
The variable is case sensitive
Data Types
Every programming language has its own data type. The basic data types in C are
Int - an integer
Float a single precision floating point number
Char - a character in C character set
Double a double precision floating point number
Variables
Variables are data objects that are manipulated in a program. Information can be
stored in a variable and recalled later. Variables must be declared before they can be used
in a program.
Constants
A constant is an entity whose value does not change during program execution.
Constants are of five different types
1.
2.
3.
4.
Integer Constants
Floating point Constants
Character Constants
String Constants

C Operators
The operators in C include
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Arithmetic
Assignment
Relational
Increment and Decrement
Bit
Logical or Boolean
Conditional expression
INPUT / OUTPUT
The important aspects of C programming language are its ability to handle input and
output (I/O). A program using input / output functions must include the standard header
file (stdio.h) in it using the directive.
Printf functions (CONIO.H, STDIO.H)
printf sends formatted output to stdout
fprintf sends formatted output to a stream
cprintf sends formatted output to the text window on the screen
Scanf Function
Scanf - reads data from stdin
Fscanf reads data from stream
The GETCHAR and PUTCHAR Function
Getchar, putchar (STDIO.h)
-
getchar is a macro that gets a character from stdin

putchar is a macro outputs a character on stdout
The GETCH and GETCHE Function

-
getch gets a character from console but does not echo to the screen
getche gets a character from console and echoes to the screen
gets, puts
gets() - gets a string from stdin
puts() outputs a string to stdout
CONDITIONAL STATEMENTS
If (condition) Statement
When an if statement is encountered in a program, condition is evaluated, if its value is
true, then the following statements are executed.
The if statement allows conditional execution of a group of statements.
If-else Statement
SYNTAX
If condition
Statement 1;
Else
Statement 2;
If the condition is true then statement 1 is executed else statement 2 is executed (if it
exists). Else part is optional.
LOOPS IN C
WHILE LOOP
While loop provides the mechanism for looping as long as a specified condition is met.
The while loop should be used in applications that do not require the modification of any
variables at each iteration.
SYNTAX
While (condition)
Statements
The statement may be a single statement or a block of statements that is to be repeated.
The condition may be any expression, with true being any non-zero value. The statements
are executed while the condition is true. When the condition becomes false, program
control passes to the line after the loop code.
FOR LOOP
This is used when the statements are to be executed more than once. This is the most
widely used iteration construct. The for loop supported by C is much more powerful than
its counterpart in any other programming language.
SYNTAX
For (exp1;exp2;exp3)
{
statements;
.
}
Generally exp1 is an initialization, exp2 is condition checking; exp3 is either an
increment or decrement statement.
The initialization is usually an assignment statement that is used to set the loop control
variable. The condition is a relational expression that determines when the loop will
terminate. The increment determines how the loop control variable change each time the
loop is repeated.
1. Write a C program to determine the sum of odd and even numbers.

# include<stdio.h>
# include<conio.h>
main()
{
int n, i, seven=0, sodd=0;
int a[25];
clrscr();
printf(:\n Enter the total number to be entered:);
scanf(%d,&n);
printf(\n Enter the values);
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
{
if(a[ i]%2==0)
seven=seven+a[i];
else
sodd=sodd+a[I];
}
printf(\n The Sum of Even number is %d,seven);
printf(\n The Sum of Odd number is %d,sodd);
getch();
}
2. Write a C program to count the number of positive, negative and zero

number in the given list of numbers.
# include <stdio.h>
# include <conio.h>
main()
{
int n, i, npos=0, nneg=0, nzero=0;
int a[25];
clrscr();
scanf(%d,&n);
printf(\n Enter the values);
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
{
if(a[ i]>0)
npos=npos+1;
if(a[I]<0)
nneg=nneg+1;
else
nzero=nzero+1;
}
printf(\n The number of positive value is %d,npos);
printf(\n The number of negative value is %d,nneg);
printf(\n The number of zeros is %d,nzero);
getch();
}
3. Write a C program for temperature conversion.
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
main()
{
int faren,cen;
clrscr();
printf(\n Enter the farenheit value :);
scanf(%d,&faren);
cen=(faren-32)+5/9;
printf(\n The equivalent Centigrade value is %d,cen);
getch();
}

4. Write a C program to check whether the number is prime or not.
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
main()
{
int n, i;
clrscr();
scanf(%d,&n);
for(i=2;i<=n/2;i++)
{
if(n%i= =0)
printf(\n the given number is not prime);
break;
}
if(n%i)
printf(\n the given number is prime);
getch();
}
5. Write a C program to find whether the given number is palindrome or not.
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
main()
{
int n, i;
int p,s,e;
clrscr();
printf(:\n Enter the number :);
scanf(%d,&n);
e=0;
p=n;
while(p!=0)
{
s=p%10;
e=(e*10)+s;
p=p/10;
}

if(e= = n)
printf(\n the given number is palindrome);
else
printf(\n the given number is not a palindrome);
getch();
}
6. Write a C program to find the sum of digits.
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
main()
{
int n,q,r,s=0;
clrscr();
printf(\n Enter the no");
scanf(%d,&n);
while(n!=0)
{
q=n/10;
r=n-q*10;
s=s+r;
n=q;
}
printf(\n the sum of digits :%d,s);
getch();
}
7. Write a program to find whether the given number is perfect or not.
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
main()
{
int a = 0;
int m;
printf(Enter a number to check whether it is a perfect number or not \n);
printf( Enter a number \n);
scanf(%ld,&n);
for (m=0;m<n;m++)

{
if (n % m = = 0 )
a = a + m;
}
if (a = = n)
printf(the given number is perfect number \n);
else
printf(the given number is not a perfect number \n);
getch();
8. Write a program to find whether the given number is Armstrong or not.
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
main()
{
int s = 0;
int c= 0;
int m,n,b;
printf(Enter a number to check whether it is a perfect number or not \n);
printf( Enter a number \n);
scanf(%ld,&b);
n = b;
while (b>0)
{
c = b % 10;
s = s + (c*c*c);
b = b / 10;
}
if (s = = n)
printf(the given number is armstrong number \n);
else
printf(the given number is not a armstrong number \n);
getch();
}
9. Write a C program to find the given number using linear search method.
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
main()
{
int n,a[30],sea,flag;
clrscr();

printf(\n Enter the number of terms :);
scanf(%d,&n);
printf(\n Enter the values:);
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
scanf(%d,a[i]);
printf(\n Enter the number to be searched :);
scanf(%d,&sea);
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
{
if(a[i] = = sea)
{
flag=1;
break;
}
else
flag=0;
}
if(flag= = 1)
printf(\n The given number %d is present in the position number
%d,sea,i);
else
printf(\n The given number is not present);
getch(); }
10. Write a C program to find the given number using binary search method.
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
main()
{
int n,a[30],sea,flag,x,y,t;
int low,high,mid;
clrscr();
printf(\n Enter the number of terms :);
scanf(%d,&n);
printf(\n Enter the values:);
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
scanf(%d,a[i]);
for(x=0;x<n-1;x++)
for(y=x+1;y<n;y++)
{
if(a[x]>a[y])
{
10

t=a[x];
a[x]=a[y];
a[y]=t;
}
}
printf(\n The sorted numbers are :);
for(x=0;x<n;x++)
printf(%d\n,a[x]);
printf(\n Enter the number to be searched :);
scanf(%d,&sea);
low=0;
high=n;
while(low<=high)
{
mid=(low+high)/2;
if(t<a[mid])
high=mid-1;
if(t>a[mid])
low=mid+1;
if(t= = a[mid])
{
printf(\n the number %d is present in the position %d,t,mid);
flag=0;
break;
}
if(mid = =1 | | mid= = n)
break;
}
if(flag)
printf(\n The given number is not present);
getch();
}
11. Write a program to print fibonacci series using functions
#include <STDIO.H>
#include <CONIO.H>
void main()
{
int n;
void fibo(int);
11

clrscr();
printf(\t\t PROGRAM TO PRINT THE FIBONACCI SERIES \n);
printf(\n Enter the number of terms to be in the series \n );
scanf(%d,&n);
fibo(n);
getch();
}
void fibo(int num)
{
int I=1,ct,ft,st;
ft = 0;
st = 1;
printf(\t %d \t %d,ft,st);
while(I<=num-2)
{
ct = ft + st;
ft = st;
st = ct;
printf(\t%d,ct);
I++;
}
}
12. Program to perform the matrix additions
#include <stdio.h>
#include <conio.h>
void main()
{
int a[10][10],b[10][10],c[10][10],row,col,r,co,I,j,k;
clrscr();
printf(\t\t Matrix Addition\n);
printf(Enter Row order of Matrix A : );
scanf(%d,&row);
printf(Enter Column order of Matrix A : );
scanf(%d,&col);
printf(Enter Row order of Matrix B : );
scanf(%d,&r);
printf(Enter Column order of Matrix B : );
scanf(%d,&co);
if ((row!=r) || (col != co) )
{
printf(Matrix Multiplication is impossible\n);
getch();
}
12

else
{
printf(Enter First Matrix Elements : );
for (I=0;I<row;I++)
for (j=0;j<col;j++)
scanf(%d,&a[I][j]);
printf(Enter Second Matrix Elements : );
for (I=0;I<r;I++)
for (j=0;j<co;j++)
scanf(%d,&b[I][j]);
for (I=0;I<row;I++)
for (j=0;j<col;j++)
c[I][j] = a[I][j] + b[I][j];
printf(The resultant matrix is \n);
for (I=0;I<row;I++)
{
for (j=0;j<col;j++)
{
printf(%t%d,c[I][j]);
}
pritnf(\n);
}
}
13 . Program to print the factorial number
#include <stdio.h>
#include <conio.h>
void main()
{
int n;
clrscr();
printf(program to print the factorial\n);
printf(\n\n Enter the number : );
scanf(%d,&n);
factorial(n);
getch();
}
void factorial(double x)
{
double fact = 1;
for(I=1;I<=n;I++)
{
fact = fact * I;
printf(The factorial of a given number is %d\n,fact);
}
13
14. Program to implement the Tower of Hanoi

#include <stdio.h>
#include <conio.h>
void main()
{
void transfer(int,char,char,char);
int n;
clrscr();
printf(\t\t TOWERS OF HANOI \n);
printf(How many disks ? );
scanf(%d,&n);
transfer(n,1,r,c);
getch();
}
void transfer(int n, char from, char to, char temp)
{
if(n>0)
{
transfer(n-1,from,temp,to);
printf(Move disk %d from %c to %c \n,n,from,to);
transfer(n-1,temp,to,from);
}
return;
}
15. Program to count the number of vowels, consonants, digits, white space
characters and
in a line of text using pointers
#include <stdio.h>
main()
{
char line[80];
int vowels = 0;
int cons = 0;
int digits = 0;
int ws = 0;
int other = 0;
void scan_line(char line[], int *pv, int *pc, int pd, int *pw, int *po);
printf(Enter a line of text \n);
scanf(%[^\n],line);
scan_line(line, &vowels, &cons, &digits, &ws, &other);
14

printf(%d %d %d %d %d,vowels,cons,digits,ws,other);
return(0);
}
void scan_line(char line[], int *pv, int *pc, int *pd, int *pw,int *po)
{
char c;
int count = 0;
while((c = toupper(line[count])) != \0)
{
if (c = = A | | c = = E | | c = =I || c = = O || c = = U)
++ *pv;
else if (c > = A && c < = Z)
++ *pc;
else if ( c > = 0 && c < = 9)
++ *pd ;
else if (c = = | | c = = \0)
++ *pw;
else
++ *po;
++ count;
}
return;
}
16. Program to implement to Floyds Triangle
#include <stdio.h>
void main()
{
int n,i,j,x=1;
clrscr();
printf("\t\t\tFloyds Triangle\n");
printf("\t\t\t===============\n");
printf("Enter the no of Lines:");
scanf("%d",&n);
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
{
for(j=0;j<=i;j++)
{
printf("%4d",x);
x++;
}
printf("\n");
}
getch(); }
15
17. Program to implement to Pascal Triangle

#include <stdio.h>
void main()
{
int i=1,j,k,m,n;
clrscr();
printf("\t\t\tPascal Triangle\n");
printf("\t\t\t===============\n");
printf("Enter the no of Lines:");
scanf("%d",&n);
for(j=0;j<n;++j)
{
for(k=35-2*j;k>0;k--)
printf(" ");
for(m=0;m<=j;++m)
{
if((m==0)||(j==0))
i=1;
else
i=(i*(j-m+1))/m;
printf("%4d",i);
}
printf("\n");
}
getch();
}
18. Program to implement sine series
#include <stdio.h>
#include <math.h>
void main()
{
float d,x,sum=0,fact(int);
int terms,sign=1,i;
clrscr();
printf("\t\t\t Sine Series \n");
printf("\t\t\t =========== \n");
printf("\nEnter the X value:");
scanf("%f",&d);
printf("\nEnter the number of terms:");
scanf("%d",&terms);
x=3.14/180*d;
16

for(i=1;i<=terms;i+=2)
{
sum=sum+sign*pow(x,i)/fact(i);
sign=-sign;
}
printf("\nThe value of sine(%4.2f)is %8.4f",d,sum);
getch();
}
float fact(int n)
{
float f=1;
int i;
for(i=1;i<=n;++i)
f*=i;
return(f);
}
19. Programs on Manipulations on strings
#include <stdio.h>
void main()
{
int ch,i,j,l,m,sign,c,l1,k;
char name[80],name1[80],name2[80],namer[80],nameff[80],ans='y';
clrscr();
printf("\t\t\tManipulations on Strings\n");
printf("\t\t\t========================\n");
printf("1.Concatenation\n");
printf("2.Reverse\n");
printf("3.Find\n");
printf("4.Replace\n");
printf("5.Length\n");
printf("Choice:");
scanf("%d",&ch);
switch(ch)
{
case 1:
{
printf("\t\tConcatenation\n");
printf("\t\t=============\n");
printf("Enter the first string \n");
scanf("%s",name);
printf("Enter the second string \n");
scanf("%s",name1);
i=j=0;
while(name[i]!='\0')
17

{
name2[i]=name[i];
i++;
}
while(name1[j]!='\0')
{
name2[i]=name1[j];
i++;
j++;
}
name2[i]='\0';
printf("Resultant String in name2 is%s",name2);
break;
}
case 2:
{
printf("\t\tReverse\n");
printf("\t\t=======\n");
printf("Enter the string \n");
scanf("%s",name);
i=j=0;
i++;
while(--i>=0)
name1[j++]=name[i];
name1[j]='\0';
printf("\nThe reversed String is%s",name1);
break;
}
case 3:
{
printf("\n\t\tFind\n");
printf("\t\t====\n");
printf("\nEnter first string:");
scanf(" %[^\n]",name);
printf("Enter search string:");
scanf(" %[^\n]",name1);
l=strlen(name);
l1=strlen(name1);
for(i=0;i<l;++i)
{
c=0;
if(name[i]==name1[c])
{
m=i;
sign=0;
18

while(name1[c]!='\0'&&sign!=1)
{
if(name[m]==name1[c])
{
m++;
c++;
}
else
sign=1;
}
if(sign==0)
{
printf("The given string is present");
printf("\nIts starting position is%d",i+1);
exit(1);
k=-1;
}
}
if(k<0)break;
}
if(sign!=0)
printf("The given string is not present");
break;
}
case 4:
{
i=0;
j=0;
strcpy(nameff," ");
puts("Enter the string:");
fflush(stdin);
puts("Enter find string");
scanf(" %[^\n]",name1);
fflush(stdin);
puts("Enter replace string:");
scanf(" %[^\n]",namer);
fflush(stdin);
l=strlen(name);
strcat(namer," ");
while(i<l)
{
j=0;
for(k=0;k<80;++k)
name2[k]=' ';
19

while(name[i]!=' '&&name[i]!='\0')
{
name2[j]=name[i];
++i;
++j;
}
name2[j]='\0';
++i;
if((strcmp(name2,name1))==0)
{
strcat(nameff," ");
strcat(nameff,namer);
}
else
{
strcat(nameff," ");
strcat(nameff,name2);
}
}
puts("string after replacement");
puts(nameff);
break;
}
case 5:
{
i=0;
printf("Enter String:");
i++;
printf("\nThe length of the given string is%d",i);
break;
}
}
getch();
}
20
Data Structures
An introduction to C:
Dennis Ritchie at AT & T Bell laboratory, Murray Hill, New Jersey,
developed the programming language C in 1972. The languages BCPL and B mainly
influenced it. It was named as C to present it as the successor of B language which was
Designed earlier by Ken Thompson in 1970 for the first UNIX system on the DECPDP-7
Computer.
How to run C program:
1. From the Ms Dos prompt start C by typing tc.
2. Open a file by selecting File | Open | File name from the IDE menu. Or press
F3 Key
3. Run the program by selecting Run | Run, Or press
Ctrl+F9 Key
4. To see the programs output select Window | User screen or press
Alt+F5 Key.
We may compile and run the programs from the Dos command
Line like
tcc Filename <Enter>.
After the program is compiled, we may run it and view the output by typing
Filename <Enter>
Problem solving using computer:
To solve a problem using a computer, the following steps are required :
A program is developed using a high level programming language (program
development)
The developed program is entered into a commuter (Program editing).
The edited program is translated and is produced as an executable machine code.
The Executable machine code is run in the computer to carry out the actual task
(execution).
To implement the above steps, the programmer develops a program and the
developed program is entered and edited with the help of an editor. Normally the editor is
provided along with the compiler. After editing the program, the compilation commands
us used for the translation process. Then the execution command is used to run the
program to get the desired output.
21
Compilation:
High-level languages allow some English like words and mathematical
expressions that facilitate the better understanding of the logic involved in a program.
High-level languages are machine independent. Since a computer system cannot follow
programs written in a high language, high language programs are translated into lowlevel language programs and then executed.
Translation of a high-level language program to allow level language
program is done by software known as Compiler. Object code is an intermediate code
between the source code and the executable code.
Linking:
Linker performs the linking of libraries with the object code, to make the
generated object code into an executable machine code. Thus the object code becomes an
input to the linker, which produces an executable machine code. Sometimes programs are
divided into modules and these modules are compiled separately and then linked by the
linker and executed.
When running a program, the following files will be created automatically.
OBJ (Object file)

EXE (Executable file)
Bak (Backup file)
SWP (Swap file)
Data Structures Definition

Data Structure is a specialized format for storing data so that the
datas can be organized in an efficient way.
Classification
Primitive
Example: Integer
Real
Character
Pointer
Logical
Non Primitive
Linear
Example: Linear List
Stack
Queue
22
Non Linear
Example: Graph
Tree
Array
An array is a finite collection of similar elements stored in contiguous location.
The operations done on an array are: Insertion
Deletion
Changing a particular element
Linked List
There are three types of linked lists. They are:
Single Linked List

Doubly Linked List
Singly Circular Linked List
Doubly Circular Linked List
Single Linked List

Node structure
Data
Field
Pointer
Field
The data field contains the data elements that have to be stored in the list. The
pointer will point the next node in the list.
The operations done on a list are: Insertion
Deletion
Insertion
Insertion in the head node
To insert a node in the head node, just change the pointer field of the new
node to point to the head node. Let the new node be Temp and the head node be
Head, then the insertion is
Temp data = X;
Head next = head
23
Insertion in the middle node

To insert in the middle node we need to change two pointers. Let the new
node be Temp and the present node is Present and, the next node to the
present node is future. The pointers used are data for the data field, next
to the pointer field, the data to be inserted is X then the insertion is
Temp data = X
Present next = temp
Temp next = future
Insertion in the last node

To insert an element in the last position just change the pointer field of the present
last node to point to the new node, then set the pointer field of the new node to
NULL. Let the new node be Temp and the present node is Present. The
pointers used are data for the data field, next to the pointer field, the data to be
inserted is X then the insertion is
Present next =Temp
Temp next =null
Temp data = X
Deletion
Deletion in the head node

To delete a node in the head node, just point the head node as the second node.
Let the head node be Head, and then the deletion is
Head next = head
Deletion in the middle node

To delete a node in the middle we need to change two pointers. Let the node to be
deleted is Temp and the node previous to the node to be deleted is Present
and, the next node to the present node is future. The pointers used are data for
the data field, next to the pointer field, the data to be inserted is X then the
insertion is
Present next = future
Deletion in the last node

To delete an element in the last position just change the pointer field of the
previous node to the last to null. Let the last node be Temp and the previous
node is Present. The pointers used are data for the data field, next to the
pointer field, the data to be inserted is X then the insertion is
24
Previous next =NULL

Singly Circular Linked List
The advantage of using Circular Linked List is the last null pointer is replaced and the
pointer field of the last node points to the first node, due to this circular arrangement the
traversing become quite easier. The insertion and deletion in the first and middle are same
as singly linked list except the last node.
Insertion
Insertion in the last node
To insert a node in the last position, insert the new node after the current last node,
and then change the pointer field of the new node to point to the first node. Let the
last node be last, the new node to be inserted to be new, the first node in the list to be
first. The pointers used are data for the data field, next to the pointer field, the data
to be inserted is X then the insertion is
Last next = new
New next =first
Deletion
Deletion in the last node
To delete a node in the last position, change the pointer field of the
previous node to the current last to point the first node. Let the last node
be last, the previous node to the current last node to be pre, the first node
in the list to be first. The pointers used are data for the data field, next
to the pointer field, the data to be inserted is X then the deletion is
Prev next = first
Stack
An important subclass of lists permits the insertion and deletion of an
element to occur only at one end. A linear list of this type is known as stack. The
insertion is referred to as push. The deletion is referred to as pop. The two
pointers used for accessing is top & bottom pointer.
Pointer
PUSH Storing the element intoBottom
the stack.
Check top<= allowed size if yes increment the top position and
store the value in the top position.
POP - Deleting the element from the stack. If top<= we can not delete.
Otherwise decrement the top by one and return the top+1 element.
Queue
The information in this list is processed in the same order as it was received, that is
first in first out order (FIFO) or a first come first served (FCFS) basis. This type of
25

frequently used list is known as queue. We have two pointers to access the queue. They
are
1. Front (used for deletion)
2. Rear (Used for insertion)
Insertion :
if rear>n queue overflow
else
increment the rear pointer and insert the value in the rear position.
Deletion :
If front =0 then queue underflow
Else
Increment the front pointer and return the front-1 value
Tree
An important class of digraph, which involves for the description of hierarchy. A
directed tree is an acyclic digraph which has one node called root with in degree 0, while
other nodes have in degree 1. Every directed tree must have at least one node. An isolated
node is also called as directed tree. The node with out degree as 0 is called as leaf. The
length of the path from root to particular node level of the node. If the ordering of the
node at each level is prescribed then the tree is called as ordered tree.
Binary Tree
If a tree has at most of two children, then such tree is called as Binary tree. If the
elements in the binary tree are arranged in the following order
Left element is lesser than the root
Right element is greater then the root
No duplication of elements
Then such binary tree is called as Binary Search Tree
Operations performed in a binary tree are:
o Inserting a node
o Deleting a node
o Traversing the tree
Traversing Methods
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Pre order method

In order method
Post order method
Converse Pre order method
Converse In order method
Converse post order method
26
Pre order method

This method gives the tree key value in the following manner: 1. Process the root
2. Traverse the left sub tree
3. Traverse the right Sub tree
In order method
This method gives the tree key value in the following manner: 1. Traverse the left sub tree
2. Process the root
Post order method
This method gives the tree key value in the following manner: 1. Traverse the left sub tree
3. Process the root
Sorting
Sorting is, without doubt, the most fundamental algorithmic problem
1. Supposedly, 25% of all CPU cycles are spent sorting
2. Sorting is fundamental to most other algorithmic problems, for example binary
search.
3. Many different approaches lead to useful sorting algorithms, and these ideas can
be used to solve many other problems.
What is sorting? It is the problem of taking an arbitrary permutation of n items and
rearranging them into the total order,
Issues in Sorting
Increasing or Decreasing Order? - The same algorithm can be used by both all we need
do is change
to
in the comparison function as we desire.
What about equal keys? May be we need to sort on secondary keys, or leave in the
same order as the original permutations.
27

What about non-numerical data? - Alphabetizing is sorting text strings, and libraries
have very complicated rules concerning punctuation, etc. Is Brown-Williams before or
after Brown America before or after Brown, John?
We can ignore all three of these issues by assuming a comparison function which depends
on the application. Compare (a,b) should return ``<'', ``>'', or ''=''.
Applications of Sorting
One reason why sorting is so important is that once a set of items is sorted, many
other problems become easy.
Heaps
A heap is a complete binary tree with values stored in its nodes such that no child has a
value bigger than the value of the parent.
Below is a heap.
9
/\
8 2
/\
6 4
A heap provides a representation for a priority queue. Example: messages processed by
priority at a server
messages given priority weighting, higher numbers give better service

highly dynamic, messages coming and going frequently
need efficient insert new message and remove highest priority message
Removal causes heap to be reheapified. For example if we remove 9

9
/\
8 2
/\
6 4
then we reheapify by copying rightmost leaf to root (4 becomes the root)
4
/\
8 2
/
6
28

and then we recursively reestablish the heap property as follows: if the parent is greater
than a child, swap the parent with the highest priority child. Keep swapping until no more
swaps are possible. So in the above tree, first we would swamp 4 with 8.
8
/\
4 2
/
6
Then we would swap 4 with 6.
8
/\
6 2
/
4
The final swap yields a heap!
The cost of removing an item (reheapifiying after removing the item) is O(log n). The
algorithm just traverses one path in the tree, which is O(log n) in length. For each node
on that path it performs at most two comparisons and one swap (3 operations -> constant
time). So overall the algorithm has a worst case time complexity of O(log n).
Space complexity is O(n) since a sequential array representation can be used.
Quick sort
is a very efficient sorting algorithm invented by C.A.R. Hoarer. It has two
phases:
The partition phase and

The sort phase.
As we will see, most of the work is done in the partition phase - it works out where to
divide the work. The sort phase simply sorts the two smaller problems that are generated
in the partition phase.
This makes Quick sort a good example of the divide and conquers strategy for solving
problems. (You've already seen an example of this approach in the binary search
procedure.) In quick sort, we divide the array of items to be sorted into two partitions and
then call the quick sort procedure recursively to sort the two partitions, i.e. we divide the
problem into two smaller ones and conquer by solving the smaller ones. Thus the conquer
part of the quick sort routine looks like this:
29
quicksort( void *a, int low, int

high )
{
int pivot;
/* Termination condition! */
if ( high > low )
{
pivot = partition( a, low, high );
quicksort( a, low, pivot-1 );
quicksort( a, pivot+1, high );
}
}
Initial Step - First Partition
Sort Left Partition in the same way

For the strategy to be effective, the partition phase must ensure that all the items in one
part (the lower part) and less than all those in the other (upper) part.
To do this, we choose a pivot element and arrange that all the items in the lower part are
less than the pivot and all those in the upper part greater than it. In the most general case,
we don't know anything about the items to be sorted, so that any choice of the pivot
element will do - the first element is a convenient one.
Dijkstra's Algorithm
Djikstra's algorithm (named after its discover, E.W. Dijkstra) solves the problem of
finding the shortest path from a point in a graph (the source) to a destination. It turns out
that one can find the shortest paths from a given source to all points in a graph in the
same time, hence this problem is sometimes called the single-source shortest paths
problem.
Graph Traversal
Systematic traversals of graph are similar to preorder and post order traversal for trees.
There are two graph traversals, depth-first and breadth-first search. Frequently the graph
searches start at an arbitrary vertex. The searches are efficient if they are done in O(n +
m), where n is the number of vertices and m the number of edges.
Graph traversal can be used to determine the general characteristic of the graph, or to
solve a specific problem on a particular graph, for example:
Routing phone calls, or packets
Planning a car trip
Locate particular vertices, for example a win position in a game.
30

Depth-first Search
We start the graph traversal at arbitrary vertices, and go down a particular branch until we
reach a dead end. Then we back up and go as deep possible. In this way we visit all
vertices, and all edges.
Breath-First Search
Breadth-first search visit all adjacent vertices before going deeper. Then we go deeper in
one of the adjacent vertices.
Sparse Matrix :
A matrix consists of more number of zeros is called sparse matrix. Once the matrix
is stored as it is then there is wastage of memory. For an efficient memory utilization the
sparse matrix can be stored in a linear form. The linear form can be of array type or
linked list type.
DATA STRUCTURES
Definition:
Data structure is collection of data elements organized in a specified manner and
accessing functions are defined to store and retrieve individual data elements. Data
structures are sometimes called Data types.
Classification of Data Structure:
A data type may be defined as a set and the elements of the set are called the
values of the type. There are four basic or atomic or primitive data types in C. They are
int, float, char and double. The Simple data types built from primitives are arrays ,
pointers, strings and records with which we can build new types called structured or
composite types such as stacks, queues, and trees etc. The structured data types can be
categorized as linear and non-linear. The linear data structures are stacks, queues and
linked lists. The non-linear data structures are trees and graphs.
Stacks
Definition:
A stack is an ordered collection of items into which new items may be inserted and
from which items may be deleted at one end, called the top of the stack. The first example
of stack, which permits the selection of only its end element , is a pile of coins.
Second example could be a pile of trays or a books lying one above the other.
Let us draw a stack containing integers as in the following figure.
5
9
1
3
7
top
31

Here, 5 is the current of the stack. If we add any element in the stack, it will be placed on
top of 5 , and if we delete an element , it will be 5, which is on top of the stack.
Operations on Stacks:
Associated with the stack , there are several primitives operations. We can define
the following necessary operations on stack.
a)
create(s) - To create s as an empty stack.
b)
push(s,i) - To insert the element I on top of the stack s.
c)
pop(s)
- To remove the top element of the stack and to return the removed
element as a function value.
d)
top(s)
- To return the top element of stack(s).
e) empty(s) - To check whether the stack is empty or not. It returns true if stack is
empty and returns false otherwise.
If a stack is empty and it contains no element, it is not possible to pop the stack.
Therefore, before popping an element, we must ensure that the stack is not empty.
PUSH & POP OPERATIONS:
When we add an element to a stack, we stay that we push it on the
stack and if we delete an element from a stack, we say that we pop it from the stack.
Let us see how stack shrinks or grows when we pop or push an element in the
following figures.
Push (8) on the stack
8
5
9
1
3
7
top
Push (4) on to stack
4
8
5
9
1
3
7
top
32
Pop an element from the stack

Top
8
5
9
1
3
7
Popped element = 4
Pop an element from the stack
Top
5
9
1
3
7
Popped element = 8
We may notice that the last item pushed onto a stack is always the first that will be
popped from the stack. That is why stack is called last in, first out or LIFO in short.
Implementation of Stacks
There are two ways to implement stacks, one using arrays and other is
using linked list.
Array:
Since the elements of the stack are ordered , an obvious choice would be an array
as a structure t contains a stack. We can fix one end of the array as bottom of the stack.
The other end of the array may be used as a top of the stack, which keeps shifting
constantly as items are popped and pushed. We must store the index of the array
containing the top element.
33
We can , therefore, declare a stack as a structure containing two fields- an array to hold
the elements of the stack, and an integer top to indicate the position of the current top of
the stack within the array.
# define MAX 50
struct stack{
int top;
int elements [5];
};
struct stack s;
Here s is defined to be a stack containing elements of type integer . The maximum
number of elements in the stack is defined to be 50. Elements [0] contain the first element
so that the value of top is 0. If there are five elements in the stack, the value of top will be
four and the top element is in elements[4].
A stack is empty when it contains no elements we can indicate this by making top as 1.
We can write our function clearstack as
clearstack(ts)
struct stack *ts;
{
ts->top = -1;
}
Another operation is to check whether the stack is empty. To do this we must check
whether s.top = = -1.
Let us now consider the PUSH operation . To push or add an element we must perform
the two steps:
i.
increment top indicator
ii.
put the new element at the new top.
We might code the PUSH & POP operations as follows:

push(ts,x)
Struct stack *ts;
Int x;
{
if (fullstack(ts)){
printf( %s, Stack overflow);
exit(1);
34

}
else
ts->elements[++(ts->top)] = x;
return;
}
This routine increments the top by 1 and puts x into array s.elements at the new top
position. In this routine we use another routine Full Stack which checks whether the stack
is full, before we push an element onto stack. A stack is full when ts->top = = MAX-1.
Full Stack routine as follows:
fullstack (ts)
struct stack *ts;
{
if ( ts->top = = MAX-1)
return(1);
else
return(0);
}
To remove an element or pop an element from the stack, we must first check
the possibility of underflow as it is quite possible that somebody tries to pop an element
from an empty stack. Therefore, we can write function POP as,
Pop(ts)
struct stack *ts;
{
if (empty(ts))
printf( % s , stack underflow);
return(0);
else
return(ts->elements[ts->top--]);
}
We can write function empty (s) that returns 1 if the stack is empty and 0 if it is not
empty as follows:
empty(ts)
struct stack *ts;
{
if ( ts -> top = = -1)
return (1);
else
return(0);
}
35
Stack as a Linked List ( Using Pointers):

Using this representation we are using the pool of available nodes and we
will never have to test whether a particular stack is full. We can declare such as a stack as
follows.
Node structure:
Each node has two fields. i.e. Data and Next field
Data field
Next field
Stack- Node representation:

A
Stack
End
node
Top element
Declaration : ( Using C++)
# include <iostream.h>
# include < process.h>
class sta{
struct node {
int data;
node * next;
} *stack ;
public :
void push();
void pop();
void disp();
}
PUSH OPERATION:
Void sta :: push()
{
int n;
node temp;
temp = new node;
cout << Push the element << endl;
3
( First node of
36

temp
cin >> temp->data;
temp->next=NULL;
if(stack= = NULL)
stack=temp;
else
{
temp->next=stack;
stack=temp;
}
the stack).
stack
3
stack
4
4
temp
}
4
stack
POP Operation:
stack
Void sta :: pop()

{
temp
node *temp;
if (stack= = NULL)
cout << Stack is empty << endl;
else {
stack
temp= stack;
stack= stack->next;
temp
cout << Popped element << endl;
cout << temp->data;
delete temp;
}
}
TREE TRAVERSAL:
When traversing a binary tree, we want to treat each node and its sub trees in the
same fashion. If we let L, V, and R stand for moving left, visiting the node, and moving
right when at a node, then there are six possible combinations of tree traversal: LVR,
LRV, VLR, VRL, RVL, and RLV. If we adopt the convention that we traverse left before
right, then only three traversals remain : LVR, LRV and VLR. To these we assign the
names inorder, postorder, and preorder, respectively, because of the position of the V with
respect to the L and the R.
37
Procedure for Preorder:

1.
2.
3.
Visit the root node.

Traverse the Left sub tree in preorder.
Traverse the Right sub tree in preorder.
Example:
Fig.1
The result is : + A B
Algorithm:
void preorder(node *nodeptr)
{
if ( nodeptr != NULL)
{
printf(%d\n, nodeptr->data); /* visit the root node */
preorder(nodeptr->left);
/* Traverse the left sub tree */
perorder(nodeptr->right);
/* Traverse the right sub tree */
}
}
Procedure for Inorder:
1.
2.
3.
Traverse the Left sub tree in inorder.

Visit the root node
Traverse the Right sub tree in inorder.
Fig.2
38
The result is : A + B
void inorder( node *nodeptr)
{
if ( nodeptr != NULL)
{
inorder(nodeptr->left);
printf(%d\n, nodeptr->data);
inorder(nodeptr->right);
}
}

/* Visit the root node */
Procedure for Postorder:

1.
2.
3.
Traverse the Left sub tree in postorder.

Traverse the Right sub tree in postorder.
Visit the root node.
Fig.3
The result is : A B +
void postorder( node * nodeptr)

{
if (nodeptr != NULL)
{
postorder(nodeptr->left);
postorder(nodeptr->right);
printf(%d\n, nodeptr->data);
}

/* Visit the root node */
39

}
Fig.4
PRE ORDER
: A,B,D,C,E,AND F
IN ORDER
: B,D,A,E,F,C
POSTORDER
: D,B,F,E,C,AND A
Fig.5.
40
PREORDER
: * + AB / C D
INORDER
: A+ B * C / D
POSTORDER
: AB + C D / *
BINARY SEARCH TREES

Definition:
A binary search tree is a binary tree. It may be empty. If it is not empty then
it satisfies the following properties:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Every element has a key and no two elements have the same key.
The keys in the left sub tree are smaller than the key in the root.
The keys in the right sub tree are larger than the key in the root.
The left and right sub trees are also binary search trees.
It has two operations. They are,

1. Insertion
2. Deletion
Example Fig.
41
To construct (Insertion) the Binary search tree for the following elements:
25, 15, 27, 13, 17, 26, 29, 28
42
43

To delete a particular node from the Binary search tree:
1. Leaf node
Deletion of a leaf node is quite easy. To delete 28 from the
below tree the left child field of its parent is set to 0 and the node disposed. To delete the
17 from this tree, the right-child field of 15 is set to 0 , and the node containing 17 is
disposed.
To delete a leaf node 28
To delete a leaf node 17
2. Non-leaf node:
44
The deletion of a non-leaf element or node that has only one child is also easy. The
node containing the element to be deleted is disposed, and the single-child takes the place
of the disposed node.
So, to delete the element 15 from the above tree, we simply change the pointer from the
parent node (25) to the single-child node(13).
3. Root node:
When the element to be deleted is in a non-leaf node that
has two children, the element is replaced by either the largest element in its left sub tree
or the smallest one in its right sub tree. Then we proceed to delete this replacing element
from the sub tree from which it was taken.
45
If we wish to delete the element with key 25 from the above tree, then we replace it by
either the largest element, 17 , in its left sub tree or the smallest element , 26 , in its right
sub tree. Suppose we opt for the largest element in the left sub tree. The 17 is moved in
to the root and the following tree is obtained.
HEAPS
Priority Queue:
46

The priority queue is a data structure in which the intrinsic ordering of the
elements does determine the results of its basic operations. There are two types of priority
queues:
An ascending priority queue and a descending priority queue.
An ascending priority queue is a collection of items into which items can be inserted
arbitrarily and from which only the smallest item can be removed. A descending priority
queue is similar but allows deletion of only the largest item.
Heaps Definition:
A max (min) heap is a tree in which the key value in each node is no smaller
(larger) than the key values in its children (if any). A max heap is a complete binary tree
that is also a max tree. A min heap is a complete binary tree that is also a min tree.
Max. Heap
Min. Heap
47
QUEUE
Definition:
A queue is an ordered collection of items from which items may be deleted at one
end ( called the front of the queue) and into which items may be inserted at the other end
( called rear of the queue). This data structure is commonly known as FIFO or first-infirst-out.
Fig.1
3
Fig.2
8
OPERATION S ON QUEUES:
It has two operations. They are
48

Insertion
Deletion
Insertion an element is popularly known as ENQ and deleting an element is known as
DEQ. A minimum set of useful operations on queue includes the following.
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.
CREATEQ(Q) which creates Q as an empty Queue.

ENQ(i) which adds the element I to the rear of a queue and returns the new
queue.
DEQ(Q)- which removes the element at the front end of the queue and returns
the resulting queue as well as the removed element.
EMPTY(Q)- It checks the queue whether it is empty or not and returns true if
it is empty and returns false otherwise.
FRONT(Q)- which returns the front element of the queue without changing
the queue.
QUEUESIZE(Q)-which returns the number of entries in the queue.
We can obtain the queue by the following sequence of operations. We assume that the
queue in initially empty.
ENQ(q,8)
5
ENQ(q,9)
9
ENQ(q,4)
49

5
x =DEQ(q) Element 5 is deleted

7
x =DEQ(q) Element 7 is deleted

8
IMPLEMENTING THE QUEUE

There are two ways to implement queue, one using arrays, and
another is using Linked list.
i.
Array :
Let us implement the queue within an array so that the array holds the
elements of the queue. There are two variables front and rear to indicate the positions of
the first and last element of the queue within the array.
Let the size of the array be 4. Initially let us assume that the queue is empty which means
front = 0 and rear = -1.
50

Empty Queue:
q[0]
q[1]
q[2]
front = 0(array position)
q[3]
rear = -1 ( NULL)
Insertion:
There are two variables front and rear to indicate the positions of the first and
last element of the queue within the array. Let the size of the array be 4. Initially let us
assume that the queue is empty which means front = 0 and rear = -1.After we have added
three elements to the queue rear becomes 2 and front becomes 0. Now if we add one
more elements to the queue from the rear, the value of rear changes to 3. Now the queue
becomes full.
ENQ(q,3)
3
q[0]
q[1]
q[2]
q[3]
q[2]
q[3]
front = 0 rear =0
ENQ(q,5)
3
q[0]
q[1]
front = 0 rear = 1
ENQ(q,7)
3
q[0]
q[1]
q[2]
q[3]
front = 0 rear = 2
51

ENQ(q,9) [ Q is full ]
3
q[0]
q[1]
q[2]
q[3]
front = 0 rear = 3
Deletion:
At this point, we delete one element. The element which is deleted is 3. This
leaves a hole in the first position. To delete this element we must increment front, to
indicate the true first element of the queue and assign the value of that slot to x. To check
whether queue is empty or not, we must check whether front = rear.
To add an element we must increment rear so that it points to the location next to the rear
and place an element in that slot of the array. If we wish to add another element, and we
increment rear by 1, rear becomes equal to front, which indicates that the queue is full.
X= DEQ(q)
q[0]
q[1]
q[2]
q[3]
front = 1 rear = 3
x=DEQ(q)
7
q[0]
q[1]
q[2]
q[3]
front = 2 rear = 3
x=DEQ(q)
9
q[0]
q[1]
q[2]
q[3]
front = 3 rear = 3
52

x=DEQ(q) [ Queue is empty]
q[0]
q[1]
q[2]
q[3]
front = rear = -1(NULL)

Therefore, the condition for full queue is that the next slot of rear is equal to front and the
condition for empty queue is that front = rear. Before we DEQ an element from queue we
must make sure that queue is not empty and before we ENQ an element we must ensure
that the queue is not full.
Queue implementations in ARRAY using C++
class qu{
Public :
Int front, rear, n , q[10];
void get(){
cout<< Enter the Queue size << endl;
cin>> n;
front = rear =-1;
}
void enq();
void deq();
};
int I, a[10];
void qu :: enq(){
int item;
if ( rear >= n)
{
cout << Queue is full \n;
return;
}
else
{
cout << Enter the item to be inserted <<endl;
cin>>item;
rear = rear+1;
53

q[rear] = item;
i++;
}
}
void qu :: deq()
{
int t;
if ( front >= rear)
{
cout << Queue is Empty << endl;
return;
}
else
{
front = fornt +1;
t = q[front];
cout << The deleted element : << t << endl;
}
}
Implementation of Queue as Linked list
Another way of implementing queues is as a linked list.
Let us have two pointers, front to the first element of the list and rear to the last element
of the list.
4
front
6
8
rear
.
class que {
struct node
{
int data;
node *next;
} * front, *rear;
54

public:
void insq();
void delq();
que(){
front = rear = NULL;
}
};
void que :: insq()
{
int n;
node *temp;
temp = new node;
cout << Insert the element << endl;
cin >> n;
temp-data = n;
temp->next = NULL;
if ( front = = NULL)
front = rear=temp;
else
4
{
rear->next = temp;
front
rear= rear->next;
}
}
void que :: delq()
{
node *temp;
temp = front;
temp
4
front
5
rear
4
temp
if ( front = = NULL)
cout << Queue is empty << endl;
else
{
front = front->next;
cout << temp->data;
delete temp;
}
front
rear
}
DEQUE:
55

A single queue behaves in a FIFO manner in the sense that each deletion removes the
oldest remaining item in the structure. A double ended queue or deque, in short is a linear
list in which insertions and deletions are made to or from either end of the structure.
Deletion
Insertion
Insertion
Deletion
Front
Rear
We can have two variations of a deque, namely, the input-restricted deque and the output
restricted deque. The output-restricted deque allows deletion from only one end and
input-restricted deque allows insertions at only one end.
Queue Applications:
The most useful application of queues is the simulation of a real world
situation so that it is possible to understand what happens in a real world in a particular
situation without actually observing its occurrence.
Queues are also very useful in a time-sharing computer system where many users share
the system simultaneously. Whenever a user requests the system to run a particular
program, the operating system adds the request at the end of the queue of jobs waiting to
be executed. Whenever the CPU is free, it executes the job, which is at the front of the
job queue. Similarly there are queues for sharing I/O devices. Each device maintains its
own queue of request.
Another useful application of queues is in the solution of
problems involving searching a nonlinear collection of states. Queue is used for finding a
path using breadth-first-search of graphs.
LINKED LIST
Definition:
A collection of node is called list. Each node or item in a linked list must
contain at least two fields, an information field or data field and the next address field.
The first, field contains the actual element on the list which may be a simple integer, a
character, a string or even a large record. The second field, which is a pointer, contains
the address of the next node in the list used to access the next node. A node of a linked
list may be represented by the following figure.
List
( External pointer)
Data or
Info
56
Next

The entire linked list is accessed from an external pointer List pointing to the first node in
the list. We can access the first node through the external pointer, the second node
through next pointer of the first node, the third node through the next pointer of the
second node till the end of the list.
The next address field of the last node contains a special value, known as the NULL
value. This is not a valid address. This only tells us that we have reached the end of the
list. We will draw linked lists as an ordered sequence of nodes with links being
represented by arrows.
List
4
OPERATIONS ON LINKED LIST

There are five basic types of operations associated with the list data
abstraction:
1. To determine if the list is empty. Returns true
if the list contains no elements.
2. Add new elements any in the list
3. To check if a particular element is present in
the list.
4. To delete a particular element from the list
placed anywhere in the list.
5. To print all the elements of the list.
We will introduce some notations to be used in algorithms:

If p is a pointer to a node, then
node(p) refers to the node pointed to by p
info(p) refers to the data part of that node
next(p) refers to the address part of that node
info(next(p)) refers to the data part of the next node which node, which follows node(p)
in the list if next(p) is not null.
We can initialize the list by making the external pointer null.
List = null
Also, we can check whether the list is empty by checking whether the external pointer is
null.
if list = null
then return(true)
57

else return(false)
This routine will return true if the list is empty, otherwise it will return false.
To traverse or to print the elements of a linked list, we need to use a
temporary pointer, p known as a traversal pointer.
P = list
while list < > null do
begin
print( info(p))
p= next(p)
end
Inserting into a Linked list
To add a new node containing data value x in the beginning of the list we need
to follow the step:
i. To get a new node which is not in use.
ii. To set the data field of the new node to x
iii. To set the next field of the new node to point to list
iv. To set pointer list point to the new node.
To do this we can write the following algorithm:
getnode(p)
info(p) = x
next(p) = list
list = p
We are assuming that the operation getnode(p) obtains an empty node and sets the
contents of a variable named p to the address of that node.
p
Getnode(p)
p
x
Info(x) = p
List
58

next(p) = list
List
p
list = p
59

Data Structure

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The variable can be 31 characters long.

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getchar is a macro that gets a character from stdin

The GETCH and GETCHE Function

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1. Write a C program to determine the sum of odd and even numbers.

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2. Write a C program to count the number of positive, negative and zero

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14. Program to implement the Tower of Hanoi

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17. Program to implement to Pascal Triangle

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OBJ (Object file)

Data Structures Definition

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Single Linked List

Single Linked List

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Insertion in the middle node

Insertion in the last node

Deletion in the head node

Deletion in the middle node

Deletion in the last node

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Previous next =NULL

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Pre order method

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Pre order method

in the comparison function as we desire.

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messages given priority weighting, higher numbers give better service

Removal causes heap to be reheapified. For example if we remove 9

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The partition phase and

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quicksort( void *a, int low, int

Initial Step - First Partition

Sort Left Partition in the same way

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create(s) - To create s as an empty stack.

push(s,i) - To insert the element I on top of the stack s.

- To return the top element of stack(s).

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Pop an element from the stack

Pop an element from the stack