1.

0 INTRODUCTION
1.1

Fundamental Concepts Of Base Isolation

The term base isolation uses the word a) isolation in its meaning of the state of being
separated and b) base as a part that supports from beneath or serves as a foundation for an
object or structure. As suggested in the literal sense, the structure (a building, bridge or piece
of equipment) is separated from its foundation. The original terminology of base isolation is
more commonly replaced with seismic isolation nowadays, reflecting that in some cases the
separation is somewhere above the base for example, in a building the superstructure may
be separated from substructure columns. In another sense, the term seismic isolation is more
accurate anyway in that the structure is separated from the effects of the seism, or earthquake.
The only way a structure can be supported under gravity is to rest on the ground. Isolation
conflicts with this fundamental structural engineering requirement. How can the structure be
separated from the ground for earthquake loads but still resist gravity? It is practical isolation
systems that provide a compromise between attachment to the ground to resist gravity and
separation from the ground to resist earthquakes. Seismic isolation is a means of reducing the
seismic demand on the structure.

Figure 1: concept of base isolation

1.2

Basic Elements Of Base Isolation

Seismic Isolation increases the fundamental period of vibration so that the structure is
subjected to lower earthquake forces. However, the reduction in force is accompanied by an
increase in displacement demand which must be accommodated within the flexible mount,
Furthermore, longer period buildings can be lively under service loads. The following are
three basic elements in any practical isolation system, they are:
1. A flexible mounting so that the period of vibration of the building is lengthened
sufficiently to reduce the force response.
2. A damper of energy dissipater so that the relative deflections across the flexible mounting
can be limited to a practical design level.
3. A means of providing rigidity under low (service) load levels such as wind and braking
force.

Flexibility: Due to additional flexibility the period of structure is elongated. From the
acceleration response curve shown in it may be observed that reductions in base shear occur
as the period of vibration of the structure is lengthened. The extent to which these forces are
reduced is primarily dependent on the nature of the earthquake ground motion and the period
of the non-isolated structure.

Figure 1.1: acceleration response curve

Energy dissipation: Additional flexibility needed to lengthen the period of the structure
will give rise to large relative displacement across the flexible mount. Large relative
displacements can be controlled if substantial additional damping is introduced into the
structure at the isolation level. One of the most effective means of providing a substantial
level of damping is through hysteric energy dissipation. The hysteric refers to the offset
between the loading and unloading curves under cyclic loading.

Rigidity under low lateral loads: While lateral flexibility is highly desirable for high
seismic loads, it is clearly undesirable to have a structural system which will vibrate
perceptibly under frequently occurring loads such as wind Loads or braking loads.
Mechanical energy dissipaters may be used to provide rigidity at these service loads by virtue
of their high initial elastic stiffness.

1.3

Action Of Base Isolation

Hence, base isolation or, seismic isolation separates upper structure from base or, from
down structure by changing of fix joint with flexible one. Increasing of flexibility is done by
the insertion of additional elements in structure, known as isolators. Usually, these isolators
are inserted between upper structure and foundation. Seismic isolation system absorbs larger
part of seismic energy. Therefore, vibration effects of soil to upper structure are drastically
reduced. For base isolated structure the situation is quite different. In such cases, the whole
upper structure gets a displacement (which naturally remains in limits) and the relative
displacement of different stories is so small that the structure can withstand a comparatively
high seismic tremor with a low seismic loading in a safe, efficient and economic manner.

1.4

Goal Of Base Isolation

A high proportion of the world is subjected to earthquakes and society expects that structural
engineers will design our buildings so that they can survive the effects of these earthquakes.
As for all the load cases encountered in the design process, such as gravity and wind, should
work to meet a single basic equation: CAPACITY > DEMAND.
Earthquakes happen and are uncontrollable. So, in that sense, we have to accept the demand
and make sure that the capacity exceeds it. The earthquake causes inertia forces proportional
to the product of the building mass and the earthquake ground accelerations. As the ground
accelerations increases, the strength of the building, the capacity, must be increased to avoid
structural damage. But it is not practical to continue to increase the strength of the building
indefinitely. In high seismic zones the accelerations causing forces in the building may
exceed one or even two times the acceleration due to gravity, g. It is easy to visualize the
strength needed for this level of load strength to resist 1 g means than the building could
resist gravity applied sideways, which means that the building could be tipped on its side and
held horizontal without damage. Designing for this level of strength is not easy, nor cheap.
So, most codes allow engineers to use ductility to achieve the capacity. Ductility is a concept
of allowing the structural elements to deform beyond their elastic limit in a controlled
manner. Beyond this limit, the structural elements soften and the displacements increase with
only a small increase in force. The elastic limit is the load point up to which the effects of
loads are non- permanent; that is, when the load is removed the material returns to its initial
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condition. Once this elastic limit is exceeded changes occur. These changes are permanent
and non reversible when the load is removed. A design philosophy focused on capacity leads
to a choice of two evils:
1. Continue to increase the elastic strength. This is expensive and for buildings leads to
higher floor accelerations. Mitigation of structural damage by further strengthening may
cause more damage to the contents than would occur in a building with less strength.
2. Limit the elastic strength and detail for ductility. This approach accepts damage to
structural components, which may not be repairable.
Base isolation takes the opposite approach, it attempts to reduce the demand rather than
increase the capacity. We cannot control the earthquake itself but we can modify the demand
it makes on the structure by preventing the motions being transmitted from the foundation
into the structure above. So, the primary reason to use isolation is to mitigate earthquake
effects. Naturally, there is a cost associated with isolation and so it only makes sense to use it
when the benefits exceed this cost. And, of course, the cost benefit ratio must be more
attractive than that available from alternative measures of providing earthquake resistance.
Nowadays Base Isolation is the most powerful tool of the earthquake engineering pertaining
to the passive structural vibration control technologies. It is meant to enable a building or
non-building structure to survive a potentially devastating seismic impact through a proper
initial design or subsequent modifications. In some cases, application of Base Isolation can
raise both a structure's seismic performance and its seismic sustainability considerably

1.5 Comparative Study Of Base Isolation And Fixed

Base:
A large proportion of worlds population lives in regions of seismic hazards, at risk from
earthquakes of varying severity and frequency of occurrence. Earthquake causes significant
loss of life and damage of property every year. So, to mitigate the effect of earthquake on
building the base isolation technique one of the best solutions. Seismic isolation consists of
essentially the installation of mechanisms which decouple the structure from base by
providing seismic isolators. The seismic isolation system is mounted beneath the
superstructure and is referred as Base Isolation. The main purpose of the base isolation
device is to minimize the horizontal acceleration transmitted to the superstructure. Base
isolation is very promising technology to protect different structures like building, bridges,
airport terminals and nuclear power plants etc. from seismic excitation.
The earthquakes in the recent past have provided enough evidence of performance of
different type of structures under different earthquake conditions and at different foundation
conditions as a food for thought to the engineers and scientists. This has given birth to
different type of techniques to save the structures from the earthquakes effects. Conventional
seismic design attempts to make buildings that do not collapse under strong earthquake
shaking, but may sustain damage to non-structural elements (like glass facades) and to some
structural members in the building. This may render the building non-functional after the
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earthquake, which may be problematic in some structures, like hospitals, which need to
remain functional in the aftermath of the earthquake. Two basic technologies are used to
protect buildings from damaging earthquake effects. These are Base Isolation Devices and
Seismic Dampers. Base isolation is also known as seismic base isolation or base isolation
system. Seismic isolation separates the structure from the harmful motions of the ground by
providing flexibility and energy dissipation capability through the insertion of the isolated
device so called isolators between the foundation and the building structure.

Figure 2: fixed base and isolated base

2. EARTHQUAKE PROTECTIVE SYSTEMS

Structural control for seismic loads is a rapidly expanding field and the family of control
systems, also known as earthquake protective systems, now embraces passive, active and
hybrid systems. Applications to buildings, bridges and industrial plant have been made in
many of the seismically active countries of the world. Structural control provides an
alternative to conventional design methods, which are based on ductile (yielding) response. In
many applications, elastic performance during large earthquake events is economically
feasible and the methodology permits performance-based design criteria, now required in
many modern seismic design codes, to be satisfied more readily than conventional methods.
Applications to the retrofit of existing structures have been particularly attractive, especially
to the upgrading of historical buildings.
As noted above, the family of earthquake protective systems has grown to include passive,
active and hybrid (semi-active) systems as shown in Figure 1. Passive systems are perhaps
the best known and these include seismic (base) isolation and passive (mechanical) energy
dissipation. Certainly isolation is the most developed member of the family at the present
time with continuing developments in hardware, applications, design codes and retrofit
manuals. But there has also been continuing growth in the passive energy dissipation field
with an increasing number of different kinds of dissipation devices being developed,
accompanied by technically complex applications such as those found in near-field sites.

Figure3: family of earthquake protective systems

2.1 Passive Protective Systems

Research and development on passive energy dissipation systems began about the same time
as modern isolation, motivated at the time, by a need to control isolator displacements. Thus
the early passive energy dissipaters were used in association with elastomeric and sliding
isolators and were principally of the metallic type (steel cones and tapered plates). Today the
state-of-the-art has evolved to the point where they are used as an alternate to isolation and
may be incorporated within the structural frame of a building or between the super and
substructures of a bridge. Their function is to dissipate energy during an earthquake and
reduce the demand on the structural frame. However, these dampers will also add strength
and stiffness to the frame and if these contributions are large compared to the frame itself,
they may offset the advantages generated by the increase in damping.
Nevertheless, significant reductions in damage to the frame (ductile yielding) are possible but
not to the same extent as that provided by an isolation system. However, unlike isolation,
passive energy dissipators also reduce wind response and are applicable to a wider range of
structures, especially those sensitive to long period ground motions. In retrofit situations they
may also be less intrusive than a comparable isolation system. Passive energy dissipators may
be simply classified as hysteretic or viscoelastic [Constantinou, Soong, and Dargush, 1998].
Hysteretic dissipators include the yielding of metals due to flexure, shear, torsion, or
extrusion (metallic dampers) and sliding (friction dampers). They are all essentially
displacement-dependent devices.
Viscoelastic systems include viscoelastic solids, fluid orificing (fluid dampers), and
viscoelastic fluids. They are essentially velocity-dependent devices (viscous in nature) and
many are also frequency dependent. Some passive energy dissipators are modifications of the
above set and may include elastic springs or pressurized cylinders to develop pre-load and recentering capabilities. In a subset of passive energy dissipators are tuned mass dampers
(TMD) and tuned liquid dampers (TLD). Used principally for controlling wind vibrations in
elastic structures these vibration absorbers dampen motion by transferring kinetic energy
between various modes of vibration. Tuned to a particular dominant mode, such a device may
enhance the damping in tall structures by about 5%, which is usually sufficient for improved
comfort levels during wind storms. Seismic applications are however rare and these devices
are not discussed further in this paper. It is perhaps worth noting that TMDs are frequently
used during the construction of tall slender structures, such as the towers of suspension
bridges, for protection against wind loads. The worlds longest suspension bridge, the
Akashi-Kaikyo bridge near Kobe, Japan, was under construction at the time of the Great
Hanshin Earthquake in 1995. The epicenter was on the Nojima fault which passes between
the two towers at a shallow angle. Although at their full height at the time of the earthquake,
the towers were not damaged, possibly due (in part) to the presence of the TMDs. Common
passive energy dissipators in use today include hysteretic flexural, torsional and extrusion
devices, friction dampers, and viscoelastic solid and fluid dampers. In 1998, the number of
applications in North America (Mexico, US and Canada) was of the order of 80
[Constantinou, Soong and Dargush, 1998]. Of these about onehalf were viscoelastic fluid
dampers, one-third were friction dampers, and the remaining one-sixth included hysteretic,
viscoelastic solid, and tuned mass dampers.

2.2 Active, Hybrid And Semi-Active Control Systems

Active, semi-active and hybrid structural control systems are a natural evolution of passive
control technologies such as base isolation and passive energy dissipation. The possible use
of active control systems and some combinations of passive and active systems, so called
hybrid systems, as a means of structural protection against wind and seismic loads has
received considerable attention in recent years. Active/hybrid control systems are force
delivery devices integrated with real-time processing evaluators/controllers and sensors
within the structure. They act simultaneously with the hazardous excitation to provide
enhanced structural behavior for improved service and safety. Remarkable progress has been
made over the last twenty years. The First and Second World Conferences on Structural
Control held in 1994 [Housner et al, 1994b] and 1998 [Kobori et al, 1998], respectively,
attracted over 700 participants from 17 countries and demonstrated the worldwide interest in
structural control. Research to date has reached the stage where active systems have been
installed in full-scale structures. Active systems have also been used temporarily in
construction of bridges or large span structures (e.g., lifelines, roofs) where no other means
can provide adequate protection.

Figure 6: structure with active control

3. ISOLATION SYSTEMS
Despite wide variation in detail base isolation technique follow two basic approaches with
certain common features. In the first approach the isolation system introduces the layer of
low lateral stiffness between the structure and the foundation. With this isolation layer the
structure has a natural period that is much longer than its fixed base natural period. as shown
by the elastic diagram spectrum, this lengthening of period can reduce the pseudo
acceleration and hence the earthquake induced forces in the structure but the deformation is
increased. This deformation is concentrated in the isolation system, however, accompanied
by only small deformations in the structure .this type of structure is effective even if the
system is linear and undamped. Damping is beneficial, however, in further reducing the
forces in the structure and the deformation in the isolation system.
The most common system of this uses short, cylindrical bearings with one or more holes and
alternating layers of steel plates and hard rubber. Interposed between the base of the structure
and the foundation these laminated bearings are strong and stiff under vertical loads yet very
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flexible under lateral forces. because the natural damping of the structure is low. Additional
damping is provided in the form of mechanical damper.
The second most common type of isolation system uses sliding elements between the
foundation and the base of the structure. The shear force transmitted to the structure across
the isolation interface is limited by keeping the coefficient of friction as low as practical.
However, the friction must be sufficiently high to sustain strong winds and earthquakes
without sliding, a requirement that reduces the isolation effect. In this type of isolation system
the sliding displacements are controlled by high tension springs and laminated rubber
bearings,or by making the sliding systems curved;these mechanisms prvide a restoring force,
otherwise unavailable in this type of system, to return the structure to its equilibrium
position.the friction pendulum system FPS is sliding isolation system wherein the weight of
the structure is supposed on spherical sliding surfaces that slide relative to eachother when
the ground motion exceeds a threshold level.the restoring action is caused by raising the
building slightly when sliding occurs on the spherical surface. The dynamics of structures on
slider type isolation systems is complicated because the slip process is intrinsically non
lienear.

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3.1 Recognition Of Isolation Types

Many types of isolation system have been proposed and have been developed to varying
stages, with some remaining no more than concepts and others having a long list of installed
projects. A discussion of generic types of system and focus on different types (especially
rubber bearing) of isolators along with their characteristics is provided subsequently.

4.0

TYPES OF ISOLATOR

The development of isolators ensured the properties required for the achievement of perfect
base isolation. The chart details the various types of Isolators used through out the world. A
brief description along with their basic functions and advantages is also included just after the
chart. As the present research is mainly highlighting the use of LRB and HDRB type of
isolator, so special attention is given to their characteristics.

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4.1 Bearing Type

4.1.1 Elastomeric (Rubber) Bearings
Rubber bearings are formed of horizontal layers of natural or synthetic rubber in thin layers
bonded between steel plates. The steel plates prevent the rubber layers from blown up or
busting. In such mechanism the bearing is capable to support higher vertical loads with only
smaller deflection (typically 1 to 3 mm under full gravity load). The internal steel layers do
not restrict horizontal deformations of the rubber layers in shear. So, the bearings are much
more flexible under lateral loads than vertical loads. This is why; the bearing works as a
flexible unit.

Characteristics Of Rubber Isolator

As described earlier, isolation system works with the principle that a rigid mass is isolated
from a flexible supporting structure. Optimum isolation of a building from ground may be
achieved by choosing a rubber bearing isolator based on the knowledge of its static and
dynamic characteristics determined from laboratory experiments. For this reason,
understanding the properties of rubber isolators is necessary for the vibration analysis. Some
of the important properties are as follows.

(a) Load Capacity And Size Of Rubber Bearings

For most bearing types the plan size required increases as vertical load increases but the
height or radius is constant regardless of vertical loads. This is because all bearings at such
stages are subjected to the same displacement. Therefore, the bearing can be sized according
to the vertical loads they support. Three types of curves are seen in the plot. All the curves are
showing that the lower the vertical load, the lower the required bearing diameter.

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(b) Absorption
Shocks originating due to the occurrence of an earthquake can be controlled if substantial
additional damping is introduced into the isolation system. A high damping rubber isolator
provides a substantial level of damping through hysteretic energy dissipation. Hysteretic
refers to the offset between the loading and unloading curves under cyclic loading. Figure
shows an idealized force- displacement loop where the enclosed area is measure of the energy
dissipated during one cycle of motion.

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(c) Durability Under Cyclic Loading

Rubber isolator remains more or less stable under cyclic loading. Results of cyclic
displacement test applied, to a rubber isolator shows that at a speed equivalent to an actual
seismic event the friction factor remains stable. Figure shows a typical friction factor versus
number of cycles in a cyclic loading test of rubber isolator. The figure represents that rubber
isolator is durable. There are mainly two types of Rubber Bearing. They are LRB and
HDRB.

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 Lead rubber bearing (LRB)

This type of elastomeric bearings consist of thin layers of low damping natural rubber and
steel plates built in alternate layers and a lead cylinder plug firmly fitted in a hole at its centre
to deform in pure shear as shown in Figure 14. The LRB was invented in New Zealand in
1975 and has been used extensively in New Zealand, Japan and United States. The steel
plates in the bearing force the lead plug to deform in shear. This bearing provides an elastic
restoring force and also, by selection of the appropriate size of lead plug, produces required
amount of damping. The force deformation behavior of the bearing is shown in Figure.
Performance of LRB is maintained during repeated strong earthquakes, with proper durability
and reliability.

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Basic functions of LRB

(1) Load supporting function: Rubber reinforced with steel plates provides stable
support for structures. Multilayer construction rather than single layer rubber pads provides
better vertical rigidity for supporting a building.
(2) Horizontal elasticity function (prolonged oscillation period): With the help of
LRB, earthquake vibration is converted to low speed motion. As horizontal stiffness of the
multi- layer rubber bearing is low, strong earthquake vibration is lightened and the oscillation
period of the building is increased.
(3) Restoration function: Horizontal elasticity of LRB returns the building to its original
position. In a LRB, elasticity mainly comes from restoring force of the rubber layers. After an
earthquake this restoring force returns the building to the original position.
(4) Damping function: Provides required amount of damping necessary. LRB mainly are
of two shapes. One is conventional round and the other type is square. Though their basic
function remains same, yet changes in shapes are advantageous. In many occasions as
economy concern, reduced size, stability and capacity for large deformation.

High Damping Rubber Bearing (HDRB)

HDRB is one type of elastomeric bearing. This type of bearing consist of thin layers of high
damping rubber and steel plates built in alternate layers as shown in Figure. The vertical
stiffness of the bearing is several hundred times the horizontal stiffness due to the presence of
internal steel plates. Horizontal stiffness of the bearing is controlled by the low shear
modulus of elastomer while steel plates provides high vertical stiffness as well as prevent
bulging of rubber. High vertical stiffness of the bearing has no effect on the horizontal
stiffness. The damping in the bearing is increased by adding extra-fine carbon block, oils or
resins and other proprietary fillers. The dominant features of HDRB system are the parallel
action of linear spring and viscous damping. The damping in the isolator is neither viscous
nor hysteretic, but somewhat in between. The ideal force deformation behaviour of the
bearing is shown in Figure.
17

Figure 15: high damping rubber bearings

18

Figure 16: force deformation behaviour

Basic functions of HDRB

(1) Vertical load bearing function: Rubber reinforced with steel plates provides stable support
for structures. Multilayer construction rather than single layer rubber pads provides better
vertical rigidity for supporting a building.
(2) Horizontal elasticity function (prolonged oscillation period): With the help of HDRB
earthquake vibration is converted to low speed motion. As horizontal stiffness of the multilayer rubber bearing is low, strong earthquake vibration is lightened and the oscillation period
of the building is increased.
(3) Restoration function: Horizontal elasticity of HDRB returns the building to its original
position. In a HDRB, elasticity mainly comes from restoring force of the rubber layers. After
an earthquake this restoring force returns the building to the original position.
(4) Damping function: Provides required amount of damping up to a higher value.

4.1.2 Sliding Bearings

Sliding isolation system (Figure) is simple in concept and it has a theoretical appeal. A layer
with a defined coefficient of friction will limit the acceleration to this value and the forces,
which can be transmitted, will also be limited to the coefficient of friction multiplied by
weight.

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Figure 17: Sliding bearings

Following are some of the utilities of using sliders:
(1)Sliding movement provides flexibility and the force displacement traces a rectangular
shape that is the optimum for equivalent viscous damping.
(2) A pure sliding system will have unbounded displacements, with an upper limit equal to
the maximum ground displacements for a coefficient of friction close to zero. Two types of
sliding systems are commonly used. A brief description with their basic functions, advantages
and suitability is as follows.

Sliding Support With Rubber-Pad (SSR)

When sliding base isolation system incorporates multilayer natural rubber pad then it is
known as SSR. Advantages of such bearings are:
(1) SSR can provide vibration isolation for light loads as well as large deformation
performance like a large-scale isolation system.
(2) It provides protection against a wide range of tremors from small vibrations to major
earthquakes.
(3) It can be used in conjunction with other isolation systems such as LRB and HDRB.

Basic functions of SSR

For small vibrations, shear deformation of the rubber layers provides the same isolation effect
as conventional multilayer rubber bearings. For large vibrations, sliding materials slide to
provide the same deformation performance as large-scale isolation systems.

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 Friction Pendulum System (FPS)

Sliding friction pendulum isolation system (Figure) is one type of flexible isolation system
suitable for small to large-scale buildings. It combines sliding a sliding action and a restoring
force by geometry. Functions of FPS are same as SSR system.
Advantages of FPS include:
(1) It is possible to set the oscillation period of a building regardless of its weight.
(2) This system can reduce costs not only because of the low cost of its device but also due to
the low cost of installation.
(3) The device is simple, works well and easy to install. Furthermore, it saves space and is
practical for a seismic reinforcement.
(4) Performance of such device is stable due to the high durability of the device.
(5) As it requires only a simple visual check to maintain the device, maintenance is very easy

Figure 18: friction pendulum system

4.2 Damping type

Damping provides sufficient resistance to structure against service loading. The effect of
damping on dynamic response is beneficial. Generally all structural systems exhibit damping
to various degrees. It is assumed that, structural damping is viscous by nature. Damping
coefficient relates force to velocity. If damping coefficient is sufficiently large, it is possible
to totally restrain the oscillatory motion. Damping that suppress totally the oscillatory motion
is termed as critical damping. Damping is usually neglected in frequency and period
calculations unless it exceeds about 20%.Normally two types of damping are used in
building. A brief description follows.

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4.2.1 Elementary Damping

This really means damping as a whole, i.e. the device (each and every element) itself acts as a
purely damping device rather than an isolator. Purely damping devices can be used in low
weight buildings to restrain the oscillating motion of the building. Another option may be
using in conjunction with rubber bearing so-called as High Damping Rubber bearing. In such
devices amount of damping is significantly high, usually from 8 to 15% of critical damping.
Lead plug damper is one of the forms of elementary damping. The basic functions of such
damper include:
(a) Vibration damping Junction: Lead plug damper absorbs large vibration of the
building. As the layers of rubber are distorted, the lead plug is plastically deformed and at
such stage it absorbs the earthquake energy and quickly damps the vibration.
(b) Trigger function: It also reduces vibration form source other than earthquake. For
example, when vibration is generated by strong winds, the relative rigidity of the lead plug
reduces the effect of such vibration.

4.2.2 Supplementary Damping

There are some types of isolators (discussed in bearing portion), which are capable of
providing flexibility but not significant damping, or resistance to service loads. In order to
strengthen the damping phenomena, supplementary devices are included with general
Isolators. Damping of such type can be termed as supplementary damping. One of the most
popular types of supplementary damping is viscous damping. This device provides damping
but not service load resistance. It does not have any elastic stiffness and for this reasons it
adds less force to the system than other devices.

4.3 Other Types

Apart from bearing and sliding type, there are some other types of isolators, which are also
used in building but rarely. Springs, rollers, sleeved piles are some examples of such
isolators. A brief description of them is also included here.

4.3.1 Springs
Spring isolators are devices whose working mechanism is based on steel springs. They are
mostly used for machinery isolation. The main drawbacks of springs are two. Firstly, they are
most flexible in both the vertical and horizontal directions. Secondly, springs alone have little
damping and will move excessively under service loads.

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4.3.2 Rollers
Cylindrical rollers and ball bearings are of this type. Like springs they are commonly used for
machinery isolation. The resistance to movement and damping of rollers and ball bearings are
sufficient under service loads.

4.3.3 Sleeved piles

The pin ended structural members, that is, piles inside a sleeve provide flexibility and allow
movement of the soft first story in a building. This type of piles is known assleeved piles.
Sleeved piles provide flexibility but no damping. Hence damping devices are required to use
along with sleeved piles.

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5.0 Applications:
In recent years base isolation has become an increasingly applied structural design technique
for buildings and bridges in highly seismic areas. Many types of structures have been built
using this approach, and many others are in the design phase or under construction. Most of
the completed buildings and those under construction use rubber isolation bearings in some
way in the isolation system.
The ideas behind the concept of base isolation are quite simple. There are two basic types of
isolation systems. The system that has been adopted most widely in recent years is typified by
the use of elastomeric bearings, the elastomer made of either natural rubber or neoprene. In
this approach, the building or structure is decoupled from the horizontal components of the
earthquake ground motion by interposing a layer with low horizontal stiffness between the
structure and the foundation. This layer gives the structure a fundamental frequency that is
much lower than its fixed-base frequency and also much lower than the predominant
frequencies of the ground motion. The first dynamic mode of the isolated structure involves
deformation only in the isolation system, the structure above being to all intents and purposes
rigid. The higher modes that will produce deformation in the structure are orthogonal to the
first mode and consequently also to the ground motion. These higher modes do not
participate in the motion, so that if there is high energy in the ground motion at these higher
frequencies, this energy cannot be transmitted into the structure. The isolation system does
not absorb the earthquake energy, but rather deflects it through the dynamics of the system.
This type of isolation works when the system is linear and even when undamped; however,
some damping is beneficial to suppress any possible resonance at the isolation frequency.
The second basic type of isolation system is typified by the sliding system. This works by
limiting the transfer of shear across the isolation interface. Many sliding systems have been
proposed and some have been used. In China there are at least three buildings on sliding
systems that use a specially selected sand at the sliding interface. A type of isolation
containing a lead-bronze plate sliding on stainless steel with an elastomeric bearing has been
used for a nuclear power plant in South Africa. The friction-pendulum system is a sliding
system using a special interfacial material sliding on stainless steel and has been used for
several projects in the United States, both new and retrofit construction.

Research At EERC
Research on the development of natural rubber bearings for isolating buildings from
earthquakes began in 1976 at the Earthquake Engineering Research Center (EERC) (now
PEER, the Pacific Engineering Research Center) of the University of California at Berkeley.
The initial research program was a joint effort by EERC and the Malaysian Rubber Producers
Research Association (MRPRA), U.K. The program was funded by MRPRA through a
number of grants over several years, with later funding provided by the National Science
Foundation and the Electric Power Research Institute. Professor James M. Kelly directed the
research at EERC, which included considerable theoretical and experimental contributions by
graduate students.
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Although not an entirely new idea at the timea few methods using rollers or sliders had
been proposedthe concept of base isolation was considered to be very impractical by most
of the structural engineering profession. The research project began with a set of hand-made
bearings of extremely low-modulus rubber used with a simple three-story, single-bay, 20-ton
model. Shaking table tests showed that isolation bearings could bring about reductions in
acceleration by factors of as much as ten when compared to those of conventional design and
that, as predicted, the model would respond as a rigid body with all deformation concentrated
in the isolation system. It was also clear that a certain degree of damping was needed in the
system and that the scale of the model was too small to allow more practical rubber
compounds to be used.
In 1978, a more convincing demonstration of the isolation concept was achieved with a more
realistic five-story, three-bay model weighing 40 tons and by using damping-enhanced
bearings made by commercial techniques. A strong interest throughout the EERC research
program was in the influence of isolation on the response of equipment and contents in a
structure, which tend to sustain more damage when conventional methods of seismic-resistant
design are used and which, in many buildings, are much more costly than the structure itself.
An extensive series of tests on the five-story frame demonstrated that isolation with rubber
bearings could provide very substantial reductions in the accelerations experienced by
internal equipment, exceeding the reductions experienced by the structure. However, the
same tests showed that when additional elements (such as steel energy-absorbing devices,
frictional systems, or lead plugs in the bearings) were added to the isolation system to
increase damping, the reductions in acceleration to the equipment were not achieved because
the added elements also induced responses in the higher modes of the structure, affecting the
equipment. It became clear that the optimum method of increasing damping was to provide it
in the rubber compound itself. This method was applied later in the compound developed by
MRPRA and used in the first base-isolated building in the United States, described below.
Rubber bearings are relatively easy to manufacture, have no moving parts, are unaffected by
time, and are very resistant to environmental degradation.

Base Isolation In US
The first base-isolated building in the United States is the Foothill Communities Law and
Justice Centre, a $30 million legal services center in Rancho Cucamonga San Bernardino
County, about 97 km (60 miles) east of downtown Los Angeles. Completed in 1985, the
building is four stories high with a full basement and sub-basement for the isolation system,
which consists of 98 isolators of multilayered natural rubber bearings reinforced with steel
plates. The superstructure of the building has a structural steel frame stiffened by braced
frames in some bays.
Foothill Communities Law and Justice Center.
The building is located 20 km (12 miles) from the San
Andreas fault. San Bernardino County, the first in the
U.S. to have a thorough earthquake preparedness
program, asked that the building be designed for a
Richter magnitude 8.3 earthquake, the maximum credible
earthquake for that site. The design selected for the
isolation system, which accounted for possible torsion,
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incorporated a maximum horizontal displacement demand of 380 mm (15 in.) in the isolators
at the corners of the building. Tests of full-scale sample bearings verified this capacity.
The highly filled natural rubber from which the isolators are made, developed as part of the
EERC research program, has mechanical properties that make it ideal for a base isolation
system. The shear stiffness of this rubber is high for small strains but decreases by a factor of
about four or five as the strain increases, reaching a minimum value at a shear strain of 50
percent. For strains greater than 100 percent, the stiffness begins to increase again, providing
a fail-safe action under a very high load. The damping follows the same pattern but less
dramatically, decreasing from an initial value of 20 percent to a minimum of 10 percent and
then increasing again. The design of the system assumes minimum values of stiffness and
damping and a linear response. The high initial stiffness is invoked only for wind load design
and the large strain response only for fail-safe action.
This high-damping rubber system was also adopted for the Fire Department Command and
Control Facility (FCCF) of Los Angeles County, completed in 1990. (The same type of highdamping rubber bearing was also used for the Italian telephone company, S.I.P., Ancona,
Italy, the first modern base-isolated building in Europe.) The FCCF building houses the
computer systems for the emergency services of the county and is therefore required to
remain functional after an extreme event.
Fire Department Command and Control Facility.
The decision to use base isolation for this project was
reached by comparing conventional and isolation
schemes designed to provide the same degree of
protection. In most projects, the isolation design costs
five percent more. Not only was the isolation design
estimate 6 percent less in this case but is less for any
building when equivalent levels of protection are
considered. Furthermore, these costs are first costs. Life-cycle costs are even more favorable.
Also noteworthy is that the conventional code design requires only a minimal level of
protection, that the structure not collapse; whereas isolation design provides a higher level of
protection.
The University of Southern California Teaching Hospital in eastern Los Angeles is an eightstory concentrically braced steel frame supported on 68 lead rubber isolators and 81
elastomeric isolators. The building was instrumented by the California Strong Motion
Instrumentation Program soon after its completion in 1991. The foundation system consists
of spread footings and grade beams on rock. Because of functional requirements, both the
building plan and elevation are highly irregular with numerous setbacks over the height. Two
wings at either side of the building are connected through what is referred to as the "neckeddown" portion of the building, and in the original fixed-base design the irregular
configuration led to both coupling between the lateral and torsional vibration modes and very
large shear force demands in the slender region between the two rings.

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(Even in the isolated design steel trusses are required to carry the shears in the necked-down
region.) These were two of the main reasons that seismic isolation was eventually chosen for
this structure.
University of Southern California University Hospital.
The University of Southern California (USC) Teaching
hospital was 36 km (23 miles) from the epicenter of the
Mw 6.8 1994 Northridge earthquake. The peak ground
acceleration outside the building was 0.49 g, and the
accelerations inside the building were around 0.10 to
0.13 g. In this earthquake the structure was effectively
isolated from ground motions strong enough to cause
significant damage to other buildings in the medical
center. The records obtained from the USC hospital are particularly encouraging in that they
represent the most severe test of an isolated building to date.

Nuclear Applications
Isolation used in conventional nuclear plants greatly simplifies the expensive and timeconsuming design and qualification of the equipment, piping, and supports for seismic
loading. In addition, when seismic design criteria are increased due to the discovery of nearby
faults, for example, the plant need not be redesigned; upgrading the isolation system is
sufficient.
In an experimental program at EERC isolation bearings were designed, produced, and tested
for two types of liquid metal reactor designs. The first, called PRISM, uses high-shape factor
isolation bearings designed to provide horizontal isolation only. In the other design, SAFR,
the reactor is supported on low-shape bearings that provide both horizontal and vertical
isolation. The results of this test series extended the range of the isolator types with wellunderstood characteristics.

Base Isolation in Japan

After a slow start, base isolation research and development in Japan increased rapidly. The
first large base-isolated building was completed in 1986. Although such buildings in Japan
require special approval from the Ministry of Construction, as of June 30, 1998, 550 baseisolated buildings had been approved.
Base isolation has advanced rapidly in Japan for several reasons. The expenditure for
research and development in engineering is high with a significant amount designated
specifically for base isolation; the large construction companies aggressively market the
technology; the approval process for constructing a base-isolated building is a straightforward
and standardized process; and the high seismicity of Japan encourages the Japanese to favor
the long-term benefits of life safety and building life-cycle costs when making seismic design
decisions. The system most commonly used in the past has been natural rubber bearings with
mechanical dampers or lead-rubber bearings. Recently, however, there has been an increasing
use of high-damping natural rubber isolators. There are now several large buildings that use
these high-damping bearings: an outstanding example is the computer center for the Tohoku
Electric Power Company in Sendai, Miyako Province.
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6.0 Conclusion
The obligations for practical isolation system to be incorporated in building structures are
flexibility, Damping and resistance to service loads. Additional requirements such as
durability, cost, ease of installation and specific project requirements influences device
selection but all practical systems should contain these essential elements. The entire
superstructure is to be supported on discrete isolators whose dynamic characteristics are
chosen to uncouple the ground motion. Displacement and yielding are concentrated at the
level of the isolation devices, and the superstructure behaves very much like a rigid body. A
through revise has been done performed regarding the sequential development of seismic
isolation systems. This study also addressed the detail cram on isolation system, properties,
characteristics of various device categories, recognition along with its effect on building
Structures.

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