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ESDEP WG 14
STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS: BUILDINGS

Lecture 14.15: Tall Building Design

OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To describe the various structural systems for steel multi-storey buildings together with their
economies, relative efficiencies and advantages. To discuss the primary design factors affecting
the choice of system, and illustrate by examples of actual application.
PREREQUISITES
Lecture 4B.4: Practical Ways of Achieving Fire Resistance of Steel Structures
Lecture 10.9: Composite Buildings
RELATED LECTURES
Lectures 1B.7: Introduction to Design of Multi-Storey Buildings
Lecture 6.3: Elastic Instability Modes
Lecture 14.7: Anatomy of Multi-Storey Buildings
Lecture 14.8: Classification of Multi-Storey Frames
Lecture 14.9: Methods of Analysis for Multi-Storey Frames
Lecture 14.10: Simple Braced Non-Sway Multi-Storey Buildings
Lecture 14.11: Influence of Connections on Behaviour of Frames
Lecture 14.12: Simplified Method of Design for Low-Rise Frames
Lecture 14.13 Design of Multi-Storey Frames with Partial Strength and Semi-Rigid Connections
Lecture 14.14: Methods of Analysis of Rigid Jointed Frames
Lectures 17: Seismic Design
SUMMARY

Numerous new structural systems for multi-storey buildings, especially in steel, have evolved
since the mid-1960's. Many new forms which are efficient and economical for different ranges of
heights have been developed, including plane frames, core truss systems, belt truss systems and
varieties of tubular formations. Many of these systems have involved both steel and reinforced
concrete elements working compositely.
The evolution of the systems has also provided the impetus for many outstanding examples of
structurally expressive architecture. In some instances it has been possible, by exploiting recent
advances in fire engineering, to leave the steelwork exposed.

1. INTRODUCTION
Historically, the development of high-rise buildings in steel owes much to the rapid expansion
which took place in Chicago in the aftermath of the Great Fire of 1871. Determining factors were
the scarcity of building land and the availability since the mid Nineteenth Century, of elevator
technology. A further prerequisite was a construction system which would be sufficiently
reliable, strong and stiff, to permit construction to great height and which would be fireproof.
Structural steel systems for multi-storey buildings evolved from the traditional cast iron columnbeam systems of the late Nineteenth Century. These systems involved massive floors of stone or
brick masonry and structural members were sheathed and encased in masonry. While the steel
provided the basic resistance for carrying gravity loads, the masonry encasements themselves
provided considerable stiffening against wind forces in addition to fire protection. These systems
led to steel tiered construction, which generally maintained the rectilinear configuration of the
frame, but continuity of steel was now achieved through some form of semi-rigid, riveted or
bolted, beam-column joints. The frames were arranged with regular column spacings in both
directions and were again encased in concrete or masonry. Although the encasements contributed
significantly to lateral stiffness, the frame itself was required to carry a larger share of wind
forces. The architectural expression was still dominated by masonry with terra-cotta or brick or
similar materials often providing adornments, bays and other decorations on the facades. The
early Twentieth Century up to the 1930's saw a proliferation of such systems which culminated
in the Empire State Building in 1932[1]. The massing involved variations in plan along
rectilinear lines with setbacks often associated with zoning, with a pronounced tower form and
generally an articulated and decorated pyramidal top. On the interior, the column spans were
generally in the range of 6m to 7,5m.
As the demand grew for lighter, taller and more rapidly constructed structures, the same frame
'vocabulary' was continued with bolted or welded rigid joints, often with diagonal wind bracing
between some columns in the core. In time, masonry cladding gave way to lighter forms of
cladding, heavy masonry partitions were replaced by light drywall construction and concrete fire
protection was replaced by a light sprayed-on material. This trend is exemplified by the 25storey Lever House Building in New York, built in 1952, which has a metal and glass facade and
lighter non-structural materials.
The trend in tall building design after the mid-1950's was to provide larger open spaces with
longer spans and simpler facades with a clearly perceptible column grid. The influence of Mies

van der Rohe, with respect to modularity of facades and structural frame expression, permeated
tall building exterior architecture in the 1950's and 1960's. The frame expression was often
simply and clearly depicted on the facade or in some cases, by special emphasis if highly
articulated, as shown in Figure 1. The evolution of a modular metal and glass curtain wall not
only gave rise to lighter enclosures, but also to non-integral window wall systems which were
simply supported on the structure. The floor plan was divided into a grid pattern of regular bays
in each direction and bay dimensions in the range of 7,5m to 10,5m were common. It should be
noted that such Vierendeel frames were basically very inefficient for resisting wind forces since
they could not rely on built-in encasements for some stiffening, and the structural premium for
height was considerable. It was recognised that the shear-frame concept was uneconomical for
structures over 25 storeys in height.

The idea that steel components can be assembled in various forms to constitute an overall threedimensional system which can efficiently resist wind forces as a total system began to emerge in
the 1960's. The main proponent of this design trend was Fazlur Khan who systematically pursued
a logical evolution of high-rise systems based on the premise that different height ranges demand
a new composition of steel framing to maintain a tolerable steel premium for height [2]. Many
systems were devised, such as Truss-Frame Interacting Systems, Tubular Systems, Bundled
Tubular Systems, Mixed Systems, etc. These structural developments, combined with the
pervasive Miesian approach to the architecture of the time, resulted in an explosion of
structurally oriented architecture in the 1960's and 1970's, which can truly be identified as the

Structuralist phase. In terms of massing, simple rectilinear prismatic forms with flat tops were
used for the most part. Simple form modulations included transforming the plan into the shape of
a cross or some other simple form.
A trend in the last decade has been to design buildings that are shaped both in plan and profile in
a variety of ways to respond to urban grid and subjective aesthetic criteria. Often the facade
architecture has reference to historic buildings of the turn of the Century with their masonry
expressions and profile setbacks. Varieties of stone cladding and combinations of stone and
precast concrete and other materials have evolved. The facade architecture is often compositional
in nature (with the slides, consider including Philip Johnson's 'Chippendale' architecture - AT &
T Building, New York (1978-83)) with respect to colour, texture and adornments. Geometric
forms have involved not only overall shaping, but also local undulations related to bays or
projections. All these developments have suppressed the Structuralist form of facade architecture
in all but a few special cases. The structural systems approach has taken on an aspect of "mix and
match" where pieces or parts of structural systems are blended to create an overall system to fit
the peculiarities of a certain form [3].
A brief discussion of the generic high-rise steel systems is given below followed by some
consideration of the design of ultra high-rise systems. The system descriptions are conceptual in
nature.
The height ranges (number of storeys) referred to in this Lecture for the various framing options
relate to American practice and American site dimensions. As slenderness is a significant
parameter, the width of the building should be taken into account in assessing the suitability of a
particular bracing option for a building of a given height.

2. SYSTEMS EVOLUTION
The steel systems developed between 1960 to 1975, fit a logical evolutionary pattern with one
development leading to another, each new system being a link in the process[4]. Although the
primary motivation for these developments was structural efficiency, the systems offered great
opportunities for Structuralist facade architecture.

2.1 Shear Frame Systems

Shear frames or Vierendeel frames, in which beams and columns are rigidly connected to
provide moment resistance at joints, are placed in two orthogonal directions to resist wind forces
in each direction. Each frame is required to resist its proportion of the wind shear, which is
determined on the basis of its relative stiffness compared to the total. The efficiency of
development of lateral stiffness is dependent on bay span, number of bays in the frame, number
of frames and the available depth in the floors for the frame girders. Bay dimensions in the range
of 6m to 9m are commonly used. In these shear frames, the predominant contribution to sway
deflection under wind load comes from the bending of beams and columns due to the wind shear
and to a smaller extent, from column shortening or the cantilever component (Figure 2). The
design of these frames is controlled therefore by the bending stiffnesses of individual members.
The deeper the member, the more efficiently the bending stiffness can be developed.

When the frames are regularly spaced in both directions, a rectilinear column grid is created
which is suitable for rectilinear plan forms. The architecture of these buildings has centred on
bay or frame expressions. An outstanding example of this expression is in the Business Mens
Assurance Building, Kansas City - a 20-storey structure built in about 1960 (Figure 1). Frames
can be placed at other angles or on an irregular basis to create various plan shapes to fill the area
of an irregular site. Shear frames can also be placed only on the exterior faces instead of using a
grid arrangement of frames.
In current practice, buildings with pure shear frames are generally restricted to only a few storeys
in height, since other more efficient forms are available. However, the uncluttered rectilinear
Vierendeel form may still be preferred in cases where other forms involving diagonals or trusses
may interfere with architecture and space planning. The basic inefficiency in shear frame
buildings arises from the need for moment-connected rigid joints which are expensive to
fabricate, in addition to the steel quantities involved. The optimization of frames in a practical
sense has centred on minimizing the number of such joints, replacement of field welding by field
bolting, and similar criteria.

2.2 Shear Truss and Frame System

Shear trusses can be provided in the vertical direction, if the organisation of the core permits
such an arrangement. In general, building core elements including elevator banks are centralized
and will permit core trusses connecting columns in at least one direction. These trusses combined
with perimeter shear frames produce a Shear Truss and Frame System (Figure 3). There may be
other interior frames which participate as well. This type of interacting system has a wide range
of application in structures from 10 to 40 storeys. In smaller buildings, the frame component may
be eliminated, with the result that all wind forces are resisted by the core trusses only. In some
isolated instances, braces have been provided in both directions. Particular coordination with
respect to providing access into the core needs then to be considered. The combination of the
Shear Frame and vertical braces produces interaction of two modes of behaviour, that of a Shear
Frame and a Cantilever (Figure 3). This combination produces desirable results in the stiffness
efficiency of the overall system.

Vertical trusses resist wind forces as a cantilever and therefore provide lateral stiffness more
efficiently than shear frames. However, the depth available to the truss, which is dependent on
the planning of the core area, determines the overall effectiveness of the system. For the truss
bracing K-forms, X-forms or single brace forms can be used. The K-form is commonest since
the bracings do not participate extensively in carrying gravity load, and can thus be designed for
axial forces due to wind without gravity axial forces being a major consideration. In the X and
single brace forms, gravity axial forces may dominate in the design of braces.
In general, Shear Truss and Frame Systems produce the most economical steel structural system
for buildings up to 30 storeys in height.

2.3 Frames, Vertical Trusses, Belt and Outrigger Trusses

The exterior fascia shear frames and the vertical trusses in the core can be tied together by a
system of outrigger and belt trusses which are provided at plant room levels, where the trusses
will not interfere with the interior space planning. Figure 4 shows the arrangement of trusses.
The primary result of the outrigger trusses is the development of axial forces in the exterior
columns due to wind action. This behaviour significantly improves the lateral stiffness under
wind forces. The use of belt trusses on the facades, at the same level and perpendicular to the
outrigger trusses, further enhances participation of exterior frames in the cantilever behaviour.
The belt trusses transform the two-dimensional frame system into a three-dimensional frame
system which resists wind action. The building sway under wind is significantly reduced by the
introduction of these trusses. A review of the deflection curve indicates two stiffening effects:
one related to the participation of the external columns in a total-building-width cantilever mode;
the other related to the stiffening of the facade frame by the belt trusses. Improvements in overall
stiffness of up to 25% can result as compared to the Shear Truss and Frame System without such
outrigger-belt trusses (Figure 5). The effectiveness of the system depends on the number of
trussed levels and the depth of the truss at each level.

The accompanying slide set provides illustration of the first Wisconsin Centre, Milwaukee, a 42storey building framed in this fashion.

2.4 The Framed Tube

If the facade shear frame is made stronger by closer spacing of columns and larger member
proportions and if such frames are continuous at corners, the overall frame is transformed into a
cantilever Framed Tube fixed at the ground. The effectiveness of the cantilever depends on the
minimization of the part of the sway deflection due to the shear frame. One basic objective is to

reduce this component to less than 25% of the total sway so that the predominant deformation is
that of a cantilever (Figure 6a). When such frames are provided on all four faces of a tower, one
obtains a hollow tubular configuration. This 'silo' form containing small window perforations is
most efficient in resisting wind forces. Figure 6b shows the distribution of column axial forces
due to cantilever action. The more the distribution is similar to that of a fully rigid box with
uniform axial stress on the flanges and triangular distribution on the webs, the more efficient the
system will be as a cantilever. The Framed Tube system was first introduced in the mid-1960's in
reinforced concrete. The dense grid exterior structure was readily formed, creating the
appearance of a punched tube. This system was adopted later for steel buildings.

The proportions of the Framed Tube require wide members for both beams and columns, and
they need to be rigid at the joints. In concrete, the rigid joint is achieved by the use of in-situ
concrete, whereas in structural steel, the joints need to be welded for rigidity and the members
built-up for larger widths. The use of a prefabricated Framed Tube "Tree" element (Figure 7)
where all welding can be done in the shop in a horizontal position has made the steel Framed
Tube more practical and efficient. The "Trees" are then erected by bolting at mid-span of the
beams. Considerable speed of construction of the order of 3 to 4 storeys per week can result if
"Trees" are used.

Steel Framed Tube buildings involve column spacings of 3m to 5m on the exterior which can be
transferred or transitioned into wider spacings, if required, at the lower storeys to integrate street
level activities. Such tubular systems have been used extensively for structures of 30 to 110
storeys in height. An outstanding example is the World Trade Centre in New York. Tubular
systems are generally adaptable to prismatic vertical profiles. For varying vertical profiles and
buildings involving significant fascia offsets, the discontinuity required in the tubular frame to
achieve the shape introduces serious disadvantages. The system can however, be readily adapted
to a variety of non-rectilinear plan forms.
Figure 8 shows a particular plan configuration that has been used as a Framed Tube. Provided
the proportionality of the elements of the tubes is maintained, any closed overall form can be
used as a Tubular system.

2.5 The Diagonalized Tube

The most efficient structure acting as a cantilever is the exterior Diagonalized system. This
system was first introduced in the John Hancock Centre in Chicago, a multi-use, 100-storey
structure (Figure 9a).

The system is essentially a Trussed Tube with the fascia diagonals not only acting as a truss in
the plane, but also interacting with the trusses on the perpendicular facades to develop the tube
action (Figure 9b). A principal advantage of the Trussed Tube is that it eliminates the need for
the closely spaced columns of a framed tube. In the John Hancock Centre, the column spacing on

the broad face is 12,2m and on the short face, 7,62m. Another advantage of this Tube is that the
interior is free from structure for resisting wind action. The Tube is therefore, most suitable for
multi-function buildings. Additional interior columns, as required, and simple floor framing
complete the system [5]. The 100-storey, 337,5m high John Hancock structure required only
141,8 kg of steel per square meter of gross area of floor. The design of most members was
controlled by gravity forces rather than wind forces. Simpler fabrication and erection techniques
resulted from shop fabrication of joints and field bolting. The clear disciplined structure set the
basis for the overall exterior architecture of this building.

The system is most efficient in a single exterior closed form, especially when in a rectilinear
shape. It is not readily adaptable where interior tube frame lines are present, In some special
cases, the interior diagonals can be organised to suit specific office layouts. The principal of
fascia diagonalization can be readily used for partial tubular concepts. For instance, in long
rectangular buildings, the end frames on the short face may be diagonalized, where the long face
is a Shear Frame. The end diagonalized frame may be in the form of a channel or "C" shape to
provide wind resistance in both directions. The diagonalization can also vary from a broad "X"
form to smaller "X's", thus transforming each facade into a diagrid braced system. Many
variations are possible, each having its own impact on the exterior architecture.

2.6 Bundled Tube or Modular Tube System

The need for vertical modulation in a logical fashion has created a variation of the tubular
structure based on clustering or bundling of smaller sized tubes, each of which rises to a different
height. This variation is typified by the bundled tube system of the Sears Tower in Chicago,

Figure 10. This building has brought about a new generic form of structure called the "Bundled
Tube" [6]. In the Sears Tower, the Bundled Tube is composed of 22,86m square modules, and
nine modules are lumped together to form the total system, as shown in Figure 10. These tubes
rise to different heights and are terminated when they are no longer needed architecturally and
structurally. The walls of the tube are formed by columns at 4,57m centres and deep frame
beams at each floor. The introduction of Framed Tube lines on the interior greatly reduced the
influence of the "shear lag" effect that is present in exterior tubes of large side dimensions
(Figure 10). The intent of the system was not only to create a powerful structural system, but also
to create vertical modulation in a logical fashion. The development of a variety of floor sizes and
shapes in the same building is considered a positive asset from the point of view of marketing
real estate.

The modularity and the conceptual basis of the Bundled Tube have a broad application. The cells
or tubes can be arranged in a variety of ways to create different massing. It can be applied to 30

storeys as well as to ultra-tall structures. Further, the shape of each tube itself can be changed to
any other closed clustered shape. Triangular and hexagonal units have been used in some
existing applications.
Two recent examples of the application of the Bundled Tube principle are worth noting. One is
the Crocker Centre in Los Angeles which involves two towers, 57 and 47 storeys in height. The
site conditions together with considerations of the sculptured form resulted in a shape which
included a square tube and a triangular tube, as shown in Figure 11a. A column spacing of 4,87m
was selected for the Tubular system. A significant advantage of the Bundled Tube system is the
enormous torsional resistance which is helpful in absorbing torsional lateral forces due to
asymmetry. In this case, the torsional loads were generated both by wind and seismic forces.
The Framed-Tube buildings that have hitherto been adopted in wind controlled environments are
now being adapted to seismic designs, such as the Crocker Centre. Apart from meeting wind
deflection and stress criteria, the detailing of members and connections for ductility and an
appropriate sequence of plastic hinge formation is required. Higher tubular efficiencies result
from deeper beam members. However, this advantage has to be balanced with the strongcolumn, weak-beam principle to assure plastic hinges in the beam element. Other items include
panel zone areas which need to be reinforced with doubler plates.
The 75 storey, 296m high Allied Bank Tower in Houston is another example of the Bundled
Frame Tube application. The shape is formed by two quarter circles placed anti-symmetrically
about the middle tubular line, see Figure 11b. The column spacings are 4,57m with the usual
"tree" type construction. The system also uses two vertical trusses in the core which are
connected to the exterior tube by outrigger and belt trusses. Significant improvement in tubular
behaviour is obtained because of the participation of the trusses. This system, therefore,
embodies elements from the Framed Tube, Bundled Tube and Truss systems with belt and
outrigger trusses.

2.7 Mixed Steel-Concrete Systems

Mixed Steel-Concrete systems are now a well established new system that can be used as readily
as either steel or concrete systems for high-rise buildings [7]. Such mixed systems which involve
reinforced concrete and structural steel components in forms that are generally applicable, such
as the Composite Tubular system, and Concrete Core Braced systems, have been widely used.
Composite structures in a true sense, they have liberated the traditionally rigid discipline of
either steel or concrete elements. The properties of concrete that are most attractive are its
rigidity and its ability to be cast into different types of structural elements. Therefore, most
mixed systems rely on concrete for lateral load resistance. Shear wall elements and/or punched
wall or framed-tube elements with monolithically cast beam-column joints are of higher strength
concrete. Concrete has extended the application to structures of 50 to 80 storeys in height.
Concrete strengths of 40N/mm2 to 55N/mm2 are commonly used, but in some cases, strengths up
to 95N/mm2 have been used. The floor framing is of steel in mixed systems, which is
advantageous because of the ability to span longer distances with lighter members. Thus larger
column-free spaces are possible.

2.7.1 Composite tube systems

The first Canadian Centre in Calgary, Canada consists of two towers and a 10-storey banking
pavilion, located on an L-shaped site. The two towers are 64 and 43 storeys in height. A sculpted
form which provides diagonal vistas to mountains and the city was highly desirable for this
prominent corner site. Each tower is similarly shaped, basically involving a parallelogram with
truncated and re-entrant corners. The structural concept is based on a tube-in-tube concept
involving an exterior reinforced concrete framed-tube and an interior shear wall core tube.
Structural steel floor framing and other interior steel columns complete the system, as shown in
Figure 12. The Tube system on the exterior is a combination of Framed Tube of beams and
columns with solid walls at the corners.

2.7.2 Core braced systems

In contrast to exterior Tubular systems, Core Braced Systems resist wind forces by shear walls in
the core. Core walls for wind resistance have been utilized quite extensively in concrete
buildings. The closed tube shape is then in the interior with access penetrations into the core.
This type of core element can be used in a steel frame to form the Core Braced Steel system.
Since all wind forces are resisted by the concrete core, the steel components need only be
connected non-rigidly to resist gravity forces. In conventional buildings, the overall size of the
core wall tube is limited by the dimensional requirements of the core elements. However, it may
be possible in some cases to evolve a larger wall system that will be suitable for buildings in the
range of 50 to 80 storeys as illustrated below.
Figures 13a and 13b show an arrangement of cores for a 75-storey structure which required
considerable flexibility in exterior shaping with offsets and setbacks. A lighter, non-rigid
structure in steel on the exterior allowed this flexibility. The Core Wall Tube system was planned
with four inter-connected pods encasing an atrium in the lower part and an octagonal shaped core

in the upper parts. This simple arrangement of walls and cores allowed maximum efficiency of
the wall system for the structure and maximum flexibility for exterior architecture.

3. ULTRA HIGH-RISE STRUCTURES

As the height of a building increases, the ability to resist lateral forces becomes the predominant
structural design criterion. The major design criterion is the provision of enough lateral stiffness
to limit wind sway and to limit occupant motion perception to acceptable levels. The motion of
the building is essentially dynamic and all factors that affect this dynamic behaviour need to be
considered. The structural parameters are stiffness, damping and mass. Among the non-structural
parameters is the aspect of aerodynamic shaping of the building which will have a significant
effect, especially in ultra-tall structures. Two wind effects are to be recognized. One is down
wind behaviour, which is influenced by the drag parameters of the shape, and the other is the
cross wind behaviour influenced by the uniformity of the vortex shedding inherent in the shape.
While the basic design requirement of controlling lateral sway still predominates, overall shaping
of the form becomes equally significant. The architecture of the shape must then be suitably
integrated with its structural aspects to produce an optimum economic balance.

3.1 Superframe or Megaframe

Superframes or Megaframes assume the form of a portal which is provided on the exterior of a
building. The frames resist all wind forces as an exterior tubular structure. The portal frame of
the Superframe is composed of vertical legs in each corner of the building which are linked by
horizontal elements at about every 12 to 14 floors. Since the vertical elements are concentrated in
the corner areas of the building, maximum efficiency is obtained for resisting wind forces. The

vertical legs and the horizontal links are themselves frames with large dimensions in the plane of
the frame [3].
Inherent in the concept of a Superframe is the ability of the system to accommodate varieties of
spaces suitable for multiple functions. Historically, tall buildings which have multiple functions
in a single building require flexibility of spaces. Structures, such as the John Hancock Centre in
Chicago, have successfully accomplished this flexibility. Ultra high-rise Megastructures will
need to further the idea of flexible space or modular spaces, where each space can be planned
efficiently for its own use and inserted into a Megaframe. Superframes allow this modularization
of space to occur with maximum freedom from structural encumbrance. Portal apertures on the
exterior wall allow freedom of expression for each unit and also provide access for daylight.
Figure 14b indicates an arrangement of interior spaces with an atrium in each space module.

The structural efficiency is obtained from the concentration of material close to the corners. Each
of these vertical legs is required to be stiff in its own plane. The legs then take the form of a
diagonalized truss chord. The corner truss legs need strong horizontal connections at frequent
modular intervals to make them function together like an equivalent cantilever. The horizontal
members, therefore, will need to be equally stiff, and are diagonalized as well. The net effect of
this combination would be to produce an equivalent cantilever structure as effective as a Tubular
system. An appropriate diagonalization of structure is represented by an overall modularized
diagrid frame, in which the structural members within the portals are removed (Figure 14a).
Figure 14a also shows the adoption of the Superframe concept to an 80-storey structure in its
simplest rectilinear form. The effect on the exterior architecture and the potential possibilities
can be clearly observed. While the example illustrates a rectilinear form, the concept can be used
for other forms where the principle of stiffnesses of horizontal and vertical elements and their
inter-connections are met.
Figure 15 shows a study of a Superframe concept applied to a 170-storey, 655m tall tower
involving 706.000 sq. metres of floor space. The multiple functions involved are indicated in
Figure 16a. The tower form, step-tapered from 88m x 88m at the base to 44m x 44m at the top
denotes the functional needs of space. The basic structure, Figure 15, involved telescoping
Superframes, not only to fit the overall geometry of the shape, but also to augment the structural
stiffness. The curtain wall was constructed over the general structural form and involved many
more smaller offsets. A significant innovation involved the provision of through-apertures in the
building to reduce aerodynamic oscillations. Their effectiveness was confirmed by wind tunnel
testing. The equivalent dampening effect of this aerodynamic shaping illustrates the need for
such design coordination in supertall structures. The significant aspects of this structural design
were:

i. Telescoping of the Superframes allowed an orderly transition of the structure and the needed
lateral stiffness.

ii. The aerodynamic behaviour was greatly assisted by the apertures which reduced the crosswind accelerations and forces due to vortex shedding by as much as 25%. The overall tapered
form assisted as well in reducing the wind 'sail' area gradually toward the top.
iii. The structural system efficiency was enhanced by the sequential load transfer from the
interior to the exterior, as shown in Figure 16, so that all gravity loads were carried by the
Superframes.

3.2 Super-Trussed Tubes

The general concept of the exterior Trussed Tube can be extended to ultra high-rise structures
involving multiple functions. Figure 17 shows a 135-storey exterior Trussed Tube, which was
submitted for a project competition in New York. This slender form, having an aspect ratio of 10
to 1, involved approximately 185.908 sq. metres of floor space. The arrangement of multiple
functional spaces is indicated in the plans. The horizontal and vertical facets of the shape were
modulized so that a triangular shaped framing could be used without discontinuities. This
framing resulted from the concept of a tetrahedrally framed solid form where all the nonessential elements were eliminated to create the tube and the external shaping of it. In order to
express the purity of the structure, the window wall was placed a certain distance behind the
truss, creating an open truss trellis on the exterior. This open form has the effect of eliminating
overall wind vortex formation and would significantly reduce cross-wind oscillations. This is
another form of aerodynamic shaping to mitigate wind effects. The internal structure is supported
on 3-storey tension truss elements which span across the tube thereby eliminating the need for
internal columns (Figure 17). This arrangement allowed the use of gravity steel in the
development of lateral stiffness and wind load resistance. It also made it possible to deal with the
effects of temperature contraction of the exposed, but clad exterior columns.

4. EXPOSED STEEL SYSTEMS

The beauty and essence of exposed steel can form the basis for exterior architecture as has been
illustrated in the Hong Kong-Shanghai Bank in Hong Kong and the Pompidou Centre in Paris.
Exposure of steel on the exterior needs to address the issues of fire and corrosion protection.
Corrosion protection has been attained, in some cases, by the use of weathering steels and, in
others, by the use of durable, long-life, fluor-carbon paint systems. For fire resistance, liquid
filled members have been used on occasion. An outstanding example is the US Steel Building in
Pittsburg. The analytical fire engineering methods now available permit exposed steel system to
be more readily designed. Such an approach was used for Phase 11 of the Broadgate Project
recently completed in London. The 10-storey office building spans 78m over railroad tracks and
its design was based on a tied arch solution (Figures 18a and 18b). This classic structure clearly
expresses the steel through its articulated members and joints. It stands as a symbol for what is
possible in exposed steel architecture.

5. CONCLUDING SUMMARY

Numerous new structural systems for multi-storey buildings, especially in steel, have
evolved since the mid-1960's.
Efficient and economical forms suitable for different heights have been developed
including:

Shear frame systems

 Shear truss-frame interacting systems

Vertical trusses, and belt and outrigger trusses
Framed tubes
Diagonalised tubes
Bundled tubes
Modular tube systems
Mixed steel - concrete systems.

For very high building structures, superframes and super-trussed tubes have been
developed.
Advances in corrosion protection and fire engineering have made it possible to use
exposed steel systems giving impetus to structurally expressive architecture.

6. REFERENCES
[1] Mujicha, Franciso, "History of the Skyscraper" Archaeology and Architectural Press, 1929,
Copyright, 1930 by Mujicha, Property of the American Institute of Steel Construction.
[2] Khan, Fazlur, R., "Structural Systems for Multi-Storey Steel Buildings".
[3] Iyengar, H., "Steel Systems for High-Rise Buildings", International Conference on Steel
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