Mechanical Engineering Thermofluids

DET:
Mechanical Engineering
Thermofluids (Higher)
6485
Spring 2000
HIGHER STILL
DET:
Mechanical Engineering
Thermofluids
Higher
Support Materials
*+,-./
CONTENTS
Section 1:
Thermofluids (Higher) Student Notes
Section 2:
Self-Assessment Answers
Section 3:
Tutorials
Section 4:
Tutorials Marking Scheme
Section 5:
Appendix, Quantities used in Thermofluids (Higher)
DET: Mechanical Engineering: Thermofluids Higher
DET: Mechanical Engineering: Thermofluids Higher
Section 1:
Thermofluids (Higher) Student Notes
DET: Mechanical Engineering: Thermofluids Higher Support Notes
OUTCOME 1: APPLY GAS LAWS

The wide use made of various gases in the field of engineering makes it necessary to
predetermine their reactions when they are heated, cooled, expanded or compressed.
When a process takes place, the changes which will occur in the properties of
volume, absolute pressure and absolute temperature of the gases are related by the
gas laws.
When solving problems utilising the gas laws, both pressures and temperatures must
be expressed in absolute terms and these are defined thus:
Absolute pressure (Symbol p)
Pressure gauges are commonly used to measure pressures in vessels and pipelines and
read pressures normally above atmospheric pressure. If a gauge shows a zero reading
it means the pressure is atmospheric.
If the pressure in a vessel is increased above atmospheric to a gauge pressure pg, the
actual or absolute pressure p in the vessel is given by:
p = pg + patm
i.e. Absolute pressure p = gauge pressure + atmospheric pressure.
In most practical problems, listed pressures will be in absolute terms unless otherwise
stated.
The unit for pressure is the N m-2 or Pa (PASCAL).
The bar = 105 N m-2 = 100 kN m-2 is also commonly used.
Standard atmospheric pressure = 1 atm = 1.013 bar = 1.013 x 105 N m-2.
When working through problems, the stated or calculated values for pressure are
often high numbers. In order to express multiples of SI units concisely, the
undernoted prefixes are used:
MULTIPLICATION FACTOR
1,000,000
1,000
e.g.
=
=
106
103
PREFIX
SYMBOL
Mega
Kilo
M
k
7,200,000 N m-2 = 7,200 kN m-2 or preferably 7.2 MN m-2.
Absolute temperature
In problems involving the gas laws, the temperature of any gas is measured from
absolute zero, which has been determined to be 273C below the zero point on the
Celsius scale, i.e. absolute zero. At this point the internal energy of the substance is
also zero.
Absolute temperature is the temperature above absolute zero and is determined by
adding 273 to the Celsius temperature scale reading.
i.e. Absolute temperature = Celsius temperature scale reading + 273.
Hence 27C = 300 K.
Absolute temperature takes the SI base unit, the Kelvin (K), and has the symbol T.
Note: A change in temperature of 1C = a change in temperature of 1 K. Other
quantities encountered in our thermofluid studies are defined as follows:
Mass
This is usually defined as the quantity of matter in a body.
Symbol: m (small letter).
Unit: kg (small letters).
Volume
Symbol: V (capital letter).
Unit: m3.
The recommended unit is the cubic metre. Subdivisions such as the cm3 or litre (l)
are also used, but as a general rule it is safer to convert data to give volumes in m3 to
avoid errors in calculations.
Specific volume
Symbol: v (small letter).
Unit: m3 kg-1.
This is the volume per unit mass and is the reciprocal of density.
i.e.
v=
VOLUME
V
=
MASS
m
Boyles Law
The Irish scientist Sir Robert Boyle investigated the behaviour of gases when
expanded or compressed under constant temperature (isothermal) conditions. In
essence, Boyles Law states:
For any given mass of a gas, the absolute pressure will vary inversely
with the volume providing that the temperature remains constant.
Thus
e.g.
1
or
pV = constant
V
Doubling the absolute pressure gives half the volume. Three times the
absolute pressure gives one-third of the volume.
p.
Boyles Law can also be expressed algebraically in the form

p1V1
p2V2
pnVn..for the mass of gas
Charles Law
The French scientist Jacques Charles conducted experiments on gases where the
pressure of a fixed mass of gas was kept constant while variations in the volume and
temperature were examined. In essence, Charless Law states:
During the change of state of any gas in which the mass and pressure
remain constant, the volume varies in proportion with the absolute
temperature (Kelvin).
V
= constant
T
Thus
V. T
e.g.
At double the absolute temperature, the volume is doubled. At three times the
absolute temperature, the volume is trebled.
or
Charless Law can be expressed algebraically in the form:

V1
V
V
= 2 = n ..for the mass of gas
T1
T2
Tn
Constant volume process
When a given mass of gas is heated at constant volume, its temperature and pressure
will both increase. Conversely, if the gas is cooled, the temperature and pressure will
both decrease. At any stage of either process, the ratio of the pressure p to the
absolute temperature T of the gas will be a constant. Hence:
PRESSURE
ABSOLUTE TEMPERATURE
p
=C
T
constant
(Provided neither mass or volume of gas changes)
This is known as the Pressure Law, which may be stated algebraically in the form:
p1
p
p
= 2 = n
T1
T2
Tn
The Combined Gas Law

If, during a process, the pressure, volume and absolute temperature of a gas are
changed from p1, V1, and T1 to p2, V2 and T2 respectively, then, provided there is no
change in the mass of gas, Boyles Law, Charless Law and the Pressure Law may be
combined to give the algebraic expression:
pV
p1 V1
= 2 2 = constant
T1
T2
This is known as the Combined Gas Law.
The Characteristic Gas Equation
We have seen the combined gas law stated in the form:
pV
= constant C
T
For a perfect or ideal gas, this constant C = mR where m is the mass of the gas and R
is the Characteristic Gas Constant or Specific Gas Constant.
Hence
pV
= mR
T
Or
pV = mRT
This is known as the Characteristic Gas Equation of an ideal gas. When using this
equation for solving problems, it is essential to express all the terms in appropriate
units which are:
p
V
T
m
R
=
=
=
=
=
absolute pressure of the gas

volume of the gas
absolute temperature of the gas [(t + 273)]
mass of the gas
gas constant
N m-2
m3
K
kg
J kg-1 K-1.
The table below lists the gas laws, together with appropriate equations for problem
solving.
GAS LAW
PROCESS CONDITION
APPROPRIATE EQUATION
Constant Temperature
p1V1 = p2V2 etc
Charless Law
Constant Pressure
V
V1
= 2 etc
T1
T2
Pressure Law
Constant Volume
p1 p 2
etc
=
T1 T2
Pressure Volume and

Temperature all Change
p1V1 p 2 V2
etc
=
T1
T2
Includes Mass and Characteristic

Gas Constant R
pV = mRT
Boyles Law
Combined Gas Law
Characteristic Gas Equation
The gas constant R, which appears in the Characteristic Gas Equation, is identified as
the Characteristic Gas Constant or the Specific Gas Constant and its value varies
for different gases as will be apparent in the questions covered in the Tutorial for
Outcome 1.
Universal Gas Constant
The Universal Gas Constant takes into account the concept of molecular mass of
substances. This constant, symbol Ro, and also known as the Molar Gas Constant,
is the product of the relative molecular mass, M, and the Characteristic Gas Constant,
R, and has the same value for all gases:
Thus, Ro = MR = 8.3143 kJ kg mol-1 K-1
It follows that the value of the Characteristic Gas Constant R can be found from the
relationship
R=
Ro
M
e.g.
The molecular mass of nitrogen is 28. What is the value of R for nitrogen?
R=
Ro 8.3143
=
= 0.297 kJ kg -1 K -1
M
28
The universal gas constant is frequently utilised in problems dealing with the
combustion of various gases and it appears in a version of the Characteristic Gas
Equation called the Ideal Gas Equation. Our studies, however, will be restricted to
the use of the Characteristic Gas Equation, which employs the Characteristic or
Specific Gas Constant.
SELF-ASSESSMENT
Assignment 1
1.
Test your knowledge of quantities, symbols and units covered so far by

completing the table below.
QUANTITY
SYMBOL
UNIT
SPECIFIC VOLUME
m
m3
ABSOLUTE PRESSURE
K
2.
Convert the undernoted temperature values from one scale to the other.
o
-150
388
128
162
3.
Boyles Law deals with the behaviour of gases under isothermal conditions.
What does the condition isothermal mean?
Ans:
4.
State Charles Law and express the law in the form of an algebraic equation.
Ans:
Equation:
5.
When a mass of gas is cooled at constant volume, what effect has this process on
its pressure and temperature?
Ans:
6.
State the characteristic gas equation for an ideal gas. Identify all terms in the
equation and state the correct units for each.
Equation:
Identification of terms and units:
PRACTICAL EXEMPLAR PROBLEMS

Having developed the various gas law equations, we can apply these to the solution of
problems dealing with the behaviour of gases when subjected to different processes.
Problems may be simplified by employing a method of converting given information
into symbols and units which can then be fitted into an appropriate equation.
Specimen worked exemplar problems adopting this strategy now follow.
Exemplar Question 1
A fixed mass of gas is compressed isothermally from a pressure of 20 bar and volume
of 3.2 m3 until it occupies 25% of its original volume. Calculate the final pressure of
the gas.
Known Data
p1 = 20 x 105 N m-2
p2 = ?
V1 = 3.2 m3
V2 = 3.2 x
25
100
= 0.8 m3
For an isothermal process, Boyles Law applies and equation
p1 V1
p2 V2 can be utilised.
From
p1 V1
p2
=
=
p2 V2
p2
V1
V2
8.0 x 106 N m-2
p1 x
20 x 105 x
3.2
0.8
FINAL PRESSURE OF GAS, p2 = 8 MN m-2 or 80 bar.
Exemplar Question 2
A quantity of gas at a pressure of 180 kN m-2 and temperature 18C, occupies a
volume of .43 m3. The gas is compressed until its pressure and temperature are
670 kN m-2 and 127C respectively. If there is no loss of gas, what volume will it
now occupy?
Known Data
From the Combined Gas Law
p1 V1
T1
p1 = 180 kN m-2
T1 = (18 + 273) K
V1 = 0.43 m3
p2 = 670 kN m-2
T2 = (127 + 273) K
V2 = ?
p 2 V2
T2
p1 V 1T2
180 x 103 x 0.43 x 400
=
= 0.1588 m3
V2 =
p 2 T1
670 x 103 x 291
FINAL VOLUME OF GAS IS 0.1588 m3
Exemplar Question 3
An air receiver contains a fixed mass of air at a pressure of 12.5 bar and temperature
84C. After a period of time, the pressure is observed to be 7.8 bar. What will be the
temperature of the air?
Known Data
For constant volume process,
the Pressure Law applies
Constant Volume Process
p1
p2
=
T1
T2
T2 =
p2
x T1
p1
FINAL TEMP. OF AIR
p1 = 12.5 bar
T1 = (84 + 273)K
V1 = V2
p2 = 7.8 bar
T2 = ?
7.8 x 105
x 357 = 222.768K
12.5 x 105
=
=
222.8 273 = -50.2C
Exemplar Question 4
Gas is stored in two tanks, A and B, which are connected by a pipe fitted with a stop
valve which is initially closed. Tank A has a volume of 3.0 m3 and contains 14 kg of
the gas at a pressure of 215 kN m-2 and a temperature of 20C. Tank B has a volume
of 12.0 m3 and contains gas at a pressure of 340 kN m-2 and a temperature of 20C.
Determine the characteristic gas constant for the gas and the mass of gas in tank B.
If the stop valve connecting the tanks is then opened, determine the final pressure of
the gas, assuming the temperature remains at 20C.
V1 = 3.0
m1 = 14
p1 = 215 k
T1 = 20 + 2
= 293 K
TANK
A
TANK
B
V2 = 12.0 m3
m2 = ?
p2 = 340 kN m-2
T2 = 293 K
Char. Gas Constant from p1 V1 = m1 R T1
R =
p1 V1
215 x 103 x 3.0
=
m1 T1
14 x 293
GAS CONSTANT R = 157.24 J kg-1 K-1
MASS IN TANK B from p 2 V2 = m 2 R T2

m2 =
p 2 V2 340 x 103 x 12
=
R T2
157.24 x 293
MASS OF GAS IN TANK B = 88.56 kg
When connecting valve is opened, the total volume V3 = 15 m3 and temperature

remains at 293 K.
FINAL PRESSURE from p3 V3 = m3 R T3
p3 =
m3 R T3 (88.56 + 14) x 157.24 x 293

=
V3
15
= 315004.97 N m-2
FINAL PRESSURE IN SYSTEM = 315 kN m-2
Exemplar Question 5
A fixed mass of gas contained in a closed system is initially at a pressure of
100 kN m-2, a temperature of 15C, and occupies a volume of 0.15 m3. The gas is
then compressed to a volume of 0.06 m3 and a pressure of 300 kN m-2. The gas is
then expanded at constant pressure unit it reoccupies its original volume. If the
characteristic constant for the gas is 189 J kg-1 K-1, determine the mass of gas in the
system and the temperature at the end of the compression and expansion processes.
Known Data
p1 = 100 x 103 N m-2
T1 = 15C + 273 = 288 K
V1 = 0.15 m3
p2 = 300 x 103 N m-2

T2 = ?
V2 = 0.06 m3
p3 = p2
T3 = ?
V3 = V1
m = ? R = 189 J kg-1 K-1

Mass of gas from p1 V1 = m R T1
p1 V1 100 x 10 3 x 0.15
=
= 0.2756 kg
R T1
189 x 288
m =
MASS OF GAS IN SYSTEM = 0.2756 kg
10
TEMPERATURE AFTER COMPRESSION from p2 V2 = m R T2

p 2 V2
300 x 103 x 0.06
=
= 345.56 K
T2 =
mR
0.2756 x 189
TEMPERATURE AFTER COMPRESSION = 345.56 273 = 72.56C
TEMPERATURE AFTER EXPANSION from p3 V3 = m R T3
T3 =
p3 V3 300 x 103 x 0.15

=
= 863.9 K
mR
.2756 x 189
TEMPERATURE AFTER EXPANSION T3 = 863.9 273 = 590.9C
11
OUTCOME 2: SOLVE PROBLEMS USING DATA EXTRACTED

FROM THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTY TABLES
In this outcome we are concerned with the interpretation and extraction of data on
thermodynamic properties of working fluids listed in tables as arranged by Messrs
Rogers and Mayhew.
These tables, commonly known as steam tables, give tabulated values for the
properties of steam and refrigerants over an extensive range of pressures and
temperatures.
The ability to understand and extract data from the tables extends into the solution of
problems in this outcome and also in Outcome 3 when the steady flow energy
equation is dealt with.
Before examining the tables, however, definitions need to be attached to specific
thermodynamic quantities listed in the range for this outcome.
Specific volume
This is the volume occupied per unit mass (1 kg) of a substance and is identified by
the symbol v (small letter).
i.e.
VOLUME V
=
v=
MASS
m
UNIT : m3 kg-1
Thermodynamic tables give the specific volume of dry saturated steam at a

particular pressure under the heading vg.
e.g.
SPECIFIC VOLUME OF DRY SATURATED STEAM

AT 1.4 bar = 1.236 m3 kg-1
For superheated steam the specific volume is read against the symbol v for different
pressures and temperatures.
e.g.
SPECIFIC VOLUME OF SUPERHEATED STEAM

AT 6 bar and 250C = 0.3940 m3 kg-1
Internal energy
A fluid may be defined as a substance or a mixture of substances in the liquid or
gaseous state. All fluids consist of large numbers of molecules that move in random
directions at high speeds. Each molecule possesses a minute amount of kinetic
energy and the total kinetic energy possessed by all the molecules is known as the
internal energy of the fluid.
When heat energy, which is a transient form of energy, is transferred to a fluid, the
temperature and molecular activity of the fluid increases. These increases result in a
corresponding increase in the store of internal energy within the fluid.
12
As a result of experimental work on this subject, Joule concluded that the internal
energy of a fluid is a function of temperature only and is independent of pressure and
volume (Joules Law).
For there to be a change in the internal energy of a fluid there must be a change in
temperature.
The symbol used for the total internal energy in a fluid is U and its unit is the
Joule (J).
Generally, the internal energy of a fluid is quoted as per unit mass (per kg). This
quantity is known as specific internal energy and takes the symbol u.
The unit for specific internal energy is the Joule per Kilogram (J kg-1).
Thermodynamic tables give three values for the specific internal energy of steam as
underlisted.
uf
specific internal energy of saturated water
ug
specific internal energy of dry saturated steam
specific internal energy of superheated steam.
Flow or displacement energy

Any volume of fluid entering or leaving a system must displace an equal volume
ahead of itself in order to enter or leave the system as the case may be.
Let the mass of fluid between X and Y in the figure below have a total Volume V1.
For flow to occur, this volume must be displaced by an equal volume from outside the
system. If the pressure in the fluid is p1, then the work done on the fluid inside the
system by the incoming fluid = force x distance the fluid is displaced.
CROSS SECTIONAL
AREA A1
X
p1
p1
VOLUME
DISPLACED
V1
p1
p1
Flow energy
13
Now,
Force
Pressure x Cross Sectional Area
Therefore
Work Done
p1 x A1 x s
But,
A1 s
Volume displaced V1
Therefore
Work done on the system
p1V1
p1 v1 where v equals the specific

volume of the fluid.
In specific terms, i.e. per kg of mass,

work done on system
This is variously called flow energy, displacement energy or pressure energy.

At entry energy is received by the system.
At exit energy is lost by the system.
= p1 v1(J kg-1)
Hence, specific flow energy
Enthalpy
In steady-flow thermodynamic systems, internal energy and flow energy are present in
the moving fluid. Accordingly, it is convenient to combine these energies into a single
energy quantity known as enthalpy, thus
Total Enthalpy
Internal energy + flow energy
The symbol used for enthalpy is H.

Hence
U + pV
The unit for total enthalpy is the Joule (J).

When considering 1 kg of working fluid, then:
Specific
Enthalpy
Hence
Specific Internal
Energy
u + pv
Specific Flow
Energy
(v = specific volume)
Specific enthalpy h takes the unit The Joule Per kg (J kg-1).

Thermodynamic property tables give four values for the specific enthalpy of steam as
listed below:
=
specific enthalpy of saturated water
hf
=
specific enthalpy of evaporation
hfg
=
specific enthalpy of dry saturated steam
hg
=
specific enthalpy of superheated steam.
h
14
The formation of steam

Consider a quantity of water initially at 0C being heated in a vessel fitted with a
movable piston such that a constant atmospheric pressure can be maintained in the
vessel. If the water is heated until it has all been converted to steam then the
temperature/time graph would be as illustrated.
During the stage A to B sensible heat energy flows to the water accompanied by a rise
of temperature. At B the water boils at a temperature referred to as saturation
temperature. This temperature depends on the pressure in the vessel and is 100C at
atmospheric pressure. The energy required to produce this temperature rise is called
the liquid enthalpy.
During stage B to C steam is being formed whilst the temperature remains constant
and the contents of the vessel will be a mixture of water and steam known as wet
steam. At point C the steam will have received all the heat energy required to
convert the water completely to dry steam. The energy required to produce the total
change from all water to all dry steam is called the enthalpy of evaporation.
When completely dry saturated steam has been formed at saturation temperature,
further transfer of heat energy will produce superheated steam which will be
accompanied by a rise in temperature. The amount of heat energy in the superheat
phase is called the superheat enthalpy.
Steam, therefore, can exist in three states: wet, dry, or superheated. Values for
specific enthalpy, specific internal energy, and specific volume may be obtained
directly from thermodynamic property tables for dry and superheated steam. For wet
steam, it is necessary to know the degree of dryness, or the dryness fraction, of the
steam before the various properties can be calculated.
15
Dryness fraction
The degree of dryness, or dryness fraction, of steam is that proportion of a given
mass of water which has been evaporated to form steam.
The dryness fraction may have any value from 0 (corresponding to boiling water) to 1
(corresponding to dry saturated steam). For example, steam with a dryness fraction
0.6 means that for each kg of water, 0.6 will be steam and 0.4 kg of saturated liquid.
The symbol x is used to represent dryness fraction.
Dryness fraction, x =
Mass of Dry Steam

Total mass of Steam and Moisture
Layout and use of thermodynamic tables for water and steam

The figure below duplicates the information given at the top of page 4 in the Rogers
& Mayhew tables. The s figures in the right hand columns of the actual tables relate
to entropy values and these are not required for this unit.
P
[ bar ]
1.0
vg
Ts
[ C] m3/kg
99.6
1.694
uf
ug
hf
kJ/kg
417
2506
417
h fg
kJ/kg
2258
hg
2675
The various symbols in the eight columns are identified with their quantities and units
as below.
SYMBOL
QUANTITY
UNIT
Absolute pressure
bar
Ts
Saturation temperature relating to value of p
vg
Specific volume of dry saturated steam
m3/kg
uf
Specific internal energy of saturated water
kJ/kg
ug
Specific internal energy of dry saturated steam
kJ/kg
hf
Specific enthalpy of saturated water
kJ/kg
hfg
Specific enthalpy of evaporation
kJ/kg
hg
Specific enthalpy of dry saturated steam
kJ/kg
16
Thermodynamic property tables

With reference to pages 3, 4 and 5 of the Rogers & Mayhew tables:
The first column headed p is the absolute pressure measured in bar, where
1 bar = 1 x 105 N m-2 or 100 kN m-2.
The second column headed Ts is the temperature in C at which the water boils
(saturation temperature). Note how Ts changes relative to pressure.
The third column vg is the specific volume in m3 of 1 kg of completely dry saturated
steam. That is at pressure of 2 bar, saturation temperature is 120.2C and 1 kg of dry
steam occupies a volume of 0.8856 m3.
The fourth column uf is termed the specific internal energy of saturated liquid. That
is the heat energy required to raise the temperature of 1 kg of water from 0C to
saturation temperature (kJ kg-1). This is a constant volume operation.
The fifth column ug is the specific internal energy of 1 kg of completely dry saturated
steam. That is the heat energy required to raise the temperature of 1 kg of water at
0C to saturation temperature plus the heat energy required to completely evaporate it
(specific enthalpy of evaporation) as if the operation were carried out at constant
volume.
The sixth column hf is the specific enthalpy of saturated liquid i.e. the enthalpy of
1 kg of water from 0C to saturation temperature at constant pressure. Note that uf
and hf are identical down to 4.5 bar and then they gradually drift apart since hf
increases slightly faster than uf.
The seventh column hfg is the specific enthalpy of evaporation i.e. the heat energy
required to completely evaporate 1 kg of water at saturation temperature to 1 kg of
dry saturated steam at constant pressure and at same temperature.
The eighth column hg is the specific enthalpy of saturated vapour and is the enthalpy
of 1 kg of dry saturated steam at constant pressure measured from water at 0C.
On page 2 of the Rogers & Mayhew tables the same properties are given but are set
out against the reference of saturated water temperature (TC) in the first column.
The graph below illustrates three phases of steam formation and incorporates
enthalpy values from tables.
17
GRAPH OF HEAT ADDED AGAINST TEMPERATURE AT 1 bar ABSOLUTE

TEMP
O
C
SENSIBLE
HEAT
PROCESS
EVAPORATION PROCESS
WATER
WATER & STEAM
SUPERHEATED
STEAM
DRY
SATURATED
STEAM
SATURATED
WATER
Ts
9.6 OC
SUPERHEAT
PROCESS
SATURATION
TEMPERATURE
0 OC
A
-1
hf
hfg = 2258 kJ kg
HEAT ADDED
kJ kg-1
-1
= 417 kJ kg
-1
hg = 2675 kJ kg
From A to B, a heat transfer of 417 kJ kg-1 raises the temperature from 0C to

saturation temperature (boiling point) of 99.6C at the pressure of 1 bar.
From point B, if more heat is added, the boiling water will evaporate to form steam at
the same temperature and pressure. At point C, the enthalpy of evaporation process
is completed by a further heat energy transfer of 2258 kJ kg-1. At point C the steam is
in a completely dry saturated state.
In the region C to D, further heat addition produces superheated steam.
Superheated steam
So far we have considered pages 2 to 5 of the thermodynamic tables. These pages set
out the properties and heat energy requirements for steam to be raised from water at
0C to dry saturated steam at different pressures.
18
When steam has a temperature higher than its saturation temperature for a stated
pressure, then the steam is in a superheat state in which case we use pages 6 to 9 of
the steam tables.
The following explanation of the columns on these pages will enable their use:
Column 1
as before, states the pressure (p) in bar but the figure in brackets
under each pressure is the saturation temperature corresponding to
that pressure.
Column 2
lists the properties still of dry saturated steam i.e.

Specific volume of dry saturated steam
vg
Specific internal energy of dry saturated steam
ug
Specific enthalpy of dry saturated steam.
hg
The remaining columns list these same properties corresponding to various degrees of
superheat.
Rule
In order to define the condition of superheated steam it is necessary to state both the
pressure and temperature of the steam. Thus, if a temperature is quoted for steam in a
problem, check it against the tables and if it is higher than (Ts) for the corresponding
pressure then superheated tables must be used.
The difference between the superheated temperature (T) and the saturation
temperature (Ts) is called the degree of superheat.
Units in superheated steam tables:
v in m3 kg-1
u and h in kJ kg-1
Where exact values of the condition of steam are not listed in the tables, linear
interpolation for both pressure and temperature may therefore be required. Class
exemplars and tutorials on the use of steam tables cover this aspect.
19
Specific volume of wet steam

The specific volume of steam with a dryness fraction x is given by:
vx = vf + x vfg
This is illustrated on the graph of temperature against specific volume shown below:
TEMP
Vx = Vf + X Vfg
X Vfg
SPECIFIC
VOLUME
Vfg = Vg - Vf
Vf
Vg
Referring to above graph:
vfg
vg - vf
Therefore
vx
=
=
=
vf + x(vg vf)
vf + x vg x vf
(1 x) vf + x vg
Since vf is extremely small compared with vg, the term (1 x) vf may be ignored.
Hence,
vx
x vg
**
Example
Determine the specific volume of wet steam having a pressure of 1.25 MN m-2 and
dryness fraction 0.9.
1.25 MN m-2 = 12.5 bar,
vx
vx = x vg
12 bar
13 bar
0.1632 + 0.1512
0.9
2
= 0.04148 m3 kg-1
20
Specific internal energy of wet steam

The specific internal energy of steam with a dryness fraction of x is given by:
ux = uf + x ufg
This is illustrated in the graph of temperature against specific internal energy shown
below:
TEMP
Ux = Uf + X Ufg
X Ufg
Ufg = Ug - Uf
Uf
SPECIFIC
INTERNAL ENERGY
Ug
Temperature against specific internal energy

Referring to above graph:
ufg
ug - uf
Therefore
ux
Therefore
ux
=
=
=
uf + x(ug uf)
uf + x ug x uf
(1 x) uf + x ug
Example
Determine the specific internal energy in wet steam at a pressure of 4 bar when it has
a dryness fraction of 0.87.
Specific internal energy
ux
(1 x)uf + xug
ux
(1 0.87) 605 + 0.87 x 2554
ux
78.65 + 2221.98
ux
2300.63 kJ kg-1
21
Specific enthalpy of wet steam

The specific enthalpy of steam with a dryness fraction x is given by:
hx = hf + x hfg **
This is illustrated on the graph of temperature against specific enthalpy shown below:
TEMP
hx = hf + Xhfg
Xhfg
X hfg STEAM
(1 - x) kg
WATER
hf
hfg = hg - hf
SPECIFIC
ENTHALPY
hg
Temperature against specific enthalpy
Example
Determine the specific enthalpy of wet steam at a pressure of 70 kN m-2 and having a
dryness fraction of 0.85.
Pressure of 70 kN m-2
Specific enthalpy
hx
0.7 bar
hf + x hfg
377 + 0.85 x 2283
377 + 1940.55
SPECIFIC ENTHALPY, hx =
2317.55 kJ kg-1
22
Using steam tables and wet steam formulae

Example
Determine the specific internal energy, specific enthalpy and specific volume of
steam at a pressure of 3 bar (300 kN m-2) when it is .82 dry. What is the saturate
temperature?
From steam tables at a pressure of 3 bar:Saturation temperature
Specific volume
Specific internal energy of sat. liquid
Specific internal energy of sat. vapour
Specific enthalpy of sat. liquid
Specific enthalpy of evaporation
Ts
vg
uf
ug
hf
hfg
=
=
=
=
=
=
133.5C
.6057 m3
561 kJ
2544 kJ
561 kJ
2164 kJ
kg-1
kg-1
kg-1
kg-1
kg-1
Specific internal energy of steam at 3 bar and .82 dry.

ux
ux
(1- x) uf + xug
(1 - .82) x 561 + .82 x 2544
100.98 + 2086.08
2187.06 kJ kg-1
Specific enthalpy of steam at 3 bar and .82 dry.

hx
hx
hf + xhfg
561 + .82 x 2164
2335.48 kJ kg-1
Specific volume at 3 bar and .82 dry.

vx
vx
xvg
.82 x .6057
.4967 m3 kg-1
23
Interpolation of steam tables

When quantities cannot be extracted directly from tables, intermediate values need to
be interpolated between the nearest listed values above and below the required value.
Examples
1.
Determine the specific volume of wet steam at 68 bar.

at 65 bar, vg
at 70 bar, vg
Difference
=
=
0.02972 m3 kg-1
0.02737 m3 kg-1
=
0.00235
at 68 bar, vg
or
vg
=
=
0.02972 (3/5 x .00235) = 0.02831 m3 kg-1

0.02737 + (2/5 x .00235) = 0.02831 m3 kg-1
2.
Determine the specific enthalpy of dry saturated steam at 52 bar.

at 50 bar, hg
at 55 bar, hg
Difference
=
=
2794 kJ kg-1
2790 kJ kg-1
=
4
at 52 bar, hg
or
hg
=
=
2794 (2/5 x 4) = 2792.4 kJ kg-1

2790 + (3/5 x 4) = 2792.4 kJ kg-1
3.
Determine the specific internal energy of superheated steam at 14 bar

and 325C.
at 10 bar and 325C, u =
2794 + 2875
2
= 2834.5 kJ kg-1
at 15 bar and 325C, u =
2784 + 2868
2
= 2826.0 kJ kg-1
Difference
= 8.5 kJ kg-1
at 14 bar and 325C, u = 2834.5 (4/5 x 8.5)

or
u = 2826.0 + (1/5 x 8.5)
=
=
2827 kJ kg-1
2827 kJ kg-1
Refrigeration
In general, refrigeration may be defined as any process of heat removal. More
specifically, refrigeration is defined as that branch of science that deals with the
process of reducing and maintaining the temperature of a space or body below the
temperature of its surroundings.
24
If a space or body is to be maintained at a temperature lower than its surrounding

ambient temperature, heat must be removed from the space or body being refrigerated
and transferred to another body or substance whose temperature is below that of the
refrigerated body.
Mechanical refrigeration is primarily an application of thermodynamics wherein the
cooling substance goes through a cycle in which it is recovered for re-use. A
thermodynamic cycle can be operated in the forward direction to produce mechanical
power from heat energy, or it can be operated in the reverse direction to produce heat
energy from mechanical power. The reversed cycle is essentially utilised for the
cooling effect that it produces during a portion of the cycle and is thus called a
refrigeration cycle.
Vapour-compression refrigeration cycles
The most widely used domestic refrigerators function on a vapour-compression cycle
which operates between two pressure levels using a two-phase working substance or
refrigerant which alternates cyclically between the liquid and vapour phases in
continuos circulation.
In order to convert a liquid into a vapour, an energy transfer is required. This energy
is acquired by the vapour molecules in the evaporation process and is termed the
enthalpy of evaporation. If this energy is subsequently transferred from the vapour,
the energy of the molecules is diminished and liquid is formed during the process of
condensation.
The evaporation and condensation processes take place when the refrigerant is
absorbing and rejecting heat, and these are essentially constant temperature and
constant pressure processes.
Commonly, the vapour compression cycle system within a refrigerator comprises four
main devices, viz:
Evaporator
Compressor
Condenser
Expansion or throttle valve.
These individual elements are illustrated and have their functions examined with
reference to the following systems diagram of a refrigeration unit.
Referring to the diagram below, a wet low-pressure, low temperature refrigerant
enters the evaporator at point 1 and boils (evaporates) to a nearly dry state at point 2
by absorbing heat from a controlled refrigerated space thereby producing the
refrigerating effect.
The vaporised refrigerant then enters the compressor in which it is compressed, by a
work input, ideally to a dry saturated state at a higher pressure and temperature to
point 3. The refrigerant next passes through a condenser at constant pressure and
temperature until it is completely liquid at point 4 by transferring heat to the
surroundings.
25
Work Input
2
Heat
Absorption
Q2
Compressor
Heat Rejection
Q1
Condenser
Evaporator
Throttle Valve
4
High Pressure
Side
Low Pressure
Side
Systems Diagram for Vapour Compression Cycle
The cycle is completed when the refrigerant is expanded through a throttle valve
back to its original low pressure, low temperature, wet state at point 1. The enthalpy
at point 4 being equal to the enthalpy at point 1.
This cycle of operations is repeated on a continuous basis in order to maintain a predetermined sub-zero temperature within the controlled space.
Refrigerant
The working fluid that circulates in a refrigeration system is called a refrigerant and
may be defined as a substance that, by undergoing a change in phase (liquid to gas,
gas to liquid), absorbs or releases a large quantity of heat in relation to its volume,
thereby producing a considerable cooling effect.
A refrigerant is a fluid that absorbs heat during evaporation at a low temperature and
pressure, and rejects heat by condensing at a higher temperature and pressure.
Examples of refrigerants are ammonia, sulphur dioxide, and methyl chloride,
although these are no longer widely used, having been largely replaced by
fluorocarbons such as Freon (refrigerants R12 and R22).
The Freon refrigerants R12 and R22 are general purpose fluids specially
manufactured for refrigeration and these are non-toxic and non-flammable.
26
Apart from the ability to boil (evaporate) at a low temperature, refrigerants should
possess other desirable characteristics such as:
low cost and commercially available in quantity
chemical stability
non-explosive
suitable working pressures and temperatures
low specific volume in order to keep pipe sizes small
the liquid enthalpy should be low and evaporation enthalpy high in order to
achieve a high refrigeration effect per kilogram of refrigerant.
There is no refrigerant with all these properties, so the choice of a suitable fluid for
any particular application must represent some form of compromise. The R family of
refrigerants is the safest group and most widely used. All new refrigerants in the R
family should have zero ozone depletion potential and be user friendly. Property
tables and charts are produced for the various refrigerants similar to those produced
for water and steam.
The behaviour of refrigerants is akin to that of water when subjected to heat. Water
boils at 100C when heat energy is supplied at atmospheric pressure. Evaporation
then takes place at constant temperature until the vapour is completely dry and in the
gaseous state. Further heating raises the temperature and the fluid is in the
superheated condition.
When the temperature and pressure of a refrigerant bear a `natural stable relationship
to each other, the refrigerant is regarded as being in its saturated state.
A refrigerant liquid in its saturated state can be further cooled at the same pressure. It
will then become subcooled or undercooled.
A refrigerant vapour in its saturated state can be heated further at the same pressure.
It will then become superheated.
Saturated Liquid
Refrigerant
at 40C
and 9.6 bar
Sat. Refrigerant
Vapour
at 40C
and 9.6 bar
- Sensible
Heat
Undercooled Liquid
Refrigerant
at 35C
and 9.6 bar
+ Sensible
Heat
Superheated
Refrigerant Vapour
at 45C
and 9.6 bar
27
Use of thermodynamic tables for refrigerants

In this outcome we have already dealt with the use of property tables for water and
steam. With the exception of entropy (s values), our studies now extend into the
interpretation and extraction of information covering the ammonia and fluorocarbon
refrigerants R717 and R12 as listed on pages 12 and 13 of the Rogers and Mayhew
tables.
Refrigerant quantities together with appropriate symbols and units are identified in
the table below:
SYMBOL
QUANTITY
Saturation Temperature
ps
Corresponding Saturation Pressure
UNIT
C
bar
3
vg
Specific Volume of Saturated Vapour
m kg-1
hf
Specific Enthalpy of Saturated Liquid
kJ kg-1
hg
Specific Enthalpy of Saturated Vapour
kJ kg-1
Specific Enthalpy of Superheated Vapour
kJ kg-1
As previously stated, a refrigerant is regarded as being in its saturated state when its
saturation temperature, T, and its corresponding pressure, ps bear a `natural stable
relationship to one another.
The specific volume, vg, of a saturated refrigerant vapour, (i.e. completely dry) can be
read directly from the tables against any given pressure.
For a wet vapour, the total volume of the mixture is given by the volume of liquid
present plus the volume of dry vapour present. The volume of liquid is usually
negligibly small compared to the volume of dry saturated vapour, hence for most
practical problems, vx = xvg.
e.g.
Spec. Volume of Refrigerant R12 at 1.004 bar and .96 dry

vx = .96 x .1594 = .1530 m3 kg-1
The heat energy required to change 1 kg of saturated liquid refrigerant to a

completely dry saturated vapour (gas) is called the enthalpy of evaporation.
i.e.
Enthalpy of evaporation hfg = hg - hf
e.g.
Enthalpy of evaporation of refrigerant R717 at 2.680 bar

hfg
=
=
1430.5 126.2
1304.3 kJ kg-1
28
The specific enthalpy, h, of a refrigerant in the superheat condition can be extracted

directly from the tables from either of two column headings (50 K and 100 K)
dependent on the degree of superheat which is obtained by the difference between the
superheat temperature and the saturation temperature at the specified pressure.
Example
Determine the specific enthalpy of refrigerant R717 at a pressure of 2.908 bar and
temperature of 20C.
From tables, the saturation temperature at 2.908 bar is 10C.
Hence (T Ts) = 30C or 30 K.
Specific Enthalpy, h = 1551.7 kJ kg-1 (From 50 K column).
If the degree of superheat had been, say, 84K at the same pressure, then
Specific Enthalpy, h = 1665.3 kJ kg-1 (from 100 K column).
29
OUTCOME 3: SOLVE PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH STEADY FLOW

ENERGY EQUATION APPLICATIONS FOR GASES AND VAPOURS
In this outcome we are concerned with the solution of problems utilising the steady
flow energy equation as applied to typical thermodynamic devices such as boilers,
steam turbines, compressors, etc.
Thermodynamics deals with the relationships between energy transfers within such
devices/systems in the form of heat and work, and the related changes in the
properties of the working fluid.
Steady flow thermodynamic systems
The steady flow energy equation (SFEE) is applicable to open two-flow systems
where the working fluid may be a gas or vapour. Steady flow conditions prevail
when an equal mass of fluid per unit time is both entering and leaving the system.
In order to analyse specific situations where thermodynamic principles are involved,
we adopt a systems approach and make use of diagrams to illustrate the system, its
boundary, its surroundings, together with input, output and process data.
The figure below identifies these elements of a two-flow open system.
SURROUNDINGS
(USUALLY THE ATMOSPHERE)
WORK, IN OR OUT
WORKING FLUID
ENTERING
SYSTEM CONTAINING
THE WORKING
FLUID
WORKING FLUID
LEAVING
HEAT, IN OR OUT
BOUNDARY,
e.g. THE WALL OF
Only three things can cross the system boundary:

a) energy in the form of heat
b) energy in the form of work
c) a mass of fluid which will possess certain forms of energy.
Heat and work transfers across the system boundary are shown by two-way arrows
since both quantities can either enter or leave the system.
30
Heat received or rejected

In any system a fluid can have a direct reception or rejection of heat energy
transferred through the system boundary. This is designated by Q (Unit J),
or if the rate of heat energy is given, by Q (Unit J s-1 or Watt).
Thus if
heat is received, then Q is positive
heat is rejected, then Q is negative.
If heat is neither received or rejected, then Q = 0.
External work done
In any system a fluid can do external work or have external work done on it
transferred through the system boundary. This is designated by W (Unit J)
or if the rate of work done is given by W (Unit J s-1 or W).
Thus if
external work is done by the fluid, then W is positive
external work is done on the fluid, then W is negative.
If no external work is done on or by the fluid, then W = 0.
In order to satisfy performance criteria (a) in this outcome, students are required to
convert common thermodynamic devices into representative input/output sub-system
diagrams. Examples of these follow in pages 3 to 7 of the notes and also in the
tutorial questions.
Steam power plant
An important industrial application for vapours is the steam power plant as
represented in the system diagram shown below:
BOILER
WORK
OUT
TURBINE
ELECTRIC
GENERATOR
Q IN
CONDENSER
COOLING
WATER
Q OUT
PUMP
STEAM POWER PLANT -- SYSTEM DIAGRAM
31
Feed water from the pump enters the boiler which is supplied with fuel to provide
heat input Q +ve.
Wet or superheated steam from the boiler rotates the turbine and the work output
W +ve drives an electric generator via the turbines output shaft.
Exhaust steam from the turbine flows to the condenser where heat energy Q ve is
removed by the cooling water. The steam becomes water again (condensate) then
returns to the feed pump where the cycle is continued.
Each of the devices identified in the above diagram can be categorised as sub-systems
of the integrated whole steam power plant. Each of the items is an example of a
steady-flow system to which the steady flow energy equation can be applied.
Boiler
1
HEAT LOSSQ
-VE
WET STEAM SPACE
2
STEAM
OUTPUT
FEED WATER
INPUT
WATER
HEAT INPUTQ
+VE
MASS FLOW AT 1 = MASS FLOW AT 2
Input/output system
In a steam power plant facility, the boiler is the device/sub-system in which steam is
generated. In essence, a conventional boiler consists of a water container together
with some heating device.
The boiler is supplied with a steady flow of water which is converted into wet steam
using the heat released by burning a fuel such as coal, oil or gas. If superheated
steam is required, the wet steam is removed from the steam space in the boiler and
piped into an integrated superheater where it is further converted into dry or
superheated steam by the addition of more heat energy.
32
In a boiler no work is done, hence W = 0.

Heat input Q is required to generate steam in a boiler which can also have a heat loss
through the boiler casing to the surroundings.
In a steam power plant the boiler provides wet or superheated steam to the turbine in
the system.
The steam turbine
Q
1
FLUID
INPUT
TURBINE
SYSTEM
WORK
OUTPUT
FLUID
OUTPUT
2
Input/output system
In the steam turbine, inlet steam is supplied to the system with a high energy level
and impinges across curved blades causing the turbine to rotate. An output shaft
coupled to the blade mechanism delivers external work. The exhaust steam exits
from the system with a low energy level.
Heat may be lost from the system to the surroundings or additional heat may be
transferred into the system. In this case work is done by the system.
In an integrated steam power plant the turbine element may be used to drive an
electric generator.
In a steam power plant, the boiler supplies high energy steam to the turbine element.
A simple integrated systems diagram for these two devices is shown below.
33
Heat exchanger/condenser
COOLING WATER
STEAM
INPUT
OUTPUT
CONDENSER

MASS FLOW OF COOLING WATER IN = MASS FLOW OF COOLING WATER OUT
Input/output system
A heat exchanger is a device that transfers heat energy from a hot fluid to a colder
fluid, e.g.
oil coolers in engines and turbines where hot oil is cooled by a flow of cold water
condensers in steam power plants. Exhaust steam from the turbine is cooled and
condensed by cold water.
Normally the two fluids interacting are separated by tube walls.
In a condenser the work transfer is zero, i.e. W = 0.
In a steam power plant, exhaust steam from a turbine is fed into a condenser for
cooling into condensate. A simple integrated systems diagram for these 2 devices is
shown below.
1
COOLING WATER
TURBINE
STEAM
CONDENSER
34
Rotary air compressor
HEAT LOSS Q TO
SURROUNDINGS
LOW PRESSURE
INTAKE
WORK
INPUT
COMPRESSOR
SYSTEM
HIGH PRESSURE
OUTPUT
Input/output system
In the rotary type compressor, atmospheric air is induced to a cylinder where it is
compressed by an offset rotor and blade mechanism or rotary screw type
arrangement. The high-pressure air is subsequently delivered to a storage tank from
where it can be tapped off and used to operate pneumatic tools such as rock drills,
demolition tools and riveting hammers.
Portable compressors usually have a diesel engine as the power source and an input
shaft drives the rotor. In this case work is done on the system.
Having developed system diagrams for various thermodynamic devices, we extend
our studies in this outcome into the solution of practical problems involving the
steady flow energy equation for both gases and vapours.
In outcome one, we defined and generated formulae for internal energy, flow energy
and enthalpy. Two other energy forms, potential energy and kinetic energy are also
present in a moving fluid and these are dealt with below.
Potential energy
This is the energy possessed by a mass of fluid, m, by virtue of its height Z above a
given datum position, thus:
Total potential energy = mgZ
(kg x m s-2 x m) = Nm = (J)
and for unit mass of the fluid

Specific potential energy = gZ
(J kg-1)
35
Kinetic energy
If a fluid is in motion then it possesses kinetic energy. Thus, for a mass of fluid m,
flowing with velocity C.
Total Kinetic Energy = mC2
(kg x m s-1 x m s-1) = Nm = (J)
and for unit mass of the fluid

Specific Kinetic Energy =
C2
2
(J kg-1)
Various energy forms exist in thermodynamic systems. In certain systems they may
all be present. In other systems only some may be present. Not infrequently, energy
forms of insignificant value may be ignored in the solution of problems.
The steady flow energy equation
The figure below represents an open system in which a steady-flow process is taking
place. At entry to the system, the working fluid possesses potential, kinetic and
internal energy and entry flow work is done. During its passage through the system
the working fluid is considered to take in a quantity of heat Q and do external work
W.
At exit from the system the working fluid will again possess potential, kinetic and
internal energy and will do flow work to leave the system.
ENERGY IN FLUID
ENTERING SYSTEM E1
1
FLUID
SYSTEM
W OUT
IN
ENERGY IN FLUID
LEAVING SYSTEM E
Z1
HEAT Q
IN
2
FLUID OUT
36
The forms of energy associated with the moving fluid mass entering the system are:
Potential energy =
mgZ1
Kinetic energy
Internal energy
U1
(J)
Flow energy
p1V1
(J)
(J)
C12
2
(J)
Hence, total energy of the moving fluid mass entering the system
C2
= mgZ1 + m 1 + U1 + p1V1
2
Also, total energy of the moving fluid mass leaving the system
= mgZ2 + m
C 22
+ U2 + p2V2
2
In a steady-flow system it is considered that the mass flow rate and the total energy of
the working fluid remains constant throughout the process.
Applying the principle of conservation of energy to the steady-flow open system
then:
Initial energy
of the system
Energy entering
the system
= Final energy +
of the system
Energy leaving
the system
C12
C 22
+ U1 + p1V1 + Q = mgZ2 + m
+ U2 + p2V2 + W
mgZ1 + m
2
2
This is known as the steady flow energy equation.
For unit mass (1 kg) of working fluid the equation becomes:
gZ1 +
C12
C2
+ u1 + p1v1 + Q = gZ2 + 2 + u2 + p2v2 + W
2
2
Also, the combination of properties of internal and flow energies is called enthalpy
and these may be combined and designated by the specific enthalpy symbol h.
Hence, the steady flow energy equation can be expressed in the form:
gZ1 +
C12
C2
+ h1 + Q = gZ2 + 2 + h2 + W
2
2
for unit mass of working fluid.
37
When the mass flow rate of working fluid (m) and rates of heat input (Q) and
work output (W) are given then the steady-flow energy equation can be rearranged as
follows:
.
.
.
C 2 - C2
Q = W + m[g(Z2 Z1) + 2 1 + (u2 u1) + (p2v2 p1v1)]
2
OR
.
.
.
C 2 - C2
Q = W + m[g(Z2 Z1) + 2 1 + (h2 h1)]
2
Frequently in thermodynamic problems, changes in potential energy are small
compared with other energy changes or even non-existent when there is no difference
between entry and exit datum levels. The gZ terms can therefore be neglected or
dropped and the equation shortens to:
.
.
.
C 2 - C2
Q = W + m [ 2 1 + (h2 h1)]
2
It is important to note that, in thermofluids, the symbol H represents total enthalpy
and h represents specific enthalpy. For this reason we identify height in the PE
formula by the symbol Z.
Similarly, for the KE formula, the symbol C is used for fluid velocity in order to
distinguish velocity from total volume, V or specific volume, v.
38
SELF-ASSESSMENT
Assignment 3
1.
What practical purpose does a condenser serve in a steam power plant?

Ans:
2.
List the four forms of energy associated with a moving fluid mass.
a) ..
c) .
b) .......
d) .
State an appropriate formula which gives the total energy for the energy forms
listed.
Ans: Total energy =
3.
Why do we use the symbol Z to represent height in the potential energy

formula?
Ans:
4.
In the kinetic energy formula velocity is given the symbol C.

Why not use V or v?
Ans:
5.
Test your knowledge of quantities, symbols and units by completing the

table below:
QUANTITY
SYMBOL
UNIT
MASS FLOW RATE

.
Q
WORK TRANSFER
H
SPEC. INT. ENERGY
39
Exemplar 1 (SFEE)
Pressurised feed water with a Specific Liquid Enthalpy of 972 kJ kg-1 is supplied to a
boiler facility at a Mass Flow Rate of 3.4 kg s-1. Superheated steam is produced at a
pressure of 60 bar and Temperature of 450C. During the process, Heat is lost to the
surroundings at a rate of 36 kJ s-1 (KW).
Insert relevant given data into the systems diagram shown below and determine the
required rate of heat input.
.
Q2 = 36 kJ s-1
p2 = 60 bar
t2 = 450C
Boiler
h1 = 972 kJ kg
1
.
m = 3.4 kg s-1
At pressure of 60 bar and temperature of 450C, specific enthalpy, h2 from superheat

tables is 3301 kJ kg-1.
Now, Energy input = energy output
Inlet enthalpy + heat input = Exit enthalpy + heat loss

.
.
.
.
= m x h2 + Q2
m x h1 + heat input Q1
.
.
.
Required heat input rate, Q1
= m (h2 h1) + Q2
.
= 3.4 (3301 k 972 k) + 36 k
Q1
= (3.4 x 2329 k) + 36 k
= 7918.6 k + 36 k
.
Q1
= 7954.6 kJ s-1
i.e. REQUIRED RATE OF HEAT INPUT = 7954.6 kJ s-1 or 7.95 MW
40
Exemplar 2 (SFEE)
Steam enters a turbine with a pressure of 500 kN m-2 and leaves with a temperature
of 120.2C and dryness fraction 0.9. The power output from the turbine is 630 kW.
If the mass flow rate of the steam is 1.5 kg s-1, determine the temperature of the steam
at entry to the turbine.
1
= 630 kW
W
STEAM
INPUT
TURBINE
-2
p1 = 500 kN m
h1 = ?
STEAM
OUTPUT
= 1.5 kg s-1
m
t2 = 120.2C
x = 0.9
2
Here, the PE and KE terms are assumed to be negligible. At exit, steam with a sat.
temp. of 120.2 has a pressure of 2 bar. Thus, spec. enthalpy at exit, h2 = hf + xhfg at
2 bar.
h2 = (505 + 0.9 x 2202) = 2486.8 kJ kg-1
ENERGY INPUT
.
m x h1
1.5 x h1
=
=
=
SPEC. ENTHALPY, h1
ENERGY OUTPUT
.
.
(m x h2) + W
(1.5 x 2486.8) + 630 in kJ s-1
4360.2
4360.2
= 2906.8 kJ kg-1
1.5
At a pressure of 500 kN m-2 (5 bar) and spec. enthalpy of 2906.8 steam is in

superheated condition with temperature between 200C and 250C.
From Superheat tables:
AT 5 bar and 250C, spec. enthalphy
AT 5 bar and 200C, spec. enthalphy
Difference
= 2962 inlet enthalpy = 2906.8

= 2857 at 5 bar & 200C = 2857.0
= 105
and
49.8
Thus, temperature of steam at inlet
= 200C + (50C x
49.8
)
105
TEMPERATURE OF STEAM AT INLET = 200 + 23.7 = 223.7C
41
OUTCOME 4: APPLY THE MASS CONTINUITY AND BERNOULLIS

EQUATIONS TO FLOW THROUGH PIPES
This outcome covers the development and utilisation of the mass continuity
equation and Bernoullis equation as applied to the steady flow of incompressible
fluids (liquids) through pipes.
Mass continuity equation
Consider sections 1 and 2 in the tapered pipe shown in figure below which is full of
steadily flowing fluid. At Section 1, the cross-sectional area is A1, and the velocity of
the fluid is C1; at section 2, the area and velocity are A2 and C2 respectively.
C R O S S -S E C TIO N AL
AREA A2
V E LO C IT Y
LIQ U ID IN
C1
V E LO C IT Y
C2
C R O S S -S E C TIO N AL
AREA A1
Continuity equation
Steady flow conditions prevail when the rate at which the mass of fluid entering the
pipe at datum position 1 is the same as the rate at which it leaves at datum 2; i.e. the
mass flow rate is constant,
Now,
Volume of fluid passing

Sect. 1 per unit time
Volume of fluid passing

Sect. 2 per unit time
A1C1
A2C2
C.S. Area x Velocity)
A1C1 = A2C2 (m2 x m s-1 = m3 s-1) **
(Since, volume per unit time
.
Volumetric flow rate V
42
Volumetric flow rates for fluids can be converted to mass flow rates by introducing
density into the equation. In outcome 1, density was defined as follows:
Density, (RHO) =
MASS
m
(units kg m-3)
=
UNIT VOLUME V
.
.
Hence, mass flow rate, m = x V = x AC (kg m-3 x m2 x m s-1 = kg s-1)
.
This equation m = AC is known as the mass continuity equation **
Where
.
m
A
C
=
=
=
=
mass flow rate in kg s-1

density of fluid in kg m-3
cross-sectional area of pipe in m2
velocity of fluid in m s-1
Branched piping systems

In many pipework systems, a single pipeline will split into two or more branches as
shown in figure below:
2
1
Like the tapered pipe example already dealt with, steady flow conditions will apply
when the volumetric and mass flow rates passing Section 1 equal the combined total
of volume and mass flow rates passing sections 2 and 3, i.e.
.
V1
Hence
and
.
V = A1C1
.
m = A1C1
.
.
V2 + V3
A2C2 + A3C3
(A2C2 + A3C3) (kg s-1) **
(m3 s-1) **
In our studies of incompressible fluid flow along pipes, the density of the fluid is
assumed to remain constant throughout a process.
43
Energy of a flowing fluid

In outcome 3 we determined that the total energy of a mass, m, of flowing fluid had
four components.
Potential Energy
mgZ
(J)
Kinetic Energy
mC 2
2
(J)
Internal Energy
(J)
Flow Energy
pV
(J)
Thus, in specific terms for a mass of 1 kg, the total energy is:
gZ +
C2
+ u + pv
2
(J kg-1)
where u is the specific internal energy of the fluid and v is the specific volume of the
fluid.
The specific internal energy term, u, depends wholly on fluid temperature. In most
hydrodynamic situations the change in fluid temperature is very small, so the internal
energy term has little significance and can be neglected.
The specific volume v of a fluid in m3 kg-1 is the reciprocal of density,
i.e. v = 1/ .
Hence, by substitution, the above expression can be modified to give
specific energy of moving fluid as:
gZ +
C2 p
+
2
(J kg-1)
Further dividing throughout by g, gives:
Z+
2g
p
J
(J kg
-1
xs
-1
= Nm kg
-1
xs
xm
-1
= kg x m x s
-2
x m x kg
-1
xs
x m
-1
)= m
All three terms now have the dimension of length (metres)

p
is the pressure head of a fluid at pressure p,
g
and the sum of all three terms is called the total head.
C2
p
i.e. Total head = Z +
+
(m)
2g J
44
Bernoullis equation
Consider unit mass of fluid flowing at a steady rate through the system/pipeline
shown in the figure below.
1
FLUID IN
PRESSURE p1
VELOCITY C1
SYSTEM
2
Z1
FLUID OUT
PRESSURE p2
VELOCITY C2
DATUM
Z2
Applying the Principle of Conservation of Energy we have:

Specific energy in the
fluid entering system
Specific
Specific
Kinetic
Energy
Potential +
Energy
gZ1
At entry
C
p
+
+ 1
2
2
1
Specific
Flow
Energy
Specific energy in the

fluid leaving system
Specific
Potential +
Energy
At exit
C2 p
gZ 2 + 2 + 2
2
Specific
Kinetic
Energy
Specific
Flow
Energy
= constant (J kg 1)
Dividing both sides of the equation by gravitational acceleration, g.

Z1 +
C12 p1
+
2g J
Z2 +
C 22 p 2
+
= constant (m)
2g J
This is known as Bernoullis Equation **

Each quantity in the Bernoulli Equation is measured in terms of head of liquid, i.e.
height of liquid above a given datum. The Unit for each quantity is the metre (m).
45
Frictional resistance to flow (loss of energy)

Bernoullis equation assumes there to be no frictional resistance to the flow of an
incompressible fluid/liquid through a system/pipeline. In practical applications
however, frictional resistance to flow is always present and reduces the available
energy in the fluid at exit from the system. Thus:
Specific Energy in
Fluid Entering the
System
Specific Energy in
Fluid Leaving the
System
Specific Energy
To Overcome
Frictional Resistance
Let ZF = Frictional Resistance `Head

Then, Bernoullis Equation can be stated in the form:
C12 p1
C 22 p 2
+
= Z2 +
+
+ ZF
Z1 +
2g J
2g J
As before, each term represents Head of Liquid in units of m.
Z
potential head
C2
2g
kinetic head
p
J
pressure head
46
SELF-ASSESSMENT
Assignment 4
In relation to the quantities and energies established in this outcome for a moving
fluid, complete the table below.
QUANTITY
SYMBOL/FORMULA
UNIT
PRESSURE HEAD
m3 s-1
mgZ
FLUID VELOCITY
KINETIC HEAD
kg s-1
State Bernoullis equation. Identify each symbol in the equation and list units for
each on one side only.
EQUATION:
SYMBOL
QUANTITY
UNIT
State the Mass Continuity Equation.

EQUATION:
47
PRACTICAL EXEMPLAR PROBLEM
Bernoulli & Mass Continuity Equations

Oil of density 800 kg m-3 enters a 500 mm diameter pipeline with a velocity of 3 m s-1
and pressure 400 kN m-2, and is discharged through an orifice 150 mm diameter and
30 m below the entry point. If the frictional losses are equivalent to a head of 3.5 m
of the oil, determine the velocity, the mass flow rate, and the pressure of the oil at the
point of discharge.
d1 = 500 mm
d2 = 150 mm
p2 = ?
C2 = ?
30 m
p1 = 400 kN m-2
C1 = 3 ms-1
OIL = 800 kg m-3

ZF
= 3.5 m
Velocity of oil at exit from
A1C1 = A2C2 C2 =
A1
x C1
A2
C2 =
4 x .52 x 3 = .25 x 3 = 33.33 m s -1

x .152
.0225
4
VELOCITY, C2 AT POINT OF DISCHARGE = 33.33 m s-1

.
MASS FLOW RATE, m = A2C2 = 800 x x .152 x 33.33 = 471.2 kg s-1
4
Use Bernoullis equation for pressure at exit
Z1 +
C12 p1
C2 p
+
= Z2 + 2 + 2 + Z F
2g !J
2g !J
30 +
32
400 x 103
33.332
p2
+
=0+
+
+ 3.5
2 x 9.81 800 x 9.81
2 x 9.81 800 x 9.81
30 + .4587 + 50.9684 = 56.62 +
p2
+ 3.5
7848
p2
7848
81.4271
= 60.12 +
p2
= (81.4271 60.12) x 7848

= 167218 N m-2
48
PRESSURE p2 AT POINT OF DISCHARGE 167.2 kN m-2

Venturi meter
In many engineering applications it is necessary to measure and control the flow rates
of fluids. The Venturi meter is a device which allows pressure changes to be
measured at different sections in a pipeline carrying a flowing fluid. Once pressure
differentials are obtained, velocity and flow rates can be calculated using Bernoullis
Equation.
The figure below illustrates a typical horizontally mounted Venturi meter where fluid
enters at Section 1.
P1
C1
A1
P2
C2
A2
FLUID DE NSITY
EX IT
EN TRY
h
X
M AN O M ETE R
FLUID DE NSITY
X
After Section 1, the bore of the device converges to a small diameter known as the
`throat then gradually diverges back to its original cross-sectional area. As the fluid
passes through the restricted throat section, its velocity, and consequently its kinetic
energy will increase. Since the total energy of the steadily flowing fluid remains
constant, it follows that the pressure and flow energy will decrease at the throat
section.
A U-tube manometer, with say mercury as the denser fluid, fitted between sections 1
and 2 allows the pressure difference to be measured. The higher pressure at Section 1
causes the mercury in the manometer to be forced down the LH limb and up in the
RH limb.
49
Reference the figure and applying Bernoullis equation between sections 1 and 2 of
the Venturi gives:
C12 p1 C 22 p 2
+
=
+
2g J 2g J
(since Z1 = Z2 here)
p1 - p 2 C 22 - C12
=
2g
J
(Equation 1)
.
The volumetric flow equation gives V = A1C1 = A2C2
C2 =
A1
x C1
A2
Substituting for C2 in equation 1 gives:

2
A1
C1 - C12
A2
p1 - p 2
=
2g
J
2
1
p1 - p 2
=
J
A1
A2
-1
(Equation 2)
2g
The pressure at level x x is the same in both limbs of the manometer. Also, the
pressure at a depth in a liquid is obtained from the formula; pressure, p = gh.
Now, Pressure in LH Limb at x x = Pressure in RH Limb at x x
p1 + g (Y + h)
p1 + gY + gh
p1 + gh
p1 p2
Divide by
=
=
=
=
p1 - p 2 gh( Hg -
=

Hg
= gh

= gh
p2 + gY + Hggh
p2 + gY + Hggh
p2 + Hggh
gh ( Hg - )
Hg

-1
Hg
p1 - p 2
=h
-1
J

(Equation 3)
50
Equating equations 2 and 3:

2
1
A1
A2
-1
2g
2gh
Therefore velocity C1 =
Hg
-1

=h
Hg
-1

A1
A2
(Equation 4)
.
.
Volumetric flow rate, V, can now be deducted from equation, V = A1C1
.
Also, mass flow rate from equation m = A1C1
The above equation 4 for calculating velocity involving a Venturi meter is a
derivation of Bernoullis equation. Students would not be expected to memorise or
reproduce this formula from first principles but would be required to apply formula in
an open book situation.
The orifice plate

A less sophisticated and much less costly device for measuring incompressible fluid
flow rates in pipelines is the orifice plate. This consists of a circular plate with a
concentric orifice which is inserted into the pipeline.
In passing through the orifice the liquid stream contracts and in so doing converts
static pressure head into velocity head as in a Venturi meter. The reduction in
pressure head can be measured using a manometer with tapping points sited either
side of the orifice plate. Upstream, the pressure should be tapped at a position where
the flow pattern is not influenced by the presence of the orifice plate. The throat
pressure tapping point is situated downstream from the orifice plate where the
effective diameter of the converging liquid stream is at a minimum.
Downstream turbulence causes orifice plates to have a typical co-efficient of
discharge of around 0.65 whilst a Venturi meter is closer to 1. Generally orifice
plates give less accurate results for flow rates mainly due to high turbulence levels.
They are, however, much less expensive than the Venturi meter and easier to install.
51
P2
A2
C2
P1
A1
C1
PL
The diagram above shows an orifice plate installed in a pipeline.

Our studies do not extend into problem solving or calculations on orifice plates.
Students should be capable of sketching an orifice plate and describing its function.
52
PRACTICAL EXEMPLAR PROBLEM

Venturi meter
A Venturi meter is used to establish the flow rate of water in a horizontal pipeline of
50 mm diameter. The throat diameter of the Venturi is 20 mm. The pressure drop
between the entrance and throat section is 60 mm of mercury. Assuming no losses
due to friction and taking the densities of water at 1000 kg m-3 and mercury at 13600
kg m-3, determine:
a)
the velocity of the water in the 50 mm dia pipeline
b) the volumetric flow rate of water

c)
the mass flow rate of water.
h = 60m m
50 m m
20m m
VELOCITY, C1 IN 50 PIPE FROM EQUATION,

2gh
C1 =
C1 =
! Hg
-1
!
A1
A2
-1
2 x 9.81 x .06
=
13600
-1
1000
2
4 x .05
2
4 x .02
-1
1.1772 (13.6 - 1)
14.83272
=
= .3896932
2
38.0625
.0025
1
.0004
VELOCITY OF WATER IN 50 PIPELINE = 0.624 m s-1

.
b VOLUMETRIC FLOW RATE, V = A1C1 = 4 x .052 x 0.624
= 1.225 x 10-3 m3 s-1
.
c MASS FLOW RATE m = A1C1
= 1000 x 1.225 x 10-3
= 1.225 kg s-1
53
OUTCOME 5: SOLVE PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH THE BEHAVIOUR

OF LIQUIDS AT REST
Outcomes 3 and 4 of this unit encompassed the behaviour, effects, and the solution of
problems covering fluids in motion, i.e. thermodynamics
In outcome 5 we are concerned with the solution of problems associated with the
effects of liquids at rest. Hydrostatics is the study of the forces and pressures exerted
by a fluid when the fluid system is in equilibrium.
Gravitational force
The derived SI unit of force is the Newton (N) defined as that force which, when
applied to a body of mass one kilogram, gives it an acceleration of one metre per
second squared. From Newtons Second Law of Motion:
FORCE
F
=
=
MASS x ACCELERATION
(kg x m s-2 = N)
ma
When gravitational acceleration is considered, the above equation can be re-stated in

the form:=
mg
(where g = 9.81 m s-2)
Hence, the downward gravitational force exerted by a liquid column of mass 25 kg

will be:=
25 x 9.81
245.25 N
Pressure (symbol p)
Pressure is defined as force (F) per unit cross-sectional area (A).
i.e.
Pressure p =
FORCE
F
=
CROSS - SECT. AREA A
The unit for pressure is the Newton per square metre (N m-2).
The units Pascal (Pa) and bar are also commonly used and it should be noted that:1 Pa
and
1 bar =
1 N m-2 or 1 kPa = 1 kN m-2

105 N m-2 or 100 kN m-2
54
Atmospheric pressure
This is the pressure exerted on the surface of the earth by the gravitational pull of the
mass of air in the earths atmosphere.
Atmospheric pressure is stated as an absolute pressure, i.e. relative to zero.
Standard atmospheric pressure
= 1 atm = 1.013 bar = 1.013 x 105 N m-2
Gauge pressure and absolute pressure

Various types of pressure gauges are commonly used to measure fluid pressures in
vessels and pipelines and read pressures normally above or below atmospheric
pressure. If a gauge displays a zero reading it means the pressure is atmospheric.
If the pressure in a vessel is increased above atmospheric to a gauge pressure pg, the
true or absolute pressure p in the vessel is given by:Absolute pressure p = gauge pressure + atmospheric pressure
i.e.
p = pg + patm
***
Static pressure characteristics

The concept of pressure in a fluid and the manner in which it varies throughout the
fluid mass is of fundamental importance in the science of hydrostatics. The
experimentally established characteristics noted below need to be acknowledged.
1.
The intensity of pressure in a fluid at rest is the same in all directions.
2.
The pressure exerted by a static fluid always acts normally (perpendicular) to any
boundary surface containing the fluid.
3.
The pressure exerted by a static fluid is directly proportional to and increases

with depth below its free surface.
55
Pressure variation with depth in a liquid column

C.S. AREA A
Consider the forces acting on

a vertical cylinder of liquid
of height h and cross-sectional
area A within a volume of static
liquid.
P1
FREE SURFACE
DEPTH
P2
UPTHRUST =PA
x2
FIGURE 5A
Let
p1
p2
A
h
m
=
=
=
=
=
=
N m-2
N m-2
m2
m
kg
kg m-3
pressure on free surface of liquid

pressure at depth h
C.S. Area of cylindrical liquid column
depth of liquid column
mass of liquid in the column
density of the liquid
The downward force exerted by the liquid column
=mxg
Now, mass of liquid m = density x volume (kg m-3 x m3 = kg)
= V
and, volume of liquid V = CSA x height (m2 x m = m3)
=Ah
Hence, mass of liquid in the column, m
= Ah
= Ah x g
Downward force exerted by the liquid column, F
Now, for the column of liquid to be in equilibrium, i.e. at rest

UPWARD FORCES
Dividing through by A,
DOWNWARD FORCES
p2 A
p1 A + Ahg
p2
p1 + gh
p2 p1
gh
i.e. the pressure at any depth in a liquid can be derived from equation
***
Pressure p = gh
(kg m-3 x m s-2 x m = N m-2)
56
Hydrostatic pressure and thrust

B
FREE
SURFACE
AREA A
AREA A
AREA A
FIGURE 5B
The above figure 5B illustrates three tanks having equal base areas A. Each vessel
contains the same liquid to a common vertical depth h.
Since the tanks hold different volumes of liquid, it might be thought that container C
with the largest amount and greater mass of liquid would have the greatest force
exerted on its base. Tank D might be considered as having the least force on its base.
For all three tanks, however, the base pressure p = gh at all points on the bases
since these are horizontal. Also, since the tanks have a common base area A, it
follows that the forces acting on all three bases have equal magnitude.
i.e.
F = pA = ghA
(all four quantities are constant)
The arrows inside tanks B, C and D illustrate how pressure acts normal to retaining
surfaces and increases in intensity with depth below the free surface.
The total force/thrust acting on the horizontal bases of tanks B, C and D will act at the
centroid of each base area.
Our studies now extend into the determination of thrust exerted on submerged and
partially submerged vertical plane surfaces and to fixing the point of application of
this force at the centre of pressure.
57
Thrust on a submerged vertical plane surface

Consider a plane surface of area A immersed vertically in a liquid of density . The
pressure on one side acts at right angles to the surface and gives rise to a force or
thrust on that side.
FREE SURFACE
y
dF
dA
G
CENTROID
FIGURE 5C
APPLIED FORCE
C.S.A
p=
F
A
By definition, Pressure
Re-arranging,
= pressure x C.S.A F = pA(N)
Force
(N m-2)
Reference above figure:

Pressure p on one side of elemental strip of area dA = gy
= gydA
Hence, force dF on elemental strip
Total force on whole area A
= dF
= g yda
Since both and g are constants,
Total force on whole area A
But y dA is the total moment of area about an axis through the free surface of the
liquid and is also = A x y
Where, y is the vertical depth of the centroid, G below the free surface of the liquid.
Thus the total thrust on an immersed plane vertical surface is proportional to the
depth of the centroid of the wetted area below the free surface and can be deduced
from formula:
Total thrust
gA y
(N)
***
58
Centre of pressure (or centre of force)

We have seen that the intensity of pressure acting over any vertically submerged
plane surface area increases proportionally with depth below the free surface of a
liquid. Hence, for both rectangular and circular vertical surfaces, the pressure and
forces applied above their horizontal geometric centre lines will be less than those
acting below their centre lines.
The combined action of all the elemental forces acting over the whole surface areas
can be replaced by a single resultant force, equal in magnitude to the total thrust,
and acting at a point on the surface called the centre of pressure. This point will
obviously lie on a vertical centre line of area at some distance below the geometric
centroid of the plane surface areas.
FREE SURFACE
b
y
y
d
C
CP
G
GC
CP
CIRCULAR PLANE
SECTION
RECTANGULAR PLANE
FIGURE 5D
For both configurations of immersed plane surfaces shown in FIG.5 above, the
individual centroids (G) have a depth y- below the liquid free surface. Each centre of
pressure (CP) is located vertically below the centroids by a distance designated GC.
Setting aside its mathematical proof from first principles we can state the appropriate
formula for calculating this distance, viz:DISTANCE
GC =
RADIUS OF GYRATION ABOUT CENTROID SQUARED

DEPTH OF CENTROID BELOW FREE SURFACE
GC =
k2
y
***
Values for k2 can be calculated using formulae listed alongside figure 5E on

following page.
59
Area and k2 values for rectangular and circular plane surfaces

BR E ADTH b
DIA d
AR E A = bd
DE PTH
AR E A =
G
GC
GC
CP
CP
2
k =
d2
k =
12
RECTANGLE
d2
16
CIRCULAR AR EA
FIGURE 5E
For the rectangle, the geometric centroid, G, lies on the intersection of the vertical
and horizontal centre lines.
For the circular area the centroid, G, lies at centre of circle.
For either immersed surface, the centre of pressure, C, will lie vertically below the
centroid by a distance, say GC, and can be calculated using the stated formula for
each listed below.
FOR RECTANGULAR SURFACE
DISTANCE GC =
k 2 d 2 /12
=
y
y
FOR CIRCULAR SURFACE

GC =
k 2 d 2 /16
=
y
y
where y = depth of centroid below the liquid free surface.

Partially submerged rectangular surfaces and wetted areas
For rectangular plane surfaces which are partially submerged vertically in a liquid,
the formulae developed for total thrust and centre of pressure remain applicable when
the area of the wetted surface only is considered.
60
The position of the geometric centroid for a partially submerged surface area can also
be established for the wetted area only.
TANK
DAM WALL
FS
FS
WETTED AREA
WETTED SURFACE AREAS
FIGURE 5F
61

1. Total thrust and centre of pressure (vertical rectangular surface)
A rectangular storage tank has a horizontal base 6 m x 4 m. The vertical sides of the
tank are 3 m in height. Determine the total hydrostatic thrust acting on the ends and
sides of the tank when it is half full of oil of density 840 kg m-3. Determine also the
position of the centre of pressure of the total thrust above the base.
For the 4 m side:

RESULTANT FORCE/TOTAL
from eqn F1 = gA y
G
1.5m
3m
THRUST
C
DISTANCE GC
4m
F1 = 840 x 9.81 x 4 x 1.5 x
1.5
2
F1 = 37.082 kN
F2
= gA y
F2
= 840 x 9.81 x 6 x 1.5 x
F2
= 55.623 kN
For the 6 m side, total thrust
1.5
2
The centre of pressure lies below the centroid of the wetted surface by the distance
GC.
Distance GC from eqn
GC
GC
k2
d2
for rectangle k2 =
y
12
d2
1.52
=
= 0.25m
12 x y 12 x .75
Since centroid is located 0.75 m above the base level, the C of P will be
0.75 0.25 = 0.5 m above base.
This dimension 0.5 m above base applies for both sides and both ends since C of P is
dependant on depth of wetted surface and independent of breadth b of the wetted
surface.
62
2. Total thrust and centre of pressure (vertical circular surface)

A circular opening in a vertical dam face is closed by a gate mounted on trunnions on
its horizontal centre line. The gate has a diameter of 4.2 m and its horizontal centre
line is 5.0 m below the water level in the dam.
Determine the magnitude of the pulling force required to be applied at a point 2.0 m
above the centroid of the gate to just keep the gate closed against the hydrostatic
thrust of the water.
Total force acting on circular opening, say

F1 from equation:
F
PULLING
FORCE
F1
gA y
1000 x 9.81 x
679559 N
x 4.22 x 5
Centre of pressure for force F1 lies at a distance

GC below trunnion centre line.
GC
GC
k2
d2
2
and for circle k =
y
16
2
4.2
= .2205 m
16 x 5
Equilibrium conditions for opening are:
C.W. MOMENTS
Pulling force
A.C.W. MOMENTS
F2 x 2.0
679559 x .2205
F2
679559 x .2205
2
74921 N
MAGNITUDE OF PULLING FORCE
74.9 kN
63
Head of a liquid
Whilst deriving Bernoullis equation in Outcome 4, the total specific energy of a
liquid stream was stated as:
Potential energy + kinetic energy + flow energy
gZ +
C2
p
+
2

(specific energy IN J kg-1)
Dividing these terms by gravitational acceleration, g, each term can then be re-stated
as:C2
p
+
2g J
Z+
i.e.
POTENTIAL HEAD + KINETIC HEAD + PRESSURE HEAD
(head of liquid in metres, m)
p
is also referred to as flow work or pressure energy and is the

energy which must be continuously expended by a pump (or its equivalent) in forcing
a liquid along a pipeline in the presence of hydrostatic pressure.
The energy quantity
Although in common use, the term pressure energy tends to imply that a liquid may
have its energy increased by pressurization. This is not the case since most liquids
are practically incompressible. The term flow work may be considered more
appropriate.
Likewise, the three separate types of energy listed above for a liquid stream are often
expressed more conveniently as heads of liquid.
64
Static pressure head and hydrostatic pressure

The hydrostatic pressure, p, at a point in a liquid stream, may be imagined to be due
to its being at a depth, h, below the free surface of the same liquid. Thus, if a small
hole be drilled into a pipeline carrying a flowing liquid and then fitted with a
piezometer tube, the liquid would rise up the tube due to the pressure in the system
and settle at a height when equilibrium was reached.
PIE Z OM ET ER
T U BE
PR ESSU R E
p
D E N SIT Y
SECTIO N O F PIPELINE
FIGURE 5G
Reference above figure, the height, h, to which the liquid rises in the tube provides a
means whereby the hydrostatic pressure at that point in the pipeline can be
determined. This height, h, is called the static pressure head of the liquid in the
pipeline.
Hence,
and
p
FLOW WORK
=
g
J
Static pressure head, h
hydrostatic pressure, p
= gh
(m)
(N m-2)
The static pressure head is easily measured and may be regarded as a head of liquid
equivalent to the flow work.
65
Pressure measurement
Manometry may be defined as the science of utilising vertical columns (heads) of
liquid to measure fluid pressures.
Many different types of pressure measuring devices exist but our studies will be
limited to the barometer, piezometer tube and U-tube manometers.
Before considering these devices, however, it is appropriate to recap on definitions of
pressure quantities already covered in this unit.
Vacuum
A perfect vacuum is a completely empty

space and has zero pressure.
Atmospheric pressure, patm
The planet earth is surrounded by an

atmosphere. The pressure due to this
atmosphere depends upon the head of air
above the earths surface. At sea level
atmospheric pressure is normally taken as
1.013 bar (101.3 kN m-2), equivalent to a head
of 10.35 m of water or 760 mm of mercury,
and decreases with altitude.
Gauge pressure, pg
is the intensity of pressure measured above or

below atmospheric pressure. When a gauge
shows a zero reading it means the pressure is
atmospheric.
Absolute pressure, p
is the intensity of pressure measured above

absolute zero, which is a perfect vacuum.
i.e. ABSOLUTE PRESSURE p = GAUGE PRESSURE pg + ATMOSPH. PRESS. patm
66
Barometer
VACUUM
MERCURY
DENSITY Hg
h
AREA A
P atm
The figure alongside shows a very basic mercury

barometer, a device suitable for measuring the
pressure of the earths atmosphere. The device
consists of a small diameter glass tube about 1 m
long. The tube is filled with mercury and inverted
with its open end in a dish of mercury. A vacuum is
created at the top of the tube and the atmospheric
pressure acting on the surface of the mercury in the
dish supports a column of mercury in the tube of
height h.
B
PB
MERCURY
FIGURE 5H
If B is a point in the tube at the same level as the free surface of the mercury in the
dish, then the pressure pB acting upwards at B will be equal to the atmospheric
pressure patm acting downwards, since, in a fluid at rest, the pressure is the same at all
points at the same level.
The column of mercury in the tube is in equilibrium due to the action of the force at
B acting upwards against the force (m x g) of the column of mercury of height h
acting vertically downwards.
For equilibrium and summing forces in the vertical direction:F=O
= pB x A - ghA
Hence,
pB = gh
and since
pB = patm
ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE patm = Hggh
(kg m-3 x m s-2 x m = N m-2)
When the height, h, of the liquid column is 760 mm and density of mercury taken at
13600 kg m-3.
patm
=
=
=
13600 x 9.81 x .76

101.396 kN m-2
1.013 bar
67
Piezometer tube
Pipelines and vessels carrying liquid under pressure can have their pressure measured
by manometers or pressure gauges employing liquid columns.
The simplest type of manometer is the piezometer tube, which is a single vertical
transparent open top tube fitted into the pipeline or vessel carrying pressurized liquid
whose pressure is to be measured. Two types are shown below.
LIQUID DENSITY
PIEZOMETER TUBES
FIGURE 5J
Due to hydrostatic pressure in the system, the free surface of the liquid in the open
tube will rise and stabilise at a height, h, above the centre line of the pipeline.
The height, h, is the pressure head and allows gauge pressure to be calculated, viz.
At position/level A.
Gauge pressure, pg = gh
(kg m-3 x m s-2 x m = N m-2)
For example, a pressure head of 40 mm of water converts to a pressure:

Gauge pressure, pg
pg
= gh = 1000 x 9.81 x
40
103
= 392.4 N m-2
The length of vertical tube which can be conveniently used limits the piezometer to
measuring pressures in the lower ranges. For higher liquid pressures, U-tube
manometers are often more appropriate.
68
The U-tube manometer

In order to measure higher pressure levels in pipelines, U-tube manometers
employing mercury liquid columns are in widespread use.
MERCURY DENSITY
ATER DENSITY
Hg
y
X
U-TUBE MANOMETER
(POSITIVE GAUGE PRESSURE)
FIGURE 5K
In above figure, the level of mercury in the LH limb of the U-tube is at section x-x
and distance y below the axis of the pipeline. In the open limb, the mercury column
is in equilibrium at a point C, height h above section x-x due to the pressure in the
pipeline. B is a point in the LH limb on the same horizontal level as the pipe axis A.
Working on the basis of gauge pressure then, from figure:Pressure at C, pc = 0 (i.e. atmospheric)
and pressure at x-x in RH limb = Hg g h
likewise pressure at x-x in LH limb = Hg g h (same horizontal level)
Thus, pB, pressure at B in LH limb
= Hg g h - g y
pressure in pipeline, pA = pB = g ( Hg h - y) ***
69
Pressure difference between two pipes

The pressure difference between two levels in a fluid can be measured directly by
using a differential manometer.
W1
A
W1
B
h
C
FIGURE 5L
The U-tube differential manometer shown in figure above is to measure the pressure
difference between levels A and B in pipelines carrying a liquid of specific weight w1.
The U-tube contains mercury of specific weight w2.
Since C and D are at the same level in a liquid at rest:pressure at
pressure at D
pc
pD
For the LH limb
pc
pA + w1X
For the RH limb
pD
pB + w1 (Y h) + w2 h
pA + w1 X
pB + w1 Y w1 h + w2 h
pA - pB
w1 Y w1 h + w2 h w1 X
w1 (Y X) + h (w2 w1)
Hence, pressure difference
Pressure difference between the two pipes can be deduced from the formula:
***
pA pB = w1 (Y X) + h (w2 w1)
70
Density to specific weight conversion

When working through problems such as in manometry pressure calculations it is
often convenient to convert one fluid quantity into another.
Density
This quantity has earlier been defined as mass per unit volume.
MASS
m
Density (RHO)
= (UNIT kg m-3)
=
UNIT VOLUME
V
Specific weight
This is defined as weight per unit volume.
Specific weight,
WEIGHT
UNIT VOLUME
Since weight = mass x gravitational acceleration = mg (N)
Specific weight,
mg
(kg x m s-2 x m-3 = N m-3)
V
= g (kg m-3 x m s-2 = N m-3)
Thus multiplying density by gravitational acceleration yields specific weight (symbol

w, unit N m-3).
Example
Oil of density 800 kg m-3 has a specific weight of 800 x 9.81 = 7848 N m-3
71
SELF-ASSESSMENT ANSWERS
DET: Mechanical Engineering: Thermofluids Higher Self-Assessment Answers
Section 2:
Self-Assessment Answers
SELF-ASSESSMENT ANSWERS
Assignment 1
1.
QUANTITY
SYMBOL
UNIT
SPECIFIC VOLUME
m3 kg-1
MASS
kg
VOLUME
m3
ABSOLUTE PRESSURE
N m-2 or Pa
ABSOLUTE TEMP.
2.
O
-150
123
115
388
128
401
-111
162
273
3.
An isothermal process is one which is carried out under constant

temperature conditions.
4.
Charles Law states that during the change of state of any gas in which the
mass and pressure remain constant, the volume varies in proportion with the
absolute temperature (Kelvin).
EQUATION FOR CHARLESS LAW:
V1
V
V
= 2 = n For The Mass of Gas
T1
T2
Tn
5.
6.
When a mass of gas is cooled at constant volume its pressure and

temperature will both decrease.
The characteristic gas equation for an ideal gas is:
pV = mRT
Where
Unit
absolute pressure of the gas
N m-2
volume of the gas
m3
absolute temp. of the gas [(t + 273)]
mass of the gas
kg
characteristic or specific
gas constant
J kg-1 K-1
Assignment 3
A condenser is a thermodynamic device which is used to transfer heat energy from a
hot fluid (e.g. steam) to a colder fluid.
The four forms of energy associated with a moving fluid mass are:
(a)
(b)
POTENTIAL ENERGY
KINETIC ENERGY
(c)
(d)
INTERNAL ENERGY
FLOW/DISPLACEMENT ENERGY
The symbol Z represents height in order to avoid confusion since the symbols H and h
are attached to total enthalpy and specific enthalpy in the SFEE.
The symbol C represents velocity in order to distinguish velocity from total volume V
or specific volume v.
The table should read as below:
QUANTITY
SYMBOL
UNIT
MASS FLOW RATE
.
m
kg s-1
RATE OF HEAT TRANSFER
.
Q
J s-1 or W
WORK TRANSFER
ENTHALPY
SPEC. INTERNAL ENERGY
J kg-1 or kJ kg-1
Assignment 4
1.
QUANTITY
SYMBOL/FORMULA
CROSS-SECT. AREA
p
J
.
PRESSURE HEAD
UNIT
m2
VOLUMETRIC FLOW RATE
m3 s-1
POTENTIAL ENERGY
MgZ
FLUID VELOCITY
m s-1
KINETIC HEAD
C2
2g
.
m
kg s-1
MASS FLOW RATE
BERNOULLIS EQUATION:
p1
C 22
p
C12
+
= Z2 +
+ 2
Z1 +
2g
2g
J
J
(UNITS m ' HEAD' )
SYMBOL
QUANTITY
UNIT
Z1
HEIGHT ABOVE DATUM
C1
FLUID VELOCITY
m s-1
GRAVITATIONAL ACCELN
m s-2
p1
FLUID PRESSURE
N m-2
FLUID DENSITY
kg m-3
MASS CONTINUITY EQUATION:
m = AC
Section 3:
Tutorials
DET: Mechanical Engineering: Thermofluids Higher Tutorials
OUTCOME 1: GAS LAWS AND CHARACTERISTIC GAS EQUATION

1.
A mass of gas at a pressure of 3 MN m-2 occupies a volume of 0.66 m3. If the

pressure is increased isothermally to 36 bar, what volume will the gas occupy?
(0.55 m3)
If a fixed mass of gas is expanded to five times its original volume at constant
pressure, what will be the final temperature if the gas is initially at 50C?
(1342C)
2.
A fixed mass of hydrogen is expanded at constant temperature from a pressure of

6 bar and a volume of 0.68 m3 until it occupies 3 times its original volume.
Calculate the final pressure of the hydrogen.
(2 bar)
A gas occupies a volume of 1.2 m3 at a temperature of 27C and a pressure of 0.20

MN m-2. What volume will the gas occupy at 0C and 1.013 bar?
(2.156 m3)
A cylinder in an internal combustion engine is fitted with a piston. When the pressure
on the piston is 3 bar and the temperature of the gas is 40C, the volume of the gas is
0.7 m3. When the piston pressure increases to 12 bar the volume reduces to 0.572 m3.
Calculate the final temperature of the gas.
(750C)
The nozzle of a burner in a hot air balloon delivers 48 m3 of helium gas at a pressure
of 90 kN m-2 and a temperature of 23C. Given that the characteristic gas constant, R
for helium is 2.079 kJ kg-1 K-1, what mass of gas has been supplied?
(7.02 kg)
3. A fixed mass of gas undergoes the following successive processes:

a) expansion at constant temperature from a pressure and volume of11 bar and
0.005 m3 respectively to a volume of 0.012 m3
b) heating at constant pressure until the volume is 0.007 m3
c) constant-volume heating until the gas attains its original pressure,i.e. 11 bar.
Determine the unknown pressure and temperature at the end of each process, given
that the initial temperature is 250C.
(p2 = 4.58 bar; t3 = 32C; t4 = 460C)
A rigid cylinder of internal volume 0.04 m3 contains oxygen, initially at a pressure

and temperature of 30 bar and 16C respectively. Some of the oxygen is used in an
oxy-acetylene welding process, reducing the pressure to 28 bar, the temperature
remaining unchanged. If R for oxygen is 0.287 kJ kg-1 K-1, determine the mass of
oxygen used.
(.096 kg)
A cylinder fitted with a movable piston contains 0.2 kg of oxygen at a pressure of 101
kN m-2 and temperature 15C. The oxygen is heated at constant pressure until its
volume becomes 0.27 m3. Determine the final temperature and the original volume
of the oxygen. Take R for oxygen as 0.26 kJ kg-1 K-1.
(251.4C; 0.148 m3)
4.
Under conditions of s.t.p. 4 kg of hydrogen occupy 44.8 m3.

a) If the pressure is increased to 1.8 bar, what will the temperature of the gas
reach if the volume occupied by the gas remains unchanged?
(212.09C)
b) What value for the specific gas constant for hydrogen can be deducted from
this?
(4.156 kJ kg-1 K-1)
Note: 1 m3 = 1000 litres;

1 bar = 105 N m-2
Standard temperature and pressure (s.t.p.) = 0C and 1.013 bar
OUTCOME 2: THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTY TABLES

1.
At what pressure will water boil at a temperature of:
a)
361.4C
b)
80.3C
c)
217.2C
2.
Use steam property tables to find values for underlisted quantities.

a) Spec. internal energy of dry
saturated steam at 85 bar.
b) Enthalpy of evaporation of
dry saturated steam at 0.025 bar.
c) Spec. enthalpy of dry saturated

steam at 2.9 bar.
d) Spec. internal energy of

boiling water at 135 bar.
e) Volume per kg of dry saturated

steam at 0.26 bar.
f) Enthalpy per kg of boiling water

at 48 bar.
g) Spec. enthalpy of steam at

40 bar and 450C.
NOTE:
State units for all the above values.
3.
4.
5.
State the saturation temperature

of wet steam at 0.90 bar.
State the pressure of wet steam

at a temperature of 209.8C.
Use steam property tables to find the enthalpy of evaporation of wet steam at
pressures listed below:
Pressure
Enthalpy of evaporation
32 bar
10.0 kN m-2
195 bar
8500 N m-2
0.16 bar
12.0 MN m-2
A tank contains superheated steam at a pressure of 7 bar and temperature of 350C.

a) State the degree of superheat
for the steam.
b) For above steam what is the spec.

internal energy at the listed
temperature?
c) Determine the total enthalpy

of 6 kg of steam in above listed
condition.
6.
Use steam tables and appropriate formulae to determine the specific internal
energy of wet steam at a pressure of 44 bar with a dryness fraction of 0.89.
7.
Calculate the specific volume of wet steam at .095 bar and .95 dry.
8.
Calculate the specific enthalpy of steam at a pressure of 11 bar with a dryness

fraction of 0.9.
10. Use steam tables and interpolation to determine the specific volume of
superheated steam at a pressure of 1.5 bar and temperature of 450C.
10
11. Use steam tables and interpolation to determine the specific internal energy of
superheated steam at a pressure of 25 bar and 350C.
12. Use steam tables and interpolation to determine the specific enthalpy of
superheated steam at a pressure of 45 bar and a temperature of 475C.
13. One kilogram of superheated steam 15 bar and 400C has its pressure reduced to
1.5 bar at the same temperature. Determine the change in spec. enthalpy.
14. What is the difference in specific volume of superheated steam at

0.5 bar and 300C when its pressure is increased to 5.0 bar at the same
temperature?
11
Refrigerants
1.
2.
At what temperature does refrigerant

R717 boil at a pressure of 1.740 bar?
State the Specific Liquid Enthalpy of

refrigerant R12 at 6.516 bar.
3.
Refrigerant R12 has a Specific Enthalpy of

190.15 kJ kg-1 at a pressure of 1.826 bar. State
whether it is in the wet, dry, saturated or
superheated condition.
4.
Determine the Enthalpy of Evaporation of

Refrigerant R717 at 14C and 2.465 bar.
State the Specific Volume of dry saturated

vapour for refrigerant R12 at 25C and
1.237 bar.
5.
6.
Determine the Specific Volume of refrigerant

R717 at a temperature of 0C, pressure of
4.295 bar dryness fraction 0.94.
7.
State the Specific Enthalpy of refrigerant R12

at 1.004 bar and temperature 30K.
12
OUTCOME 3: STEADY FLOW ENERGY EQUATION/GASES AND

VAPOURS
1.
Air flows steadily at a rate of 0.4 kg s-1 through an air compressor, entering at 60
m s-1 with a pressure of 1 bar and a specific volume of 0.85 m3 kg-1 and leaving
at 45 m s-1 with a pressure of 6.9 bar and a specific volume of 0.16 m3 kg-1. The
internal energy of the air leaving is 88 kJ kg-1 greater than that of the air entering.
Cooling water in the jacket surrounding the cylinder absorbs heat from the air at
the rate of 59 kJ s-1.
Sketch a systems diagram for the compressor and attach the given data then
calculate the power required to drive the compressor.
(104 kW)
13
The temperature of feed water entering a boiler is 311C and steam is

produced at 40 bar and 500C. The rate of heat transfer to the surroundings is 35 kW.
Determine the mass flow rate of the working fluid for a heat input to the boiler of 6
MW.
(2.928 kg s-1)
14
2.
In a steady flow system, the working fluid flows at the rate of 4 kg s-1.
It enters at a pressure of 620 kN m-2, a velocity of 300 m s-1, internal energy
2100 kJ kg-1 and specific volume 0.37 m3 kg-1. It leaves the system at a
pressure of 130 kN m-2, a velocity of 150 m s-1, internal energy 1500 kJ kg-1
and specific volume 1.2 m3 kg-1. During its passage through the system, the
fluid has a heat transfer loss of 30 kJ kg-1 to the surroundings. Attach the
given data to the systems diagram shown below and determine the power of
the system, stating whether it is from or to the system. Neglect any change in
PE.
(2.7 MW)
1
SYSTEM
15
3.
In a steady flow system, steam enters at a pressure of 3.6 MN m-2 and with
negligible kinetic energy. It leaves at a pressure of 200 kN m-2, 0.8 dry, and with
a kinetic energy of 2400 kJ s-1. If the steam flows at the rate of
5 kg s-1, determine the condition of the steam at entry to the system, assuming
there is no transfer of heat or of work energy.
(.968 Dry)
1
SYSTEM
16
5.
A steady flow of steam enters a turbine with a velocity of 16 m s-1 and

specific enthalpy of 2990 kJ kg-1. The steam leaves the turbine with a
velocity of 37 m s-1 and specific enthalpy of 2530 kJ kg-1. The heat
lost to the surroundings as the steam passes through the turbine is
25 kJ kg-1. The steam flow rate is 9 kg s-1.
Insert the given data into the systems diagram shown and determine
the power output from the turbine.
(3.91 MW)
STEAM
INPUT
TURBINE
STEAM
OUTPUT
17
6. Exhaust steam from a turbine enters a condenser with a specific enthalpy of 2164
kJ kg-1 and a velocity of 75 m s-1. During the cooling process, the heat loss to the
cooling water per kg of working fluid is 1680 kJ kg-1. The condensate exits the
system with a velocity of 12 m s-1. Sketch a systems diagram for the condenser
and determine the Specific Enthalpy of the working fluid at exit from the
condenser.
(486.74 kJ kg-1)
18
7.
An air/fuel mixture passes through a gas turbine system at a rate of 3 kg s-1.

It enters with a velocity of 130 m s-1 and a specific enthalpy of 2600 kJ kg-1. At
exit, the velocity is 105 m s-1 and the specific enthalpy is 1950 kJ kg-1.
In its passage through the turbine the working fluid has a heat transfer loss of 30
kJ kg-1.
Sketch a systems diagram for the turbine and attach given data then determine
the power developed by the turbine.
(1.87 MW)
19
8.
An air/fuel mixture enters a steady flow system with a velocity of 30 m s-1 and
exits with a velocity of 140 ms-1. The mass flow rate is 9 kgs-1. The properties
of the fluid at entry are:
a) pressure 13.8 bar
b) specific volume 0.122 m3 kg-1
c) specific internal energy 422 kJ kg-1.
At exit, the properties of the fluid are:
d) pressure 1.035 bar
e) specific volume 0.805 m3 kg-1 and
f) specific internal energy 208 kJ kg-1.
The heat transfer rate from the system is 4.22 kJ s-1.
Produce a systems diagram and attach given data, then determine the rate of work
transfer from the system.
(2.6 MW)
20
9.
Turbine
boiler
pump
Cond.
Steam Power Plant Systems Diagram

Rankine cycle Liquid Condensate
The conditions listed below apply to the turbine element in the systems diagram
shown.
At Entry
At Exit
Steam Pressure
Steam Temperature
Fluid Velocity
Dryness Fraction
Mass Flow Rate of Working Fluid
Rate of Heat Loss to Surroundings
80 bar
425C
36 m s-1
=
=
2.8 bar
85 m s-1
0.87
5.8 kg s-1
32 KW
Using appropriate thermodynamic symbols, insert the given data into the diagram
and use directional arrows for heat/work transfers. Also, calculate the work rate
(power) of the turbine.
(4.4 MW)
21
10. A steady flow of wet steam enters a condenser with a pressure of 4.5 bar, a
dryness fraction of 0.86, and a velocity of 100 m s-1. The liquid condensate exits
the condenser at a pressure of 1.2 bar and with a velocity of 12 m s-1. Determine:
a) The change of Specific Enthalpy across the system
b) The heat loss to the cooling water per kg of the working fluid
(2.008 MJ kg-1; 2.013 MJ kg-1)
COOLING WATER
STEAM
INPUT
OUTPUT
CONDENSER
22
OUTCOME 4: APPLICATION OF THE MASS CONTINUITY

AND BERNOULLIS EQUATIONS TO INCOMPRESSIBLE FLOW
THROUGH PIPES
1.
Oil of density 935 kg m-3 flows steadily through a pipe similar to that in a
Venturi meter as shown below. From data given, determine:
the volumetric flow rate
the fluid velocity at 45 mm diameter section
the diameter d in millimeters
the mass flow rate of the fluid
0.52ms
(.0026 m3 s-1)
(1.643 m s-1)
(55.3 mm)
(2.444 kg s-1)
45
80
a)
b)
c)
d)
-1
C ms
-1
1.09ms
-1
23
2.
A 200 mm diameter pipe splits into 2 branch pipes, one 60 mm diameter and the
other 80 mm diameter. The system carries oil of density 930 kg m-3 in steady
flow. If the velocity of the oil in the largest pipe is 3 m s-1 and in the smallest
4 m s-1, determine the following:
a) the volumetric flow rate in the 200 mm pipe
b) the mass flow rate in the 60 mm pipe
c) the velocity of the oil in the 80 mm pipe
(0.0942 m3 s-1)
(10.518 kg s-1)
(16.49 m s-1)
3
3 m s -1
200 m m
80 m m
60 m m
4 m s -1
24
3.
A pipeline 1.2 m diameter at its upper end tapers to 0.6 m diameter at its lower
end over a length of 300 m with datum levels as shown in figure. The pressure
at the upper end is 69 kN m-2. Water flows steadily downwards at a mass flow
rate of 1400 kg s-1. Frictional losses in the pipeline are equivalent to a head of
0.85 m per 100 m run. Determine the velocity at each end of the pipeline and
the water pressure at the lower end.
300m
73m
(velocity at 0.6 m end = 4.95 m s-1)

(pressure at 0.6 m end = 111.9 kN m-2)
70m
25
4.
A horizontal pipeline carrying water in steady flow, tapers from 200 mm

diameter at point A to 100 mm diameter at B. The volumetric flow rate of the
water is 0.055 m3s-1. Determine:
(1.75 and 7.0 m s-1)
(54.98 kg s-1)
a) The fluid velocities at points A and B

b) The mass flow rate of the water
c) The pressure difference between points
A and B. Neglect frictional losses.
(22.97 kN m-2)
C1 = ?
C2 =?
d1= 200mm
3 -1
d2= 100mm
V = O.O55ms
26
5.
Oil of density 900 kg m-3 flows steadily through a pipe from point A to point B.
At A the pipe diameter is 125 mm and the pressure is 160 kN m-2 and at point B
which is 2 m below A the diameter is 250 mm and the pressure is 210 kN m-2.
Determine:
a) the velocity of the oil at point A
(8.756 m s-1)
b) the mass flow rate of the oil
(96.71 kg s-1)
A
2m
27
6.
Oil of density 930 kg m-3 enters a horizontal pipeline with a pressure of

1.08 MN m-2 and a velocity of 7.5 m s-1. The oil leaves the pipeline with a
pressure of 0.64 MN m-2 and a velocity of 30 m s-1. Apply Bernoullis equation
and determine the loss of head due to frictional resistance.
(5.23 m)
28
7.
A horizontal pipe, 100 mm in diameter, full of water in steady flow, has a

reduced section 50 mm in diameter forming a Venturi tube. The difference in
pressure between the 100 mm and 50 mm sections is measured by a mercury
filled U-tube in which the level difference is 445 mm. Taking the densities of
water as 1000 kg m-3 and mercury as 13600 kg m-3, calculate:
a) the velocity of the water in the 100 mm section
(2.708 m s-1)
b) the mass flow rate of the water
(21.27 kg s-1)
= 445mm
100mm
50 mm
29
8.
A pipeline, full of water in steady flow, tapers from 0.7 m diameter at point A to
0.35 m diameter at B which is 25 m vertically below A. If at point A the
pressure and velocity are 600 kN m-2 and 5 m s-1 respectively, calculate the
velocity at B. If the frictional head loss is 3.6 m, what will be the pressure at
point B?
(20 m s-1 ; 622.4 kN m-2)
25m
30

OF LIQUIDS AT REST
1.
An oil storage tank has vertical sides and is of rectangular section 5.8 m by 3.6
m. If the tank contains oil of density 920 kg m-3 to a depth of 2.5 m, calculate
the total thrust due to the oil:
a) on the bottom
b) on the 5.8 m side
c) on the 3.6 m wide end.
(471.12 kN, 163.58 kN, 101.53 kN)
2.
A horizontal pipe of 1.80 m bore is full of oil of density 890 kg m-3. The pipe is
closed at both ends. Calculate the force acting on an end plate.
(20 kN)
31
3.
A cylindrical vessel 0.16 m diameter contains oil of density 935 kg m-3 to a

depth of 0.5 m. Calculate the maximum force exerted on the horizontal base of
the vessel due to the liquid column.
What depth of mercury, density 13600 kg m-3, would generate the same force on
the base of the vessel?
(92.21 N, 34.4 mm)
32
4.
A rectangular storage tank measures 12 m long x 8 m wide and contains a

liquid of density 900 kg m-3. A circular inspection hatch in the horizontal base
of the tank is subjected to a force of 30.9 kN when the liquid depth is
7.0 m. Determine:
a) the diameter of the hatch
(0.798 m)
b) the total force acting on the base
(5.933 MN at mid point)
c) the total thrust acting on the 8 m wide end (1.73 MN)
33
5.
A total force of 625.6 kN acts on each vertical side of a square based storage
tank containing oil of density 915 kg m-3. The wetted surface area on each
vertical side is 28.92 m2. Determine:
a) the depth of oil in the tank
(4.82 m)
b) the height above the base where total force acts
(1.607 m)
c) the total thrust on the base
(1.558 MN m-2)
34
6.
The figure shows a sectional view of a vertical gate in a dam wall. The
rectangular gate measures 2.8 m deep by 2.2 m wide and is designed to pivot
about its upper end which lies 8.2 m below the free surface. Take the density of
water as 1000 kg m-3 and determine:
a) the magnitude of the total force acting on the gate
(580 kN)
b) the position of the centre of pressure below the pivot
(1.468 m)
c) the force F2 required at bottom of gate to just keep the
gate closed
(304 kN)
FS
8.2m
PIVOT
2.8m
EPTH
F2
35
7.
A circular opening in the vertical wall of a storage tank is closed by a gate

mounted on trunnions on its horizontal centre line. The gate has a diameter
0.5 m and its horizontal centre line lies 6.25 m below the fluid free surface. The
tank contains oil of density 925 kg m-3.
Determine the magnitude of the pulling force required to be applied at a point
1.60 m vertically above the centroid of the gate to just keep it shut against the
hydrostatic force exerted by the oil.
(41.78 kN)
1 .6 m
3 .5 m
6 .2 5 m
FS
PU LLIN G
FO R C E
36
8.
A mercury U-tube manometer as shown in figure is to measure the pressure of oil

in the pipeline at A. Alongside the pipeline system is a mercury barometer with a
column height of 756 mm of mercury. Determine:
a) atmospheric pressure.
b) the absolute pressure in the pipeline at A when dimension y is 0.6 m
and dimension h is 0.98 m.
Take the densities of oil and mercury as 900 kg m-3 and 13600 kg m-3 respectively.
(100.86 kN m-2, 226.3 kN m-2)
MERCURY
D E N S IT Y
O IL
H g
C
A
y
X
37
9.
The figure shows a mercury manometer linked to a pipeline carrying water of

density 1000 kg m-3. If the gauge pressure at A is 210 kN m-2 and dimension y
= 1.48 m, what will be the height h in the RH limb. Take the density of
mercury as 13600 kg m-3.
(1.683 m)
MERCURY
W ATER
Hg
C
A
B
y
X
38
10. The figure shows a differential manometer connecting two pipelines

carrying water of density 1000 kg m-3. The U-tube contains mercury of
density 13600 kg m-3. If the pressure difference between A and B is
48 kN m-2, dimension X = 0.86 m, dimension Y = 0.52 m, what is the
difference in level h?
(41.5 cm)
39
Section 4:
Tutorials Marking Scheme
DET: Mechanical Engineering: Thermofluids Higher Tutorials Marking Scheme
OUTCOME 1: GAS LAWS AND CHARACTERISTIC GAS EQUATION

1.
A mass of gas at a pressure of 3 MN m-2 occupies a volume of 0.66 m3. If the

pressure is increased isothermally to 36 bar, what volume will the gas occupy?
(0.55 m3)
For an isothermal process Boyles Law applies
p1V1
p2V2
V2
p1V1
p2
3 x 106 x 0.66
= 0.55 m 3
36 x 105
Known data:
p1 = 3 x 106 N m-2
p2 = 36 x 105 N m-2
V1 = 0.66 m3
V2 = ?
FINAL VOLUME OF GAS = 0.55 m3

2. If a fixed mass of gas is expanded to five times its original volume at constant
pressure, what will be the final temperature if the gas is initially at 50C?
(1342C)
For a constant pressure process
Charles Law applies
Known data:
V1 = 1
V2 = 5
T1 = 50 + 273 = 323 K
T2 = ?
V1
V
= 2
T1
T2
T2
V2T1
V1
5 x 323
1
1615 K
FINAL TEMPERATURE OF GAS IS 1615 273 = 1342C
3.
A fixed mass of hydrogen is expanded at constant temperature from a pressure of

6 bar and a volume of 0.68 m3 until it occupies 3 times its original volume.
Calculate the final pressure of the hydrogen.
(2 bar)
For a constant temperature process
Boyles Law applies
p1 V1 =
p2 V2
p2
p1 x
6 x 105 x .68
3 x .68
2 x 105 Nm-2
Known data:
V1 = .68 m3
V2 = (.68 x 3)m3
p1 = 6 bar
p2 = ?
T1 = T2
V1
V2
FINAL PRESSURE OF THE HYDROGEN = 2 bar

4.
A gas occupies a volume of 1.2 m3 at a temperature of 27C and a pressure of

0.20 MN m-2. What volume will the gas occupy at 0C and 1.013 bar?
(2.156 m3)
From the Combined Gas Law
Known data:
V1 = 1.2 m3
V2 = ?
T1 = (27 + 273)K
T2 = 273 K
p1V1
pV
= 2 2
T1
T2
p1 = .20 x 106 N m-2

p2 = 1.013 x 105 N m-2
V2
p1V1T2
P2 T1
.20 x 106 x 1.2 x 273

=
1.013 x 105 x 300
2.156 m3
GAS OCCUPIES A VOLUME OF 2.156 m3
5.
A cylinder in an internal combustion engine is fitted with a piston. When the

pressure on the piston is 3 bar and the temperature of the gas is 40C, the volume
of the gas is 0.7 m3. When the piston pressure increases to 12 bar the volume
reduces to 0.572 m3. Calculate the final temperature of the gas.
(750C)
From the Combined Gas Equation
p1V1
T1
p 2 V2
T2
Known Data:
p1 = 3 bar
T1 = (40 + 273) K
V1 = 0.7 m3
T2
p 2 V2T1
p1V1
p2 = 12 bar
V2 = 0.572 m3
6.
12 x 105 x .572 x 313

3 x 105 x .7
1023 K
T2 = ?
FINAL TEMPERATURE OF GAS = 1023 273 = 750C
The nozzle of a burner in a hot air balloon delivers 48 m3 of helium gas at a

pressure of 90 kN m-2 and a temperature of 23C. Given that the characteristic
gas constant, R for helium is 2.079 kJ kg-1 K-1, what mass of gas has been
supplied?
(7.02 kg)
From equation p1V1 = mRT1
p1V1
RT1
Known data:
p1 = 90 x 103 N m-2
V1 = 48 m3
T1 = 23 + 273 = 296 K
R = 2.079 x 103 J kg-1 K-1
90 x 103 x 48
2.079 x 103 x 296
7.02 kg
MASS OF GAS SUPPLIED = 7.02 kg
7.
A fixed mass of gas undergoes the following successive processes:

a) expansion at constant temperature from a pressure and volume of
11 bar and 0.005 m3 respectively to a volume of 0.012 m3
b) heating at constant pressure until the volume is 0.007 m3
c) constant-volume heating until the gas attains its original pressure,
i.e. 11 bar.
Determine the unknown pressure and temperature at the end of each process,
given that the initial temperature is 250C.
(p2 = 4.58 bar; t3 = 32C; t4 = 460C)
a) For constant temperature process, Boyles Law applies:
V1
.005
= 11.0 x 105 x
= 4.58 bar
V2
.012
p1 V1 = p2 V2 p2 = p1 x
PRESSURE AFTER EXPANSION

AT CONSTANT TEMPERATURE
= 4.58 bar
b) For constant pressure process, Charles Law applies:

V2
V
= 3
T2
T3
V3
.007
x T2 =
x (250 + 273)
V2
.012
T3 = 305.08 K = 305 273 = 32C

TEMPERATURE AFTER HEATING
AT CONSTANT PRESSURE
= 32C
c) During constant volume heating, Known Data is

p3 = 4.58 bar
T3 = 32C + 273 = 305 K
= V4
V3 = .007 m3
From equation
T4 =
p3 V3
p V
= 4 4
T3
T4
p4 = 11 bar
T4 = ?
V4 = V3
p4
x T3
p3
11 x 105
x 305 = 732.5 K - 273 = 4600 C
4.58 x 105
i.e. TEMPERATURE AFTER CONSTANT

VOLUME HEATING
= 460C
8.
A rigid cylinder of internal volume 0.04 m3 contains oxygen, initially at a

pressure and temperature of 30 bar and 16C respectively. Some of the oxygen is
used in an oxy-acetylene welding process, reducing the pressure to 28 bar, the
temperature remaining unchanged. If R for oxygen is 0.287 kJ kg-1 K-1,
determine the mass of oxygen used.
(.096 kg)
Known data:
V1 = .04 m3
p1 = 30 bar
T1 = 16C + 273 = 289 K
R = 0.287 kJ kg-1 K-1
V2 = V1 = .04 m3 (Rigid cyl)

p2 = 28 bar
T2 = T1 = 289 K
Initial mass from p1 V1 = m1 R T1
p1 V1
30 x 105 x .04
=
m1 =
R T1
.287 x 103 x 289
m1 = 1.4467 kg
Final mass from p2 V2 = m2 R T2
p 2 V2
28 x 105 x .04
=
m2 =
R T2
.287 x 103 x 289
m2 = 1.3503 kg
MASS OF GAS USED = m1 m2 = 1.4467 1.3503

= 0.096 kg
9.
A cylinder fitted with a movable piston contains 0.2 kg of oxygen at a pressure of

101 kN m-2 and temperature 15C. The oxygen is heated at constant pressure
until its volume becomes 0.27 m3. Determine the final temperature and the
original volume of the oxygen. Take R for oxygen as 0.26 kJ kg-1 K-1.
(251.4C; 0.148 m3)
Known data:
p1 = 101 x 103 N m-2
T1 = 15C + 273 = 288 K
V1 = ?
m = 0.2 kg,
p2 = p1
T2 = ?
V2 = 0.27 m3
R = 0.26 x 103 J kg-1 K-1
Final temp. from p2 V2 = m R T2
p 2 V2
101 x 103 x 0.27
=
= 524.4 K
T2 =
mR
0.2 x 0.26 x 103
FINAL TEMP. T2 = 524.4 273 = 251.4C
Original volume from p1 V1 = m R T1
m R T1
0.2 x 0.26 x 103 x 288
=
V1 =
p1
101 x 103
ORIGINAL VOLUME OF OXYGEN = 0.148 m3
10. Under conditions of s.t.p. 4 kg of hydrogen occupy 44.8 m3.

a) If the pressure is increased to 1.8 bar, what will the temperature of the gas
reach if the volume occupied by the gas remains unchanged?
(212.09C)
b) What value for the specific gas constant for hydrogen can be deducted from
this?
(4.156 kJ kg-1 K-1)
a) Known data:
p1 = 1.013 x 105 N m-2
V1 = 44.8 m3
T1 = 0C + 273 = 273 K
T2 from equation
p2 = 1.8 x 105 N m-2

V2 = V1 = 44.8 m3
T2 = ?
m = 4 kg
p V
p1 V1
= 2 2
T1
T2
p2
1.8 x 105
x T1 =
x 273 = 485.09 K
T2 =
p1
1.013 x 105
AFTER PRESSURE INCREASE, T2 = 485.09 273 = 212.09C
b) Spec. gas constant, R from p2 V2 = m R T2
p 2 V2
1.8 x 105 x 44.8
=
= 4155.9 J kg -1 K -1
R=
m T2
4 x 485.09
SPECIFIC or CHAR. GAS CONSTANT, R = 4.156 kJ kg-1 K-1
Note: 1 m3 = 1000 litres;

1 bar = 105 N m-2
Standard temperature and pressure (s.t.p.) = 0C and 1.013 bar
OUTCOME 2: THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTY TABLES

1.
2.
At what pressure will water boil at a temperature of:

a) 361.4C
190 bar
b) 80.3C
0.48 bar
c) 217.2C
22 bar
Use steam property tables to find values for the quantities listed below.
a) Spec. internal energy of dry
saturated steam at 85 bar.
2565 kJ kg-1
b) Enthalpy of evaporation of
dry saturated steam at 0.025 bar.
2451 kJ kg-1
c) Spec. enthalpy of dry saturated

steam at 2.9 bar.
2724 kJ kg-1
d) Spec. internal energy of

boiling water at 135 bar.
1530 kJ kg-1
e) Volume per kg of dry saturated

steam at 0.26 bar.
5.979 m3 kg-1
f) Enthalpy per kg of boiling water

at 48 bar.
1142 kJ kg-1
g) Spec. enthalpy of steam at

40 bar and 450C.
3330 kJ kg-1
NOTE:
State units for all the above values.
3.
4.
5.
6.
State the saturation temperature

of wet steam at 0.90 bar.
96.7C
State the pressure of wet steam

at a temperature of 209.8C.
19 bar
Use steam property tables to find the enthalpy of evaporation of wet steam at
pressures listed below:
Pressure
Enthalpy of evaporation
32 bar
1778 kJ kg-1
10.0 kN m-2
2392 kJ kg-1
195 bar
639 kJ kg-1..
8500 N m-2
2400 kJ kg-1
0.16 bar
2369 kJ kg-1
12.0 MN m-2
1194 kJ kg-1
A tank contains superheated steam at a pressure of 7 bar and temperature of

350C.
a) State the degree of superheat
for the steam.
(350 165) = 185C
b) For above steam what is the spec.

internal energy at the listed
temperature?
2880 kJ kg-1.
c) Determine the total enthalpy

of 6 kg of steam in above listed
condition.
3164 x 6 = 18984 kJ..
7.
Use steam tables and appropriate formulae to determine specific internal energy
of wet steam at a pressure of 44 bar with a dryness fraction of 0.89.
ux
8.
(1 x)uf + xug
(1 - .89) 1109 + .89 x 2600
121.99 + 2314
2435.99 kJ kg-1
Calculate the specific volume of wet steam at .095 bar and .95 dry.
vx
9.
xvg
.95 x 15.4
14.63 m3 kg-1
Calculate the specific enthalpy of steam at a pressure of 11 bar with a dryness

fraction of 0.9.
hx
hf + xhfg
781 + 0.9 x 2000
2581 kJ kg-1
10. Use steam tables and interpolation to determine the specific volume of
superheated steam at a pressure of 1.5 bar and temperature of 450C.
Spec. volume, v at 1.5 bar and 400C
2.067 m3 kg-1
2.376 m3 kg-1
2.067 + 2.376
2
2.2215 m3 kg-1
10
11. Use steam tables and interpolation to determine the specific internal energy of
superheated steam at a pressure of 25 bar and 350C.
AT 20 bar and 350C, u
2861 kJ kg-1
AT 30 bar and 350C, u
2845 kJ kg-1
Spec. internal energy at 25 bar and 350C =
2861 + 2845
2
= 2853 kJ kg-1
12. Use steam tables and interpolation to determine the specific enthalpy of
superheated steam at a pressure of 45 bar and a temperature of 475C.
At 40 bar and 475C, h
3330 + 3445
2
3316 + 3433
2
3387.5 + 3374.5
2
= 3387.5 kJ kg-1
= 3374.5 kJ kg-1
= 3381 kJ kg-1
13. One kilogram of superheated steam 15 bar and 400C has its pressure reduced to
1.5 bar at the same temperature. Determine the change in spec. enthalpy.
At 1.5 bar and 400C, h
3277 kJ kg-1
3256 kJ kg-1
Change/increase in
spec. enthalpy
21 kJ kg-1
14. What is the difference in specific volume of superheated steam at 0.5 bar and
300C when its pressure is increased to 5.0 bar at the same temperature?
5.284 m3 kg-1
At 0.5 bar and 300C, v
At 5.0 bar and 300C, v
.5226 m3 kg-1
Difference in
specific volume
4.7614 m3 kg-1
11
Refrigerants
1.
At what temperature does refrigerant

R717 boil at a pressure of 2.680 bar?
-12C
State the Specific Liquid Enthalpy of

refrigerant R12 at 10.84 bar.
79.71 kJ kg-1
Refrigerant R12 has a Specific Enthalpy

of 204.10 kJ kg-1 at a pressure of 4.915 bar.
State whether it is in the wet, dry, saturated
or superheated condition.
SUPERHEATED
4.
Determine the Enthalpy of Evaporation of

Refrigerant R717 at 20C and 1.902 bar.
hg
hf
(1420 89.8)
= 1330.2 kJ kg-1
5.
State the Specific Volume of dry saturated

vapour for refrigerant R12 at 45C and
0.5044 bar.
0.3027 m3 kg-1
2.
3.
vx = xvg = .88 x .1926

6.
7.
Determine the Specific Volume of refrigerant

R717 at a temperature of 12C, pressure of
6.585 bar dryness fraction 0.88.
0.1695 m3 kg-1
State the Specific Enthalpy of refrigerant R12

at 0.1680 bar and temperature 30 K.
173.68 kJ kg-1
12
OUTCOME 3: THE STEADY FLOW ENERGY EQUATION/GASES AND

VAPOURS
1.
C1 = 60 m s-1
p1 = 100 kN m-2
v1 = 0.85 m3 kg-1
Air flows steadily at a rate of 0.4 kg s-1 through an air compressor, entering at 60
m s-1 with a pressure of 1 bar and a specific volume of 0.85 m3 kg-1 and leaving at
45 m s-1 with a pressure of 6.9 bar and a specific volume of 0.16 m3 kg-1. The
internal energy of the air leaving is 88 kJ kg-1 greater than that of the air entering.
Cooling water in the jacket surrounding the cylinder absorbs heat from the air at
the rate of 59 kJ s-1.
Sketch a systems diagram for the compressor and attach the given data then
calculate the power required to drive the compressor.
1
(104 kW)

= 59 kJ s-1
Q
2
COMPRESSOR
C2 = 45 m s-1
p2 = 690 kN m-2
v2 = 0.16 m3 kg-1
= 0.4 kg s-1
m
(u2 u1) = 88 kJ kg-1
Energy input
Energy output

(KE1 + IE1 + FE1) + W
m

(KE2 + IE2 + FE2) + Q
m

[(KE2 KE1) + (IE2 IE1) + (FE2 FE1) + Q
m

m
C 22 - C12
2 x 103

m
452 - 60 2
2 x 103
[-0.79 k + 88 k + 25.4 k] + 59 k
m
(0.4 x 112.6 k) + 59 k

W
45.04 k + 59 k

W
104.04 kJ s-1
WORK INPUT RATE/POWER TO COMPRESSOR = 104 kW

W

+ (u 2 - u1) + (p2 v 2 - p1v1) + Q
+ (88 k) + (690k x .16 - 100k x .85) + 59k
13
2.
The temperature of feed water entering a boiler is 311C and steam is produced
at 40 bar and 500C. The rate of heat transfer to the surroundings is 35 kW.
Determine the mass flow rate of the working fluid for a heat input to the boiler of
6 MW.
(2.928 kg s-1)
2
1
=?
m
WATER AT
t1 = 311C
p2 = 40 bar
t2 = 500C
BOILER
Q1 = 6 MW
Q2 = 35 kW
Energy input
Energy output

x h1 + Q
m
1

x h2 + Q
m
2

(h 2 - h1) + Q
m
2

Q
1
Spec. enthalpy of water at 311C

Spec. enthalpy of steam at 40 bar and 500C
= 1408 kJ kg-1
= 3445 kJ kg-1
Above values: (1408 from hf Wet Tables) and (3445 from h Superheat Tables)
6 x 106
(3445 1408) k + 35 k
m
6000
(2037) + 35
m
6000 - 35
2037
2.928 kg s-1

m
kJ s-1
-1
= 2.928 kg s
MASS FLOW RATE, m
14
3.
In a steady flow system, the working fluid flows at the rate of 4 kg s-1. It enters at
a pressure of 620 kN m-2, a velocity of 300 m s-1, internal energy 2100 kJ kg-1 and
specific volume 0.37 m3 kg-1. It leaves the system at a pressure of 130 kN m-2, a
velocity of 150 m s-1, internal energy 1500 kJ kg-1 and specific volume 1.2 m3 kg1
. During its passage through the system, the fluid has a heat transfer loss of 30
kJ kg-1 to the surroundings. Attach the given data to the systems diagram shown
below and determine the power of the system, stating whether it is from or to the
system. Neglect any change in PE.
(2.7 MW)
Q = 30 kJ kg
-1
SYSTEM
p1 = 620 kN m-2
C1 = 300 m s-1
u1 = 2100 kJ kg-1
v1 = 0.37 m3 kg-1
p2 = 130 kN m-2
C2 = 150 m s-1
u2 = 1500 kJ kg-1
v2 = 1.2 m3 kg-1
2
-1
= 4 kg s
m
Energy input
Energy output
Neglecting the PE term, the SFEE per kg of fluid takes the form:C12
+ u1 + p1 v1
2
C12 - C22
2 x 103
300 2 - 1502
2 x 103
+ (2100 - 1500) + (620 x .37 - 130 x 1.2) - 30
=
=
677.15 kJ kg-1
677.15 x 4
=
kJ kg-1
+ (u1 - u 2) + (p1v1 - p2 v 2)
33.75 + 600 + 73.4 30
Work done per kg
Hence, power
C 22
+ u 2 + p2v2 + Q + W
2
kJ kg-1 x kg s-1 = kJ s-1
2708.6 kJ s-1
POWER OUTPUT FROM THE SYSTEM
2.7 MW
15
In a steady flow system, steam enters at a pressure of 3.6 MN m-2 and with
negligible kinetic energy. It leaves at a pressure of 200 kN m-2, 0.8 dry, and with
a kinetic energy of 2400 kJ s-1. If the steam flows at the rate of 5 kg s-1,
determine the condition of the steam at entry to the system, assuming there is no
transfer of heat or of work energy.
(.968 Dry)
I1 = 3.6 MN m-2 1
2
p2 = 200 kN m-2
i.e. = 36 bar
i.e. = 2 bar
x = 0.8
KE = 0
SYSTEM
K.E. = 2400 kJ s-1
h1 = ?
4.
h2 = hf + x hfg
-1
= 5 kg s
m
Q = 0 and W = 0
Now, energy input to system =
Energy output from system
PE1 + KE1 + h1
PE2 + KE2 + h2
0 + 0 + h1
0+
h1
480 + 2266.6
2400
+ (505 + 0.8 x 2202)
5
kJ kg-1
SPEC. ENTHALPY AT ENTRY, h1 = 2746.6 kJ kg-1
With reference to spec. enthalpy values in superheat tables for steam at 30 and 40 bar
we can deduce that entry steam at 2746.6 kJ kg-1 is in wet condition.
Hence, h1 at 36 bar
hf + x hfg
2746.6
1058 + x * 1744
2746.6 - 1058
1744
0.968
STEAM IS IN WET CONDITION at 36 bar and 0.968 DRY
16
5.
A steady flow of steam enters a turbine with a velocity of 16 m s-1 and specific
enthalpy of 2990 kJ kg-1. The steam leaves the turbine with a velocity of
37 m s-1 and specific enthalpy of 2530 kJ kg-1. The heat lost to the surroundings
as the steam passes through the turbine is 25 kJ kg-1. The steam flow rate is
9 kg s-1.
Insert the given data into the systems diagram shown and determine the power
output from the turbine.
(3.91 MW)
C1 = 16 m s-1
h1 = 2990 kJ kg-1
Q = 25 kJ kg-1
STEAM
INPUT

W
TURBINE
STEAM
OUTPUT
-1
= 9 kg s
m
Energy input
KE1 + h1

W
i.e.

W
C2 = 37 m s-1
h2 = 2530 kJ kg-1
Energy output
KE2 + h2 + Q + W
(KE1 KE2) + (h1 h2) Q
C12 - C22
2 x 103
162 - 37 2
2 x 103
9 [-0.5565 + 460 25]
9 x 434.4435
3909.99 kJ s-1
+ (h1 - h 2)
kJ kg-1
kJ s-1
+ (2990 - 2530) - 25
POWER OUTPUT FROM TURBINE = 3.91 MW
17
6.
Exhaust steam from a turbine enters a condenser with a specific enthalpy of 2164 kJ
kg-1 and a velocity of 75 m s-1. During the cooling process, the heat loss to the
cooling water per kg of working fluid is 1680 kJ kg-1. The condensate exits the
system with a velocity of 12 m s-1. Sketch a systems diagram for the condenser and
determine the Specific Enthalpy of the working fluid at exit from the condenser.
(486.74 kJ kg-1)
CO O LING W ATER
Q = 1680 kJ kg-1
C3 = 75 m s-1
C4 = 12 m s-1
h4 = ?
CO ND EN SER
h3 = 2164 kJ kg-1
From the Principle of Conservation of Energy

Energy input
Energy output
and in a condenser no work is done
W=O
KE3 + ENTHALPY3 =
KE4 + ENTHALPY4 + HEAT LOSS
C32
+ h3
2
C 24
+ h4 + Q
2
Specific enthalpy at exit, h4 =
C32 - C24
2 x 103
752 - 122
2 x 103
+ h3 Q
+ 2164k 1680k
2.74 k + 2164 k 1680 k
486.74 kJ kg-1
SPECIFIC ENTHALPY OF FLUID AT EXIT = 486.74 kJ kg-1
18
7.
An air/fuel mixture passes through a gas turbine system at a rate of 3 kg s-1.

It enters with a velocity of 130 m s-1 and a specific enthalpy of 2600 kJ kg-1. At
exit, the velocity is 105 m s-1 and the specific enthalpy is 1950 kJ kg-1.
In its passage through the turbine the working fluid has a heat transfer loss of
30 kJ kg-1.
Sketch a systems diagram for the turbine and attach given data then determine the
power developed by the turbine.
(1.87 MW)
1
Q = 30 kJ kg-1
C1 = 130 m s-1
h1 = 2600 kJ kg-1
TURBINE
-1
= 3 kgs
m
C2 = 105 m s-1
h2 = 1950 kJ kg-1
2
Energy input =
Energy output
The SFEE per kg of fluid can be stated as:

C12
+ h1
2
Re-arranging, W

Hence power W
C 22
+ h2 + Q + W
2
C12 - C22
2
1302 - 1052
2 x 103
+ (h1 h2) Q
+ (2600 1950) 30
2.9375 + 650 30
622.9375 kJ kg-1
622.9375 x 3
1868.8 kJ s-1
(kJ kg-1 x kg s-1)
POWER DEVELOPED BY TURBINE = 1.87 MW
19
8.
An air/fuel mixture enters a steady flow system with a velocity of 30 m s-1 and exits
with a velocity of 140 m s-1. The mass flow rate is 9 kg s-1. The properties of the
fluid at entry are:
a) pressure 13.8 bar
b) specific volume 0.122 m3 kg-1
c) specific internal energy 422 kJ kg-1.
At exit, the properties of the fluid are:
d) pressure 1.035 bar
e) specific volume 0.805 m3 kg-1 and
f) specific internal energy 208 kJ kg-1.
The heat transfer rate from the system is 4.22 kJ s-1.
Produce a systems diagram and attach given data, then determine the rate of work
transfer from the system.
(2.6 MW)

Q

W
C1 = 30 m s-1
p1 = 13.8 bar
C2 = 140 m s-1
p2 = 1.035 bar (103.5 kN m-2)
v2 = 0.805 m3 kg-1
u2 = 208 kJ kg-1
v1 = 0.122 m3 kg-1
u1 = 422 kJ kg-1
SYSTEM
Energy input
(KE1 + IE1 + FE1)
m

W

[(KE1 KE2) + (IE1 IE2) + (FE1 FE2)] - Q
m

m
C12 - C22
2
=
=
Energy output
+ W

(KE2 + IE2 + FE2) + Q
m

+ (u1 - u2)+ (p1v1 - p2 v 2) - Q
IN kJs-1

W

m
302 - 1402

+ (422 - 208) + (1380 x .122 - 103.5 x .805) - Q
2 x 103
[-9.35 + 214 + 85.04] 4.22

m
9 [289.69] 4.22

W
= 2.6 MW
RATE OF WORK TRANSFER FROM SYSTEM = W
2602.98 kJ s-1
20
9.
Boiler
-1
h1 = 3207 kJ kg
SUPERHEAT TABLES
= 32 kW
Q
2
P1 = 80 bar
t1 = 425C
C1 = 36 m s-1
h2 = hf + hfg
= 551 + .87 x 2171
= 2439.77 kJ kg-1
Pump
=?
W
Turbine
p2 = 2.8 bar
x = .87
C2 = 85 m s-1
Cond.
Steam Power Plant Systems Diagram

Rankine cycle Liquid Condensate
The underlisted conditions apply to the turbine element in the systems diagram
shown.
At Entry
At Exit
Steam Pressure
Steam Temperature
Fluid Velocity
Dryness Fraction
80 bar
425C
36 m s-1
-
Mass Flow Rate of Working Fluid

Rate of Heat Loss to Surroundings
=
=
2.8 bar
85 m s-1
0.87
5.8 kg s-1
32 KW
Using appropriate thermodynamic symbols, insert the given data into the diagram and
use directional arrows for heat/work transfers. Also, calculate the work rate
(power) of the turbine.
(4.4 MW)
Energy input
=
Energy output
(KE1 + h1)
m

W
+W

(KE2 + h2) + Q
m

[(KE1 KE2) + (h1 h2)] - Q
m

m
C12 - C22
2 x 103
5.8
362 - 852
2 x 103

+ (h1 - h 2) - Q
+ (3207 - 2439.77) - 32 kJ s-1
=
5.8 [-2.96 + 767.23] 32

W
=
4400.77 kJ s-1
POWER DEVELOPED BY TURBINE = 4.4 MW
21
10.
A steady flow of wet steam enters a condenser with a pressure of 4.5 bar,
a dryness fraction of 0.86, and a velocity of 100 m s-1. The liquid condensate
exits the condenser at a pressure of 1.2 bar and with a velocity of 12 m s-1.
Determine:
a)
The change of Specific Enthalpy across the system
b)
The heat loss to the cooling water per kg of the working fluid
(2.008 MJ kg-1; 2.013 MJ kg-1)
p3 = 4.5 bar
C3 = 100 m s-1
x = 0.86
COOLING WATER
Q OUT
STEAM
INPUT
OUTPUT
CONDENSER
3
a)
Spec. enthalpy of wet steam at 4.5 bar and .86 dry, hx = hf + xhfg
h3 = 623 + .86 x 2121
Spec. enthalpy at entry,
h3 = 2447.06 kJ kg-1
Spec. liquid enthalpy at exit,
h4 = 439 kJ kg-1
(h3 h4) = 2447.06 439
(hf on tables)
CHANGE OF SPEC. ENTHALPY ACROSS SYSTEM = 2.008 MJ kg-1
b)
p4 = 1.2 bar
C4 = 12 m s-1
Energy input
Energy output
KE3 + ENTHALPY h3
KE4 + ENTHALPY4 + Q
Heat transfer per kg, Q
(KE3 KE4) + (h3 h4)
C 32 - C 42
+ 2008
2 x 10 3
100 2 - 12 2
+ 2008 = 2012.9
2 x 10 3
kJ kg-1
HEAT TRANSFERRED TO COOLING WATER = 2.013 MJ kg-1
22
OUTCOME 4: APPLICATION OF MASS CONTINUITY AND BERNOULLIS

EQUATIONS TO INCOMPRESSIBLE FLOW THROUGH PIPES
Oil of density 935 kg m-3 flows steadily through a pipe similar to that in a
Venturi meter as shown below. From data given, determine:
a)
the volumetric flow rate
(.0026 m3 s-1)
b)
the fluid velocity at 45 mm diameter section
(1.643 m s-1)
c)
the diameter d in millimeters
(55.3 mm)
d)
the mass flow rate of the fluid
(2.444 kg s-1)
0.52ms
a)
c)
45
-1
C ms
-1
at 80 mm diameter section,
b)
80
1.
1.09ms
=
V
volumetric flow rate,
-1
x .082 x 0.52
4
.0026 m3 s-1
A1 C1 =
=
V
velocity at 45 mm diameter section from A1 C1 = A2 C

A1
x C1
A2
4 x .082 x 0.52
4 x .0452
velocity C =
fluid velocity at 45 mm diameter, C = 1.643 m s-1
diameter d from A1 C1 = A3 C3
A3 = 4 x
A3 = A1 x
.05525 m
C1
C3
0.52
d2 = 4 x .082 x
1.09
d2 = .003053 m2
d)
diameter d = .003053
= ! A1 C1 =
Mass flow rate m
mass flow rate of oil
55.3 mm
935 x 4 x .082 x 0.52

=
2.4439 kg s-1
=
2.444 kg s-1
23
2.
A 200 mm diameter pipe splits into 2 branch pipes, one 60 mm diameter and the
other 80 mm diameter. The system carries oil of density 930 kg m-3 in steady
flow. If the velocity of the oil in the largest pipe is 3 m s-1 and in the smallest 4 m
s-1, determine the following:
a) the volumetric flow rate in the 200 mm pipe
(0.0942 m3 s-1)
b) the mass flow rate in the 60 mm pipe
(10.518 kg s-1)
c) the velocity of the oil in the 80 mm pipe
(16.49 m s-1)
3
80 m m
3 m s -1
60 m m
200 m m
a)
4 m s -1
=A C
Volumetric flow rate in 200 mm pipe, V
1 1
1

V
1

V
1
2
4 x 0.2 x 3
0.0942 m3 s-1
b)
2 = ! A2 C2
m
Mass flow rate in 60 mm pipe,
-1
2
2 = 10.518 kg s
m
=
930 x 4 x .062 x 4
m
c)
Volumetric flow rate in 60 mm pipe,

x .062 x 4

V
=
2
4

+ V

Now V
=
V
1
2
3

V
3
=A C
V
2 2
2
= 0.0113 m3 s-1
V
2
= V
-V

V
3
1
2
0.0942 0.0113
Velocity in 80 mm pipe,
= 0.0829 m3 s-1
=A C
V
3 3
3

V
0.0829 x 4
3
=
= 16.49 m s -1
2
A3
[ 08
C3
VELOCITY OF OIL in 80 mm diameter pipe = 16.49 m s-1
24
3.
A pipeline 1.2 m diameter at its upper end tapers to 0.6 m diameter at its lower end
over a length of 300 m with datum levels as shown in figure. The pressure at the
upper end is 69 kN m-2. Water flows steadily downwards at a mass flow rate of
1400 kg s-1. Frictional losses in the pipeline are equivalent to a head of 0.85 m per
100 m run. Determine the velocity at each end of the pipeline and the water
pressure at the lower end.
300m
73m
70m

(pressure at 0.6 m end = 111.9 kN m-2)
= AC
Fluid velocities at each end from equation m
at lower end
C1
C1

m
$
and at upper end
C2
1400 x 4
1000 x [ 0.6 2
4.95 m s-1
C2

m
$

m
=
$ 2
1400 x 4
1000 x [ 1.22
= 1.24 m s-1
Find pressure from Bernoullis equation:

Z1 +
C12
p
C2 p
+ 1 = Z2 + 2 + 2 + ZF
2g !J
2g !J
70 +
4.952
p1
1.242
69 x 103
+
= 73 +
+
+ 3 x 0.85
2 x 9.81 1000 x 9.81
2 x 9.81 1000 x 9.81
70 + 1.249 +
p1
9810
= 73 + .078 + 7.03 + 2.55
p1
= 82.658 71.249
9810
p1
WATER PRESSURE AT LOWER END = 111.9 kN m-2
= 11.409 x 9810 = 111922.3 N m-2
25
4.
A horizontal pipeline, carrying water in steady flow, tapers from 200 mm

diameter at point A to 100 mm diameter at B. The volumetric flow rate of the
water is 0.055 m3s-1. Determine:
a)
The fluid velocities at points A and B
(1.75 and 7.0 m s-1)
b)
The mass flow rate of the water
(54.98 kg s-1)
c)
The pressure difference between points
A and B. Neglect frictional losses.
(22.97 kN m-2)
C 2 =?
C1 = ?
d 1 = 200m m
3 -1
d 2 = 100m m
V = O .O55m s
a)
= 0.055 = A C = A C
Find velocities at points A and B from V
1 1
2 2
Velocity
b)
C1

V
A1
0.055 x 4
[ 22
and velocity C2 =
=
=
c)
0.055 x 4
[ 12
1.75 m s-1 and Velocity at B = 7.0 m s-1
Velocity at A =

Mass flow rate of water m

V
A2
Mass flow rate of the water =
! A1 C1
1000 x
2
4 x .2 x 1.75
54.98 kg s-1
pressure difference from Bernoullis equation:

p1
C 22
p
C12
Z1 +
+
= Z2 +
+ 2
2g !J
2g !J
p1 - p2
!J
C 22
2
1
2g
(Z1 = Z2 HORIZ.)
!J & 22 - C12)
2g
Pressure difference p1 p2
1000 (7.0 2 - 1.752 )

=
= 22968.75 N m-2
2
PRESSURE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN A and B = 22.97 kN m-2
26
5.
Oil of density 900 kg m-3 flows steadily through a pipe from point A to point B.
At A the pipe diameter is 125 mm and the pressure is 160 kN m-2 and at point B,
which is 2 m below A the diameter is 250 mm and the pressure is 210 kN m-2.
Determine:
a)
the velocity of the oil at point A
(8.756 m s-1)
b)
the mass flow rate of the oil
(96.71 kg s-1)
A
a)
From equation A1 C1 = A2 C2
velocity at point A,
2
A2
C1 =
x C 2 = 4 x .25 x C 2
A1
4 x .1252
VELOCITY C1 = 4C2
2m
Assuming no frictional losses, Bernoullis equation gives:

Z1 +
C12
p
+ 1
2g J
C 22
p
+ 2
2g J
Z2 +
(Z2 Z1) +
C12 - C22
(4C 2 ) 2 - C22
=
2g
2g
16C 22 - C22
2 x 9.81
(210 - 160) 103

(0 2) +
900 x 9.81
15C 22
19.62
-2 + 5.663
Velocity C2
19.62 x 3.663
= 2.189 m s-1
15
Velocity of oil at point A
4C2 = 4 x 2.189 = 8.756 m s-1
b)

Mass flow rate of oil, m
A1 C1
900 x 4 x .1252 x 8.756
Mass flow rate of oil =
p 2 - p1
J
96.71 kg s-1
27
6.
Oil of density 930 kg m-3 enters a horizontal pipeline with a pressure of

1.08 MN m-2 and a velocity of 7.5 m s-1. The oil leaves the pipeline with a pressure
of 0.64 MN m-2 and a velocity of 30 m s-1. Apply Bernoullis equation and
determine the loss of head due to frictional resistance.
(5.23 m)
Energy input = Energy output
Bernoullis equation gives:
C12
p
+ 1
Z1 +
2g J
C 22
p
Z2 +
+ 2 + ZF
2g J
For a horizontal pipeline, the Z terms are dropped

Re-arranging:
C12 - C22
p -p
+ 1 2
Frictional resistance, ZF =
2g
J
ZF
ZF
(1.08 - 0.64) x 106

7.52 - 302
+
2 x 9.81
930 x 9.81
56.25 - 900 0.44 x 106

+
19.62
9123.3
-43.0 + 48.23
5.23 m
LOSS OF HEAD DUE TO FRICTIONAL RESISTANCE = 5.23 m
28
7.
A horizontal pipe, 100 mm in diameter, full of water in steady flow, has a

reduced section 50 mm in diameter forming a Venturi tube. The difference in
pressure between the 100 mm and 50 mm sections is measured by a mercury
filled U-tube in which the level difference is 445 mm. Taking the densities of
water as 1000 kg m-3 and mercury as 13600 kg m-3, calculate:
a)
the velocity of the water in the 100 mm section
(2.708 m s-1)
b)
the mass flow rate of the water
(21.27 kg s-1)
= 445mm
100mm
50mm
a)
Velocity in 100 mm diameter section from eauation.
Hg
2gh
Velocity C1
A1
A2
2 x 9.81 x .445
C1 =
-1
13600
-1
1000
2
4 x .12
4 x .05
-1
8.7309 x 12.6
15
-1
2
VELOCITY OF WATER IN 100 mm SECTION = 2.708 m s-1
b)
= ! A1 C1 =
MASS FLOW RATE m
1000 x 4 x .12 x 2.708

21.27 kg s-1
29
8.
A pipeline, full of water in steady flow, tapers from 0.7 m diameter at point
A to 0.35 m diameter at B which is 25 m vertically below A. If at point A the
pressure and velocity are 600 kN m-2 and 5 m s-1 respectively, calculate the
velocity at B. If the frictional head loss is 3.6 m, what will be the pressure at
point B?
(20 m s-1 ; 622.4 kN m-2)
A
25m
Velocity at point B from A1 C1 = A2 C2

A
C2 = 1 x C1
A2
2
Velocity at B = 4 x 0.7 x 5 = 20m s 1
4 x 0.352
Now
Energy at level A
Energy at level B
and using Bernoullis equation we have:

C12
p
+ 1
Z1 +
2g J
52
600 x 103
+
=
2 x 9.81 1000 x 9.81
25 +
25 + 1.274 + 61.162
0+
C 22
p
+ 2 + ZF
Z2 +
2g J
202
p2
+
+ 3.6
2 x 9.81 1000 x 9.81
20.387 +
p2
+ 3.6
9810
p2
9810
87.436
23.987 +
p2
(87.436 23.987) x 9810
622434.7 N m-2
622.4 kN m-2
PRESSURE AT SECTION B
30

OF LIQUIDS AT REST
1.
An oil storage tank has vertical sides and is of rectangular section 5.8 m by 3.6 m.
If the tank contains oil of density 920 kg m-3 to a depth of 2.5 m, calculate the
total thrust due to the oil (a) on the bottom (b) on the 5.8 m side (c) on the
3.6 m wide end.
(471.12 kN, 163.58 kN, 101.53 kN)
=
gAh
920 x 9.81 x 5.8 x 3.6 x 2.5
Total thrust on bottom of tank
471.12 kN
b) Total thrust on 5.8 m side, F2
gA y
920 x 9.81 x 5.8 x 2.5 x 1.25
Total thrust on 5.8 m side
163.58 kN
c) Total thrust on 3.6 m side, F2
gA y
920 x 9.81 x 3.6 x 2.5 x 1.25
101.53 kN
a) Total thrust/force on bottom, F1
2.
Total thrust on 3.6 m side
A horizontal pipe of 1.80 m bore is full of oil of density 890 kg m-3. The pipe is
closed at both ends. Calculate the force acting on an end plate.
(20 kN)
Force acting on end plate, F
Force acting on end
gA y
890 x 9.81 x 4 x 1.82 x 0.9
19995.69 N
20 kN
31
3.
A cylindrical vessel 0.16 m diameter contains oil of density 935 kg m-3 to a depth
of 0.5 m. Calculate the maximum force exerted on the horizontal base of the
vessel due to the liquid column.
What depth of mercury, density 13600 kg m-3, would generate the same force
on the base of the vessel?
(92.21 N, 34.4 mm)
Force acting on base, F
For mercury, force F
depth of mercury
gAh
935 x 9.81 x 4 x .162 x .5
92.21 N
Hg g A h
F
Hg A g
92.21 x 4
13600 x [ 162 x 9.81
0.0344 m
34.4 mm
32
4.
A rectangular storage tank measures 12 m long x 8 m wide and contains a liquid

of density 900 kg m-3. A circular inspection hatch in the horizontal base of the
tank is subjected to a force of 30.9 kN when the liquid depth is 7.0 m.
Determine:
a) the diameter of the hatch
b) the total force acting on the base
c) the total thrust acting on the 8 m wide end
(0.798 m)
(5.933 MN at mid point)
(1.73 MN)
a) pressure acting on hatch,
gh
900 x 9.81 x 7
61803 N m-2
FORCE ON HATCH
F
=
C.S.A OF HATCH
A
0.49998 m2
now, pressure on hatch,
C.S.A. =
F 30.9 x 103
=
P
61803
C.S.A. =
2
4 d = 0.49998
.49998 x 4
= 0.798 m
diameter of hatch, d =
b) total force acting on base
total force on base

c)
pressure x C.S.A. of base
61803 x 12 x 8 = 5933088 N
5.933 MN
total thrust on 8 m side, F
total thrust on 8 m side
gA y
900 x 9.81 x 8 x 7 x 3.5
1730484 N
1.73 MN
33
5.
A total force of 625.6 kN acts on each vertical side of a square based storage tank
containing oil of density 915 kg m-3. The wetted surface area on each vertical side
is 28.92 m2. Determine:
a) the depth of oil in the tank
b) the height above the base where total force acts
c) the total thrust on the base
(4.82 m)
(1.607 m)
(1.558 MN)
a) force acting on vertical side F1 = J y
625.6 x 103
915 x 9.81 x 28.92 x y

625.6 x 103
= 2.41 m
915 x 9.81 x 28.92
depth of centroid, y
depth of oil in tank
2.41 x 2
4.82 m
d2
b) depth of centre of pressure below centroid
12
y
4.822
12 x 2.41
=
height of C of P above base
= 4.82 (2.41 + .803)

=
c) Total thrust on base,
F2
.803 m
1.607 m
gAh
now, area of wetted vertical surface = 28.92 m2 = length of side x 4.82
915 x 9.81 x 62 x 4.82
1557541.5 N
F2
TOTAL THRUST ON BASE
28.92
=6m
4.82
length of side
1.558 MN
34
6.
The figure shows a sectional view of a vertical gate in a dam wall. The
rectangular gate measures 2.8 m deep by 2.2 m wide and is designed to pivot
about its upper end which lies 8.2 m below the free surface. Take the density of
water as 1000 kg m-3 and determine:
a) the magnitude of the total force acting on the gate
b) the position of the centre of pressure below the pivot
c) the force F2 required at bottom of gate to just keep the
gate closed.
(580 kN)
(1.468 m)
(304 kN)
FS
a) depth of centroid below FS, y = 8.2 +
2.8
2
y = 9.6 m
8.2m
total force, say F1 acting on gate from

F1 = J y
PIVOT
2.8m
EPTH
= 1000 x 9.81 x 2.8 x 2.2 x 9.6
F2
TOTAL FORCE = 580 kN

b)
k2
y
Distance, GC, centre of pressure lies below centroid =

For rectangular vertical plane surface k2 =
GC
d2
(d = depth of gate)
12
2.82
12 x 9.6
= .0680 m
position of C of P below pivot
2.8
+ .068
2
1.468 m
c) to find force F2, take moments about pivot.
1.468
2.8m
GATE
DEPTH
F1
1.332
CM
ACM
F2 x 2.8
F1 x 1.468
F2
F2
580 x 103 x 1.468

2.8
FORCE,
F2
304 kN
35
7.
A circular opening in the vertical wall of a storage tank is closed by a gate

mounted on trunnions on its horizontal centre line. The gate has a diameter 3.5 m
and its horizontal centre line lies 6.25 m below the fluid free surface. The tank
contains oil of density 925 kg m-3.
Determine the magnitude of the pulling force required to be applied at a point
1.60 m vertically above the centroid of the gate to just keep it shut against the
hydrostatic force exerted by the oil.
(41.78 kN)
PULLING
FORCE
.6m
.5m
.25m
FS
Total force acting on gate, say,
F1
F1
F1
J y
925 x 9.81 x 4 x 3.52 x 6.25
545.65 kN
=
k2
This force F1 acts below centroid at a distance GC =
y
2
d
also for a circle k2
=
where d
= diameter of gate.
16
3.52
Hence GC
=
= 0.1225 m
16 x 6.25
Find pulling force, say F2, to just keep door closed by taking moments about
trunnion centre line
CM
F2 x 1.6
=
=
F2
PULLING FORCE =
ACM
545.65 x 0.1225
545.65 x 0.1225
= 41.78 kN
1.6
41.78 kN
36
8.
A mercury U-tube manometer as shown in figure is to measure the pressure of oil

in the pipeline at A. Alongside the pipeline system is a mercury barometer with a
column height of 756 mm of mercury. Determine:
a)
atmospheric pressure
b)
the absolute pressure in the pipeline at A when dimension y is 0.6 m
and dimension h is 0.98 m.
Take the densities of oil and mercury as 900 kg m-3 and 13600 kg m-3
respectively.
(100.86 kN m-2, 226.3 kN m-2)
MERCURY
D E N S IT Y
O IL
Hg
C
B
y
X
a)
Atmospheric pressure from barometer reading, pATM = Hg g h
b)
pATM = 13600 x 9.81 x .756

= 100.86 kN m-2
Pressure at C in RH limb = atmospheric or zero gauge

Absolute pressure at x-x in RH limb =
100.86 x 103 + Hg g h
=
100.86 x 103 + 13600 x 9.81 x 0.98
=
231.61 kN m-2
Absolute pressure at x-x in LH limb =

Absolute pressure at B in LH limb =
=
=
Alternative solution
Gauge pressure in pipeline at A
Absolute pressure at A
=
=
=
=
ABSOLUTE PRESSURE AT A
=
=
231.61 kN m-2 (same level)

231.61 x 103 - OIL g yOIL
231.61 x 103 900 x 9.81 x 0.6
226.3 kN m-2
g ( Hg H - OIL Y)
9.81 (13600 x .98 900 x 0.6)
125.45 kN m-2
gauge pressure at A +
atmospheric pressure
(125.45 + 100.86) k
226.31 KN M-2
37
The figure shows a mercury manometer linked to a pipeline carrying water of density
1000 kg m-3. If the gauge pressure at A is 210 kN m-2 and dimension y = 1.48 m, what
will be the height h in the RH limb. Take the density of mercury as 13600 kg m-3.
(1.683 m)
MER CURY
W ATER
Hg
C
A
B
y
X
Pressure in pipeline at A
g (
210 x 103
9.81 (13600 h 1000 x 1.48)
210 x 103
133416 h 14518.8
210000 + 14518.8
133416
height h in RH limb
Hg
h - y)
1.683 m
38
9.
The figure shows a differential manometer connecting two pipelines carrying

water of density 1000 kg m-3. The U-tube contains mercury of density
13600 kg m-3. If the pressure difference between A and B is 48 kN m-2,
dimension X = 0.86 m, dimension Y = 0.52 m, what is the difference in level h?
(41.5 cm)
W1
W1
h
C
Pressure difference formula states:
pA pB
w1 (Y X) + h (w2 w1)
pA - pB
H20 g (Y X) + h (
Hg
g-
H20
g)
1000 x 9.81 (0.52 0.86) + h (13600 x 9.81 1000 x 9.81)
9810 (- 0.34) + h (133416 98810)
48 x 103
- 3335.4 + h (123606)
48000 + 3335.4
123606
DIFFERENCE IN LEVEL h = 41.5 cm
0.4153 m
39
Section 5:
Appendix, Quantities used in Thermofluids (Higher)
DET: Mechanical Engineering: Thermofluids Appendix (Higher)
Quantities Used in Unit

THERMOFLUIDS (HIGHER)
Quantity
Symbol
Unit
Cross-sectional area
Velocity
Force
Specific enthalpy
Enthalpy
Mass
Mass flow rate
Gauge pressure
Absolute pressure
Heat transfer
Rate of heat transfer
Characteristic gas constant
Universal gas constant
Temperature
Absolute temperature
Specific internal energy
Internal energy
Specific volume
Volume
Volumetric flow rate
Density (Rho)
Work Transfer
Work rate/power
Specific Weight
Dryness Fraction
A
C
F
h
H
m
m.
pg
patm
p
Q.
Q
R
Ro
t
T
u
U
v
V
.
V
W

W
w
x
m2
m s-1
N
J kg-1
J
kg
kg s-1
N m-2
N m-2
N m-2
J
J s-1, W
J kg-1 K-1
J kg-1 mol K-1
C
K
J kg-1
J
m3 kg-1
m3
m3 s-1
kg m-3
J
J s-1, Watt
N m-3

Mechanical Engineering Thermofluids

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DET:

Thermofluids (Higher) Student Notes

Tutorials Marking Scheme

Appendix, Quantities used in Thermofluids (Higher)

DET: Mechanical Engineering: Thermofluids Higher

DET: Mechanical Engineering: Thermofluids Higher

DET: Mechanical Engineering: Thermofluids Higher Support Notes

DET: Mechanical Engineering: Thermofluids Higher Support Notes

OUTCOME 1: APPLY GAS LAWS

7,200,000 N m-2 = 7,200 kN m-2 or preferably 7.2 MN m-2.

DET: Mechanical Engineering: Thermofluids Higher Support Notes

DET: Mechanical Engineering: Thermofluids Higher Support Notes

Boyles Law can also be expressed algebraically in the form

pnVn..for the mass of gas

Charless Law can be expressed algebraically in the form:

(Provided neither mass or volume of gas changes)

DET: Mechanical Engineering: Thermofluids Higher Support Notes

The Combined Gas Law

absolute pressure of the gas

DET: Mechanical Engineering: Thermofluids Higher Support Notes

p1V1 = p2V2 etc

Pressure Volume and

Includes Mass and Characteristic

Combined Gas Law

Characteristic Gas Equation

DET: Mechanical Engineering: Thermofluids Higher Support Notes

Test your knowledge of quantities, symbols and units covered so far by

DET: Mechanical Engineering: Thermofluids Higher Support Notes

DET: Mechanical Engineering: Thermofluids Higher Support Notes

PRACTICAL EXEMPLAR PROBLEMS

FINAL PRESSURE OF GAS, p2 = 8 MN m-2 or 80 bar.

DET: Mechanical Engineering: Thermofluids Higher Support Notes

FINAL TEMP. OF AIR

222.8 273 = -50.2C

Char. Gas Constant from p1 V1 = m1 R T1

GAS CONSTANT R = 157.24 J kg-1 K-1

DET: Mechanical Engineering: Thermofluids Higher Support Notes

MASS IN TANK B from p 2 V2 = m 2 R T2

MASS OF GAS IN TANK B = 88.56 kg

When connecting valve is opened, the total volume V3 = 15 m3 and temperature

m3 R T3 (88.56 + 14) x 157.24 x 293

FINAL PRESSURE IN SYSTEM = 315 kN m-2

p2 = 300 x 103 N m-2

m = ? R = 189 J kg-1 K-1

MASS OF GAS IN SYSTEM = 0.2756 kg

DET: Mechanical Engineering: Thermofluids Higher Support Notes

TEMPERATURE AFTER COMPRESSION from p2 V2 = m R T2

p3 V3 300 x 103 x 0.15

TEMPERATURE AFTER EXPANSION T3 = 863.9 273 = 590.9C

DET: Mechanical Engineering: Thermofluids Higher Support Notes

OUTCOME 2: SOLVE PROBLEMS USING DATA EXTRACTED

Thermodynamic tables give the specific volume of dry saturated steam at a

SPECIFIC VOLUME OF DRY SATURATED STEAM

SPECIFIC VOLUME OF SUPERHEATED STEAM

DET: Mechanical Engineering: Thermofluids Higher Support Notes

specific internal energy of saturated water

specific internal energy of dry saturated steam

specific internal energy of superheated steam.

Flow or displacement energy

DET: Mechanical Engineering: Thermofluids Higher Support Notes

Pressure x Cross Sectional Area

Work done on the system

p1 v1 where v equals the specific

In specific terms, i.e. per kg of mass,