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VIVA QUESTIONS WITH ANSWERS

1. What are the different approximate solution methods?


Finite Element method, Finite difference method and quadrature method.

2. What do you mean by continuum?


A continuous sequence in which adjacent elements are not perceptibly different from

each other, although the extremes are quite distinct.


A continuous extent, succession, or whole, no part of which can be distinguished from

neighbouring parts except by arbitrary division.


3. Define term node?
In the FEM, the structural system is modelled by a set of appropriate finite elements

interconnected at points called nodes


A node is a specific point in the finite element at which the value of the field variable

is to be determined.
Nodes are the selected finite points at which basic unknowns (displacements in

elasticity problems) are to be determined in the finite element analysis.


4. Define term element?
In a continuum, unknowns are many. The FE procedure reduces such unknowns to

afinite no. by diving the solution regimes into small parts called elements.
5. What is convergence?
Convergence refers to how close the FEM solution is to the exact solution.

6. What are the types of convergence?


h method and p-method

7. What is p-convergence?
In order to increase the accuracy of the solution, the complexity of the shape function

must be increased. Increasing the polynomial order increases the complexity of the

shape function. Eg. Linear (a+bx) to quadratic function (a+bx+cx 2) or quadratic to


cubic functions(a+bx+cx2+dx3)
8. What is h convergence?
Simple shape functions and many small elements are used in h-method problems. In

order to increase the accuracy of the solution, more elements must be added. This
means creating a finer mesh.
9. What is higher order elements?
If the interpolation polynomial is of the order two or more, the element is known as

higher order elements.


10. Give example for higher order elements.
Quadratic bar element, cubic bar element etc.

11. What do you mean by compatible elements?


The elements which deform without causing openings, overlaps or discontinuities b/w

the adjacent elements are known as compatible elements.


12. What is geometric invariance?
Displacement shapes will not change in local coordinate system. This property is

known as geometric invariance.


13. Why do we use Pascals triangle in FEA?
In order to achieve geometric invariance the polynomial should contain terms that do

not violate symmetry; this is achieved by the use of Pascal triangle for 2Dcases and
Pascal tetrahedron for 3D cases.
14. What are the steps involved in FEA?
1. Discretization of the continuum, 2. Selection of displacement models, 3. Deriving

element stiffness matrix, 4. assemblage of elemental equations to obtain overall


equilibrium equations, 5. Applying boundary conditions, 6. Solution for unknown
nodal displacements and 7. Computation of strain, stress and reaction solution.

15. What is stiffness matrix?


For an element, Stiffness matrix is a matrix such that {F} = [K] {Q}, [K] relates nodal

displacements to nodal force of a single element.


16. How to obtain stiffness matrix?
Stiffness equation obtained by solving strain energy equation (SE = QTKQ)

17. What are the properties of stiffness matrix?


Non negative diagonal elements, Symmetry and sparsity.

18. What is displacement function?


The displacement function, uniquely defines strain within an element in terms

of nodal displacements.
19. How to identify order of elements?
The maximum power of the variable in the interpolation polynomial gives the order or

the order can be obtained by no. of nodes present. Eg. a+bx+cx2 is second order.
20. Mention different types of elements.
Simplex elements, complex elements and multiplex elements; Based on their

geometry they are classified as 1D, 2D, 3D and axis symmetric elements.
21. Mention some application of FEA.
Stress analysis of bars, beams, trusses, buckling problems, Heat transfer problems,

fluid flow problems, bio medical areas etc.


22. What is connectivity?
Connectivity is a term used when a matrix or a table connects the stress, reactions,

displacements etc.
23. What are the methods to improve problem solution?
Use of higher order elements in order to get exact solutions.

24. Define symmetry in matrix.


A symmetric matrix is a square matrix that is equal to its transpose.

25. What is plane stress?


If a body has smaller dimensions along with the normal direction (z-axis) and loading

applied in this direction.


Plane stress is defined to be a state of stress in which the normal stress and shear

stress directed perpendicular to the plane are assumed to be zero e.g. thin plate.
26. What is plane strain?
If the dimensions along longitudinal direction is very long and loading subjected

perpendicular to longitudinal axis


Plane strain is defined to be a state of strain in which normal strain and shear strain

normal to the XY plane are assumed to be zero.


27. Compare FEA with solid mechanics.
Finite element analysis can be applied to any continuous matter where you can divide

the situation into small elements (usually triangular) and apply a set of edge
constraints and then use a computer to solve for the area of concern for whatever the
value under investigation is e.g. temperature, flow rate, stress, shear, bending moment
etc. So Solid mechanics is the study of things as shear, stress, etc. and they use FEA as
a tool but FEA can be applied to many other fields e.g. fluid mechanics
thermodynamics, etc.
28. What are the packages available for FEA?
STAAD-PRO, GT-STRUDEL, NASTRAN, NISA and ANSYS.

29. Define potential energy.


Potential energy is energy which results from position or configuration.

30. Define minimum potential energy.

Deformation and stress analysis of structural systems can be accomplished using the

principle of Minimum Potential Energy (MPE), which states that For conservative
structural systems, of all the kinematically admissible deformations, those
corresponding to the equilibrium state extremize (i.e., minimize or maximize) the total
potential energy. If the extremum is a minimum, the equilibrium state is stable.
31. Write potential energy equation for cantilever beam.

32. Mention Two different methods to approach the model of physical system.
FEM and FDM.

33. What is local coordinate?


Natural coordinates are local coordinates whose values does not exceed unity.

Generally they are either zero or unity at the nodes.


The A natural coordinates are dimensionless number
For the convenience of deriving element properties, in FEM many times for each

element a separate coordinate system is used known as local coordinate system.


34. What is global coordinate?
The coordinate system used to define the points in the entire structure is called global

coordinate system.
35. What is shape function?
It is an interpolation function used to interpolate the variable at the nodes to the field

variable.
Function which relates the field variable at any point within the element to the field

variables of nodal points is called shape function.


36. What are three general natural coordinate?
(Zeta), (neta) and (xi)

37. Mention the range of natural coordinate.

-1 to +1.

38. Number of shape function in CST.


Three

39. Number of shape function in quadrilateral.


Four

40. Explain one point formula and Explain two point formula.

41. Why we are using polynomial equation in FEA?


It is easier to formulate and computerize the finite element equations with

polynomial-type interpolation functions. Specifically, it is easier to perform


differentiation or integration with polynomials.
It is possible to improve the accuracy of the results by increasing the order of the

polynomial.
42. Mention two schemes to represent band width?
Node numbering along longer edge and shorter edge.

43. What are forces involved in work potential?


Body forces, traction forces and point force

44. What are anisotropic elements?


The property of the material is not same along all the directions; such materials are

called anisotropic elements.


45. What are isotropic elements?
The property of the material is same along all the directions; such materials are called

isotropic elements.

46. What are the two different approaches to study elasticity?


Elimination and penalty approach method.

47. List the properties of shape functions.


Shape function at a specified point is unity and other than the specified point it is

zero.
Sum of shape functions is unity.
The differentiation of shape function is a constant.

48. Define truss.


A framework, typically consisting of rafters, posts, and struts, supporting a roof,

bridge, or other structure.


49. What is weighted residual methods?
The weighted residual method is a technique that can be used to obtain approximate

solutions to linear and nonlinear differential equations. If we use this method the finite
element equations can be derived directly from the governing differential equations
of the problem without any need of knowing the functional
50. Different methods to solve weighed residual problem.
Galerkin method, Collocation method, Sub domain method.

51. Explain the principle of virtual work.


The principle of virtual work (PVW) states that the stress, body force and traction are

in equilibrium if and only if the IVW equals the EVW for every virtual displacement
field.
52. Mention some advantages of FEA over solid mechanics.
In classical methods exact equations are formed and exact solutions are obtained

whereas in finite element analysis exact equations are formed but approximate
solutions are obtained.

Solutions have been obtained for few standard cases by classical methods, whereas

solutions can be obtained for all problems by finite element analysis.


Whenever the following complexities are faced, classical method makes the drastic

assumptions and looks for the solutions: Shape, Boundary conditions, Loading.
To get the solution in the above cases, rectangular shapes, same boundary condition

along a side and regular equivalent loads are to be assumed. In FEM no such
assumptions are made. The problem is treated as it is.
When material property is not isotropic, solutions for the problems become very

difficult in classical method. Only few simple cases have been tried successfully by
researchers. FEM can handle structures with anisotropic properties also without any
difficulty.
If structure consists of more than one material, it is difficult to use classical method,

but finite element can be used without any difficulty.


Problems with material and geometric non-linearity cannot be handled by classical

methods. There is no difficulty in FEM.


53. Define Youngs Modulus and Poissons Ratio.
Within the limits of elasticity, the ratio of the linear stress to the linear strain is termed

the modulus of elasticity or Young's Modulus and may be written Young's Modulus,
or E=(Stress/Strain) It is this property that determines how much a bar will sag under
its own weight or under a loading when used as a beam within its limit of
proportionality. For steel, Young's Modulus is of the order of 205000 N/mm2.
Ratio of decrease in the thickness (lateral contraction of a body being pulled (under a

tensile load)to its increase in length (longitudinal extension. It is constant for a


material, around 0.28 for ordinarysteels. Named after its discoverer, the French
mathematician Simon-Davis Poisson (1781-1840).
54. Mention different types of elastic constants.
Modulus of Elasticity or Youngs Modulus(E)Modulus of Elasticity is the ratio of

direct stress to corresponding linear strain within elastic limit. If p is any direct stress
below the elastic limit and e the corresponding linear strain, then E = p / e.
Modulus of Rigidity or Shear Modulus (G)Modulus of Rigidity is the ratio of shear

stress to shear strain within elastic limit. It is denoted by N,C or G. if q is the shear
stress within elastic limit and f the corresponding shear strain, then G = q / f.

Bulk Modulus (K)Bulk Modulus is the ratio of volumetric stress to volumetric strain

within the elastic limit. If pv is the volumetric stress within elastic limit and ev the
corresponding volumetric strain, we have K = pv / ev.
55. Which is the most accepted form of numerical integration in FEM?
Gaussian quadrature.

56. List the different approaches to derive integral equation.


Gaussian quadrature, Simpsons 1/3 rule etc.

57. What are the different types of errors in FEA?


Modelling Error, User error, bugs, Discretization error, Rounding error, manipulation

error, Numerical error.


58. Define Beam & Its types.
A bar subjected to forces and couples that lie in a plane containing itslongitudinal axis

is called a beam.
Types include Cantilever beam, simply supported beam and over hanging beam.

59. Define Conduction, Convection and radiation.


Conduction is the transfer of energy from the more energetic particles of a substance

to the adjacent less energetic ones as a result of interactions b/w particles.


Convection is the mode of heat transfer b/w a solid surface and the adjacent fluid that

is in motion and it involves the combined effects of conduction and fluid motion.
Radiation is the energy emitted by matter in the form of electromagnetic waves as

aresult of the changes in the electronic configurations of the atoms or molecules.


60. Define Heat flux, Heat flow & Heat generation.
Heat flux is defined as the rate of heat transfer per unit area.
Heat flow means transfer of heat energy.
Heat generation means heat developed in the body.

61. Define adiabatic surfaces.

Adiabatic surfaces are surfaces which do not allow the flow of heat either into the

body or out the body.


62. Define Density, film coefficient.
Density is defined as mass per unit volume.
For a fluid confined in a vessel, the rate of flow of heat out of the fluid, per unit area

of vessel wall divided by the difference between the temperature in the interior of the
fluid and the temperature at the surface of the wall. Also known as convection
coefficient.
63. Define Thermal gradient & Thermal conductivity.
The rate of temperature change with distance.
Thermal conductivity is defined as the rate of heat transfer through a unit thickness

of the material per unit area per unit temperature difference.


64. Define Specific heat .
It is a measure of a materials ability to store thermal energy.

65. Define Dynamic Analysis and its types.


Dynamic analysis is analysis done if loading is of higher frequency or is applied

suddenly.
Types are modal analysis, harmonic analysis etc.

66. Define Modal & Harmonic Analysis with its application.


Modal analysis is the study of the dynamic properties of structures under vibrational

excitation.
Harmonic analysis is analysis done when a structure is subjected to cyclic loading.

67. What is DOF?


It is a variable that describes the behaviour of a node in an element. Thus, in one

dimension axial element, each node has only one DOF, i.e. each node can move only
in the x direction only.

68. What is element connectivity?


Element connectivity is the nodal information for the individual element with details

how they fit together to from the complete original system.


69. How difficult is it to write a FEM program?
Writing a FEM code is not terribly difficult, especially if one develops the code

utilizing a general set of subroutines, e.g., input data, integration, assembly, boundary
conditions, output, etc. About 90% of a FEM program is generic, which is fairly
common among most FEM codes they tend to use similar matrix solvers, quadrature
rules, and matrix assembly procedures; I/O is usually the major difference among
commercial FEM codes some are easy, and some are not so easy to learn and use.
70. How expensive is a FEM code?
FEM codes range from those that can be found for free on the web to others costing

many thousands of dollars. Those that run on PCs are generally inexpensive, yet
provide powerful tools for solving a number of large scale problems.
71. What kind of hardware do need to run a FEM code?
A PC with a sufficiently fast processor, at least2GB RAM, and at least 500 GB of hard disk

will permit many problems to be solved that once could only be run on mainframe computers.
A suggested PC level for major FEM calculations is one with 4 GB RAM, 1TBhard
disk, and running with Pentium 4/3.2 GHz or better processors would provide more
than adequate capabilities. The state-of-the-art in PC hardware is improving
constantly; in a few years, even these suggested requirements will seem obsolete.
72. Why is the p-version FEM important?
The FEM provides an approximate solution. In engineering practice it is important to

know not only the information one wishes to compute but also to have an indication
about the size of error of FEM approximation. The p-version FEM makes it
convenient and efficient to obtain error estimates in terms of the data of interest.
73. When was the p-version FEM developed?

Research on the p-version dates back to the late 1960's. Many important advances

occurred in the 1970's. The p-version FEM is a more recent technology than the hversion.
74. Does the p-version have clear advantages over the h-version?
Yes. For typical design problems in mechanical and civil engineering practice the

errors of approximation are reduced at an exponential rate when the number of


DOF are increased, provided that the finite element mesh is properly constructed. The
h-version can provide algebraic convergence rates only. This makes error control
much more effective in the p-version. Furthermore, a converging sequence of
solutions is much more naturally and conveniently obtained with the p-version than
with the h-version. This makes it feasible to employ quality control procedures in the
setting of practical engineering decision-making processes.
75. Are there classes of problems which can be handled by the p-version but not the

h-version?
In principle, any problem which can be solved by the h-version can be solved by the

p-version, and vice-versa. The h-version (p fixed at 1 or 2) is a subset of the more


general p-version for which shape functions are approximated by higher order
polynomials (up to p=8). The use of high-order p elements makes it possible to model
and solve with high fidelity, classes of problems comprised of very thin domain. For
example, the p-version has clear and substantial advantages for laminated composites
and adhesively bonded joints, both of which require elements with very large aspect
ratios. Other classes of problems includefracturemechanics and structural plates and
shells.
76. What is the advantage of the FEM over FDM and FVM?
The major advantages of the FEM over FDMand FVM are its built-in abilities

to handle meshes, a rich family of element choices, and natural handling of


boundary conditions (especially flux relations). The FDM is generally restricted to
simple geometries in which an orthogonal grid can be constructed; for irregular
geometries, a global transformation of the governing equations (e.g., boundary fitted
coordinates) must be made to create an orthogonal computational domain. Likewise,

implementation of boundary conditions in FDM can be cumbersome. The FVM is an


integral approach similar to the FEM, with volumes being used instead of elements.
The divergence theorem is used to establish the final equation set. Solutions are
obtained at volume faces, vertices, or volume centres some methods employ
staggered grids. While FVM can handle irregular domains are using unstructured
grids (stemming from the FEM), the required averaging over the volume limits the
method to second order spatial accuracy.

77. Is there any connection between the FEM and the boundary element method (BEM)?
In the BEM, one reduces the order of the problem by one, i.e., a two-dimensional

domain is reduced to a line integral a three-dimensional domain becomes a 2-D


surface. The BEM only requires the discretization of the boundaries of the problem
domain no internal meshing is required, as in the FDM, FVM, and FEM schemes.
The BEM requires two applications of the Green-Gauss Theorem (versus one in the
FEM and employing Galerkins Method). The method is ideal for handling irregular
shapes and employing Galerkins Method). The method is ideal for handling irregular
shapes and the BEM to obtain internal values easily. The BEM works quite effectively
for linear differential equations principally elliptic equations. However, if one
desires to solve nonlinear advection-diffusion transport equations, the method
becomes very cumbersome and computationally demanding BEM matrices are dense,
and do not readily permit efficient, sparse matrix solvers to be used as in the FEM.
78. What is meshing?
Finer meshes come with a cost however: more calculation time and large memory

requirements (both disk and RAM)! It is desired to find the minimum number of
elements that give you a converged solution.
79. What is a banded matrix?
A matrix whose only

non zero coefficients

diagonal is called banded matrix.


80. What is half -banded width and state its use?

are located on or near the

main

The greatest no. of coefficient of stiffness in any row of the stiffness matrix from and

including the leading diagonal to the outside right hand non-zero coefficient. The
main use of banded matrix lies in reducing the space required to store the given
matrix.
81. What are area coordinates?
Area coordinates

are natural coordinates for a triangular element with a value

between 0 and 1 which is equal to the ratio of the area of triangular portion of
the element to the total area of the element.
82. What is an isoparametric element?
If geometry and the field (displacement) interpolation functions areof the same order,

then it is called isoparametric element. Their use enables the basic elements to be
mapped into distorted shapes which are of considerable importance for it allows the
generation of elements having curved sides or faces.
83. Define discretization?
It is a process in which the given body is sub divided in to an equivalent system of

finite elements.
84. What are the finite elements?
The geometrically complex region describing a continuum is discretized in to simple

geometric shapes (sub-domains) called finite elements.


85. Define node? And classify it?
Nodes are selected finite points at which basic unknown (displacement) are to be

determined in FEA. The properties and governing relationship are assumed over the
element and expressed mathematically in terms of un known value at specific points
on the elements are called as nodes. There are two types of nodes- External nodes
(primary and secondary), 2.internal nodes

86. What are the properties of shape function?


No. of shape function is equals to no. of DOF.
Its value is unit at respective nodes and zero at other nodes.
Sum of shape function is always unity.
Displacement must be continuous.

87. What is ANSYS?


ANSYS is a general purpose finite element modelling package for numericallysolving

a wide variety of mechanical problems. These problems include: static/dynamic


structural analysis (both linear and non-linear), heat transfer and fluid problems, as
well as acoustic and electro-magnetic problems.
ANSYSis aFEApackage used widely in industry to simulate the response of a

physical system to structural loading, and thermal and electromagnetic effects.


ANSYSuses theFEMto solve the underlying governing equations and the associated

problem-specific boundary conditions.


88. Mention the nine steps used in ANSYS
Start-up and preliminary set-up
Specify element type and real constants
Specify material properties
Specify geometry
Mesh geometry
Specify boundary conditions
Solve!
Post process the results
Validate the results

89. In how much way FEM is formulated?


There aretwo waysfor the formulation of the FEM: one is based on the direct

variation method (such as theRayleigh Ritz method) and the other on the method of
weighted residuals (such as theGalerkin method).In the formulation based on the
variation method, the fundamental equations are derived from the stationary
conditions of the functional for the boundary-value problems. This formulation has an
advantage that the process of deriving functional is not necessary, so it is easy to
formulate the FEM based on the method of the weighted residuals.
90. Mention the stages of FEA?
In general, a finite-element solution may be broken into the following three stages.
o

Pre-processing: defining the problem


The major steps in pre-processing are
(i)

define key points/lines/areas/volumes,

(ii)

define element type and material/geometric properties, and

(iii)

mesh lines/areas/ volumes as required. The amount of detail


required will depend on the dimensionality of the analysis,i.e.,
1D, 2D, axisymmetric, and 3D.

Solution: assigning loads, constraints, and solving


Here, it is necessary to specify the loads (point or pressure), constraints
(translational and rotational), and finally solve the resulting set of equations.

Post processing: further processing and viewing of the results


In this stage one may wish to see
(i)

lists of nodal displacements,

(ii)

element forces and moments,

(iii)

deflection plots, and

(iv)

stress contour diagrams or temperature maps.

91. In how many methods ANSYS can be used ?


There aretwomethods to use ANSYS.

1. Graphical User Interfaceor GUI. which follows the conventions of popular Windows
and X-Windows based programs.

2.Command filesapproach has a steeper learning curve for many, but it has the
advantage that the entire analysis can be described in a small text file, typically inless
than 50lines of commandsand enables easy model modifications and minimal file
space requirements.
92. How files are organized in ANSYS?
A large number of files are created when ANSYS is run. If ANSYS is started without

specifying a job name, thename of all files created will be File.*, where the
represents various extensions described below. If a jobnameisspecified, say Beam,
then the created files will all have the file prefix, Beam again with various extensions:
1. beam.db database file (binary). This file stores the geometry, boundary conditions,
and any solutions.
2. beam.dbb backup of the database file (binary).
3. beam.err error file (text). Listing of all error and warning message
4. beam.out output of all ANSYS operations (text). This is what normally scrolls
inthe output window during ANSYS session.
5. beam.log log file or listing of ANSYS commands (text). Listing of all equivalent
93. What are advantages of FEA?
FEAs biggest advantage is its versatility. A variety of problems, involving

complicated geometries, external influences, material properties and boundary


conditions can be readily solved with the help of FEA.

Another great advantage of FEA is its high accuracy of calculations. Once the
designers interpret the problem correctly and feed the respective data, no errors are
encountered in the plotted answers.

The method can efficiently be applied to cater irregular geometry.

Material anisotropy and inhomogeneity can be treated without much calculation.

Very high speed of calculations.

Improved design productivity.

Complicated calculations done by computer.

Minimized design errors.

Effects of change in loads can be simulated.

94. What are limitations of FEA?


Cost sometimes acts as a prohibitive factor for its application.
The accuracy of design also dependsupon designers accuracy in interpretation of

problem.
Voluminous computer outputs are generated, which has to be patiently digested and

interpreted.
The stress distribution also depends upon denseness of meshing. Stress values

may vary by 25% from fine mesh analysis to average mesh analysis.
Experience and good engineering judgment are needed in order to define a good

model.
95. Define stiffness & state the properties of stiffness matrix?
Banded one, symmetric, and order is NXN WHERE N= NO. OF DOF

96. What is the effect of size and number of elements on the solution by FEM.?
Smaller size and more no. of elements will result in more FEM accuracy.

97. What is interpolation function? What is a linear, quadratic, and cubic element?
Linear one

degree

,Quadratic---second

degree

polynomial

Cubic---

third degree polynomial


98. Explain simplex and complex and multiplex elements available in library?
Simplex only primary external nodes Ex. CST, Two node bar element.
Complex primary + secondaryExternal nodes Ex,tria-6, Quad-8
Multiplex with edges parallel to co-ordinate axes and with many complex.

99. How to improve accuracy of solution by FEM?


By increasing no. of elements ,--by fine meshing, --by choosing higher order

polynomial function.
100.

What is meant by Isoparametric, Sub

formulation?

parametric and

Super parametric

For

Isoparametric

----NG =ND.,

Sub-parametric

--

NG <ND,

Super

parametric--- NG >ND Where NG =no. of shape function in Geometry ND= no. of


shape function in Displacement.
101.

What are the different types of coordinate systems?

Local,
Natural,
Global,
Area,
Generalised co-ordinate systems.

102.

What are Hermite shape functions?

Shape functions of beam element tell formula H1, H2, H3and H4,

103.

What is trusses element?

A load carrying member subjected to tensile and compressive force only no shear.

104.

Why would you want to use a FEM program?

The versatility, ease of data input, and solution accuracy make the FEM one of the

best numerical methods for solving engineering problems. FEM programs are
the backbone of structural analyses, and are becoming more widely accepted for
problems in which geometries are complex.
105.

Is this a method that will soon become obsolete?

The recent introduction of BEM and meshlessmethods would appear to indicate the

eventual obsolescence of the FEM. However, these newer methods are still years
away from being developed to the point of wide spread applicability found in FEM.
The FEM will be around for many years to come. Recent advances with the inclusion
of spectral schemes and adaptivity make it especially attractive now.
106.

What is the finite element method (FEM)?

The FEM is a novel numerical method used to solve ordinary and partial differential

equations. The method is based on the integration of the terms in the equation to be

solved, in lieu of point discretization schemes like the finite difference method. The
FEM utilizes the method of weighted residuals and integration by parts (Green-Gauss
Theorem) to reduce second order derivatives to first order terms. The FEM has been
used to solve a wide range of problems, and permits physical domains to be modeled
directly using unstructured meshes typically based upon triangles or quadrilaterals in
2-D and tetrahedrons or hexahedrals in 3-D. The solution domain is discretized into
individual elements these elements are operated upon individually and then solved
globally using matrix solution techniques.
107.

What is the history of the FEM?

Early work on numerical solution of boundary-valued problems can be traced to the

use of finite difference schemes; Southwell used such methods in his book published
in the mid 1940s. The beginnings of the finite element method actually stem from
these early numerical methods and the frustration associated with attempting to use
finite difference methods on more difficult, geometrically irregular problems.
Beginning in the mid-1950s, efforts to solve continuum problems in elasticity using
small, discrete "elements" to describe the overall behaviour of simple elastic bars
began to appear, and such techniques were initially applied to the aircraft industry.
Actual coining of the term "finite element" appeared in a paper by Clough in 1960.
The early use of finite elements lay in the application to structural-related problems.
However, others soon recognized the versatility of the method and its underlying rich
mathematical basis for application in non-structural areas. Since these early works,
rapid growth in usage of the method has continued since the mid-1970s. Numerous
articles and texts have been published, and new applications appear routinely in the
literature.

108.

Why should one use finite elements?

The versatility of the FEM, along with its rich mathematical formulation and

robustness makes it an ideal numerical method for a wide range of problems. The
ability to model complex geometries using unstructured meshes and employing
elements that can be individually tagged makes the method unique. The ease of
implementing boundary conditions as well as being able to use a wide family of
element types is a definite advantage of the scheme over other methods. In addition,

the FEM can be shown to stem from properly-posed functional minimization


principles.
109.

Can the FEM handle a wide range of problems, i.e., solve general PDEs?

While the FEM was initially developed to solve diffusion type problems, i.e., stress-

strain equations or heat conduction, advances over the past several decades have
enabled the FEM to solve advection-dominated problems, including incompressible as
well as compressible fluid flow. Modifications to the basic procedure (utilizing forms
of up winding for advection, i.e., Petrov-Galerkin and adaptive meshes) allow general
advection-diffusion transport equations to be accurately solved for a wide range of
problems.
110.

Is there any connection between the FEM and the boundary element

method (BEM)?
In the BEM, one reduces the order of the problem by one, i.e., a two-dimensional

domain is reduced to a line integral a three-dimensional domain becomes a twodimensional surface. The BEM only requires the discretization of the boundaries of
the problem domain no internal meshing is required, as in the FDM, FVM, and
FEM schemes. The BEM requires two applications of the Green-Gauss Theorem
(versus one in the FEM and employing Galerkins Method). The method is ideal for
handling irregular shapes and setting boundaries that may extent to (near) infinity.
One can place interior nodes within the BEM to obtain internal values easily. The
BEM works quite effectively for linear differential equations principally elliptic
equations. However, if one desires to solve nonlinear advection-diffusion transport
equations, the method becomes very cumbersome and computationally demanding
BEM matrices are dense, and do not readily permit efficient, sparse matrix solvers to
be used as in the FEM.
111.

What is adaptivity, i.e., h-, p-, r-, and hp-adaptation?

Adaptivity is an active research area involving either remeshing or increased

interpolation order during the solution process. The method is particularly effective in
fluid flow, heat transfer, and structural analysis. The use of mesh refinement has been

especially effective in aerodynamic simulations for accurately capturing shock


locations in compressible flow. Generally, there are two types of adaptation: hadaptation (mesh refinement), where the element size varies while the orders of the
shape functions are kept constant; p-adaptation, where the element size is constant
while the orders of the shape functions are increased (linear, quadratic, cubic, etc.).
Adaptive remeshing (known as r-adaptation) employs a spring analogy to redistribute
the nodes in an existing mesh - no new nodes are added; the accuracy of the solution
is limited by the initial number of nodes and elements. In mesh refinement (hadaptation), individual elements are subdivided without altering their original
position. The use of hp-adaptation includes both h- and p-adaptation strategies and
produces exponential convergence rates. Both mesh refinement and adaptive
remeshing are now routinely used in many commercial codes. A spectral element is a
special class of FEM that uses a series of orthogonal basis functions whereby the
unknown terms are solved at selected spectral nodes; the method is stable and highly
accurate, but can become time consuming.
112.

Are there any recommended commercial FEM packages that are versatile

in handling a wide range of problems?


Any of the well known and widely versatile FEM codes now on the market are good

it just depends on how comfortable the user is with the I/O part of the program.
COMSOL, as mentioned before, is quite easy and very versatile handling a wide
range of problem classes including fluid flow (with turbulence), heat transfer,
structural analysis, electrodynamics, and general PDEs including species transport,
chemical reactions, and groundwater/porous media flows.

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