A

Sr Question
1

The first DATA network formed by ARPA was called

The research team chose to follow an approach known as _____ that became the basis for data networks and

The research team chose to follow an approach known as _____ that became the basis for data networks and

What was major issue resulting into complexity with NW Standard

Multiple organizations have created NW standards independently, which are not all compatible

What was the main motivation in early computer networks that were large and expensive?

Early computer networks were designed to permit sharing of expensive, _____ resources

Name three basic wiring types used to minimize interference in networks

Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)
Coaxial Cable
Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)

A coaxial cable consists of a _____________ wire surrounded by a metal shield

A _______twisted pair cable consists of a pair of wires surrounded by a metal shield

10 Glass Fiber uses__________ to transport data

List 2 advantages of using Optical Fiber.

1. Because they use light,neither cause electrical interference in other cables nor are they susceptible to electr
11 2. Because glass fibers can be manufactured to reflect most of the light inward a fiber can carry a pulse of lig
3. Because light can encode more information than electrical signals an optical fiber can carry more informat
4. Unlike electricity, which always requires a pair of wires connected into a complete circuit, light can travel

List 2 disadvantages of using Optical Fiber.

1. First, installing a fiber requires special equipment that polishes the ends to allow light to pass through
12
2. Second, if a fiber breaks inside the plastic jacket: finding the location of the problem is difficult
3. Third, repairing a broken fiber is difficult special equipment is needed to join two fibers

13 The satellite contains a _____________________ that consists of a receiver & transmitter

Define the function of the Transponder used in Satellite
transponder accepts an incoming radio transmission
14
amplifies it
and transmits the signal back toward the ground at a slightly different angle than it arrived
15 Many long-distance telephone companies use ______________ to carry telephone conversations
16 Infrared is limited to _____________ area
17 In Lightwave light from a laser must travel in a _____________ line and must not be _______________.
Why is the problem of interference is severe in copper wires?
18
because wires that comprise a NW often are placed in parallel with many other wires
19 RF technology can be combined with ______________ to provide communication across longer distances.

In twisted Pair Cables how do twists change the electrical properties of the wire?
20 First, they limit the EM energy the wire emits: So they help prevent electric currents on the wire from radiatin
Second, they make the pair of wires less susceptible to EM energy:They help prevent signals on other wires f

21 Most NWs do not send data as continuous streams of bits. But instead divides data into small blocks called _

List and Describe the use of Packet in NW

First, a sender and receiver need to coordinate transmission to ensure that data arrives correctly:
22 Dividing the data into small blocks helps a sender and receiver determine which blocks arrive intact and whic
Second, communication circuits and the associated modem hardware are expensive
multiple computers can share connections and HW to reduce costs

23 Conceptually, a NW that permits many sources to take turns accessing a shared resource is said to be providin

24

How does dividing data into small packets ensures that all sources receive prompt service
because it prohibits one source from gaining exclusive access for an arbitrarily long time

25 Term _____ is used to denote a packet used with a specific NW Hardware

List the disadvantages and advantages of framing scheme

26 The chief disadvantage is overhead
The chief advantage is handling system failures and reboots

27 ________ on NW can permanentely damage NW equipment , changes the signal or completely destroy a si
What are the effects of Interference on NW
1 cause permanent damage to NW equipment (lightening)
28 2 changes the signal
3 completely destroy a signal
4 create the opposite effect i.e although the sender does not transmit anything, a receiver might interpret the

Explain Parity Checking in NW

1 Parity checking requires the sender to compute an additional bit called a parity bit and to attach it to each
29 2 The receiver removes the parity bit, performs the same computation as the sender and verifies that the resul
3 The parity computation is chosen such that if one of the bits in the character is damaged in transit, the recei
that an error occurred.

30

What are the two forms of parity

Odd and Even

Two facts motivate the use of packets. List any one giving reason
First, a sender and receiver need to coordinate transmission to ensure that data arrives correctly:
31 Dividing the data into small blocks helps a sender and receiver determine which blocks arrive intact and whic
Second, communication circuits and the associated modem hardware are expensive
multiple computers can share connections and HW to reduce cost

32 All computers attached to an Ethernet participate in a distributed coordination scheme called ____
33
34
35
36

CSMA uses ____ activity on the cable to determine status

The interference/ mixture of two signals in CSMA is called ___
CSMA/CD will not suffice for Wireless LAN because of problem called ____
Wireless Used the modified version of CSMA/CD called ____

37 Early Communication systems had communication channel for connecting exactly two computers and were a
38 The best example of Bus Topology used today is ___
39 Localtalk uses ___ form of CSMA
40 Ring Toplogy uses ______ scheme for NW sharing

41 _____ employed redundancy to overcome failures in Ring Topology

What are the three useful properties of point-to-point NW scheme ?

1.Because each connection is installed independently, appropriate hardware can be used. For e.g. the transmi
do not need to be same on all connections
42 2.Because they have exclusive access the connected computers can decide exactly how to send data across th
mechanism and a maximum frame size. Most importantly because the connection is independent of others the
change.
3.Because only 2 computer has access to the channel it is easy to enforce security and privacy . No other com

Disadvantages of Point-to-Point NW
43 if more than two hosts need to communicate with one another?
the number of connections grows quickly as the size of the set increases

If shared communication reduces cost why is it not used for long distance communication as well? Give atlea
Because in sharing medium communication is required for Coordination and the time required depends on d
44
Shared NW with long delays are inefficient because they spend more time coordinating use of the shared me
Providing a high BW channel over long distances is significantly more expensive than providing the same B

If shared communication reduces cost why is it not used for long distance communication as well?
Because in sharing medium communication is required for Coordination and the time required depends on d
45
Shared NW with long delays are inefficient because they spend more time coordinating use of the shared me
Providing a high BW channel over long distances is significantly more expensive than providing the same B

What is Locality of Reference Principle in Data NW ?

Communication among a set of computers is not random, instead follows two patterns
46
First, if a pair of hosts communicates once, it is likely to communicate again in the future and then periodica
Second, a computer tends to communicate most often with other computers that are nearby called physical

47 List the three topologies used most often with LANs

Explain Star Topology with supporting diagram

A NW uses a star topology if all computers attach to a central point
Hubs (or switches) are used to connect computer together
48 A hub is an electronic device that accepts data from a sending computer and delivers it to all connected
Figure 8.3 illustrates an idealized star NW:
In practice, star NW seldom have a symmetric shape in which the hub is located an equal distance from all co
Instead, a hub often resides in a location separate from the computers attached to it

Explain Ring Topology with supporting diagram

A NW that uses a ring topology arranges for computers to be connected in a closed loop
a cable connects the first computer to a second computer, another cable connects the second computer to a th
49
Computers arranged in a circle as shown in Figure 8.4
Ring refers to logical connections among computers, not physical orientation
computers in a ring need not be arranged in a circle

Explain Bus Topology with supporting diagram

A NW that uses a bus usually consists of a single, long cable to which computers attach
The ends of a bus NW must be terminated to prevent electrical signals from reflecting back along the bus
Any computer can send a signal down the cable
and all computers receive the signal
50 Figure 8.5 illustrates the topology
All computers attached to the cable can sense signals
any computer can send data to any other computer
The computers attached to a bus NW must coordinate
to ensure that only one computer sends a signal at any time
otherwise chaos results

51

List advantages of a ring topology

makes it easy for computers to coordinate access and to detect whether the NW is operating correctly

List advantages and disadvantages of a ring topology

52 makes it easy for computers to coordinate access and to detect whether the NW is operating correctly
However, an entire ring NW is disabled if one of the cables is cut
List advantages and disadvantages of star topology
53 helps protect the NW from damage to a single cable because each cable connects only one machine
requires more wires than a bus
List disadvantages of a bus topology
54
has the same disadvantage as a ring - a NW is disabled if someone accidentally cuts the main cable

How does sharing work on an Ehternet

Figure 8.7 illustrates how data flows across an Ethernet
a signal propagates from the sending computer to both ends of the shared cable.
Sharing in LAN does not mean that multiple frames are being sent at the same time
55
Instead, the sending computer has exclusive use of the entire cable during the transmission of a given frame
other computers must wait
After one computer complete transmitting one frame
the shared cable becomes available for another computer to use

Explain how CSMA works

An Ethernet does not have a centralized controller
All computers attached to an Ethernet participate in a distributed coordination scheme
It is called Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA)
The scheme uses electrical activity on the cable to determine status
When no computer is sending a frame
the ether does not contain electrical signals
56
Determine whether the cable is currently being used
a computer can check for a carrier
If no carrier is present,
the computer can transmit a frame
If a carrier is present,
the computer must wait for the sender to finish before proceeding
Checking for a carrier wave is called carrier sense

57 In CSMA/CD, to guarantee that a collision has time to reach all stations before they stop transmitting what is

In CSMA/CD after a collision has occurred and if the computers begin to transmit as soon as the ether becom
To avoid multiple collisions, each computer needs to delay after a collision before attempting to retransmit
58 A maximum delay d forces each computer to choose a random delay less than d
When a computer chooses a delay at random it will select a value that differs from any of the values chosen
The computer that chooses the smallest delay will proceed to send a frame and the NW will return to normal

Explain binary exponential backoff

If two or more computers happen to choose nearly the same amount of delay after a collision they will both
To avoid a sequence of collisions
stations double the range after each collision
A random delay from 0 to d after 1st collision
59
A random delay between 0 and 2d after 2nd collision,
A random delay between 0 and 4d after 3rd , and so on
After a few collisions, the range from which a random value is chosen becomes large
This technique is known as binary exponential backoff
It provides a quick recovery after a collision because each computer agrees to wait longer times between atte

Some wireless LANs characteristics:

EM energy radiates in all directions
Wireless LAN transmitters use low power
60
Enough power to travel a short distance
Metallic obstructions can block the signal
Wireless units located far apart or behind obstructions will not receive each other's transmissions

How does CSMA/CA work

Instead of depending on all other computers to receive all transmissions
Trigger a brief transmission from the intended receiver before transmitting a packet
61
Before sending the frame, transmit a brief control message
Receiver responds by sending another control message to indicate that it is ready to receive a transmission
Once a response from its intended recipient arrives sender begins transmitting the frame

What if Collision Occur in CSMA/CA for control message

Collisions of control messages can occur when using CSMA / CA, but they can be handled easily
When such collisions occur,
62
the sending stations apply random backoff before resending the control messages
Because control messages are much shorter than data frames
the probability of a second collision is much lower than with conventional Ethernet

Advtantage & Disadvantage of Localtalk

The major disadvantage was lower throughput:
LocalTalk hardware transfers data at much lower speeds than Ethernet
63
The major advantage was low cost:
because most of the HW needed to connect the computer to a LocalTalk was included with a computer
the NW was almost free (e.g, only a single cable was needed to connect two Macintosh computers over Loca

Hows doea a ring topology ensures that exactly one token exists on a token ring ?
A token gives a host permission to send one frame.
64
Before it can send a frame, the host must wait for the token to arrive
When a token arrives, temporarily removes from the ring and uses the ring to transmit
How does Token Ring scheme guarantees fair access:
65 as token passes around, each one will have an opportunity to use
if a host does not have any data to send it the passes the token on without delay

66 What is the example of Star Toplogy

67 What is the full form of ATM

When a frame is transmitted across a LAN, the electrical signals carrying the bits reach all stations. How can
68 attached stations receive a copy of all signals?
Each station on the LAN is assigned a unique numeric value called a physical address, Hardware Address o
69 When a sender transmits a frame across the LAN, the sender includes ___ Address of the intended recipient
70 Each frame includes two addresses ?
71 Why is the sender address included in frame ?

List the tasks handled by the Network Interface Hardware

1checks the length of an incoming frame
72 2 checks the CRC to ensure that the bits arrived intact and discards frames that contain errors
3 compares the destination address to the station's HW Address, If it matches the station's HW Address, it ac
discards
73 While comparing the incoming frame if the NIH find that it is not matching, what action does it take
74 standard for addressing has been created by _____
75 In IEEE addressing scheme, each address consists of ____ (Bits / Bytes ) MAC address.
76 MAC full form
77 NIH full form
78 Other names for MAC Address

How does IEEE deal with Hardware Address Assignment ?

Maintains that each address is unique and so IEEE allocates an address for each piece of network interface ha
79 Rather than assign individual addresses, IEEE assigns a block of addresses to each equipment vendor, and all
Thus, a 48-bit address is divided into a 24 bit (first 24 bit) Organizationally Unique ID (OUI) that identifies t
Interface Controller (NIC)

80 The IEEE addressing scheme supports three types of addresses that correspond to three types of packet delive

81 Based on the Packet Delivery, Ethernet LAN addresses can be broken down into two subcategories. List them

82 What is a Unicast Address?

83 The ____ address on an ethernet frame will always be a unicast address.

84 When a packet is framed for transport and is being forwarded to a single destination, destination address on a
85 ___ and Broadcast addresses are both classified as group addresses
86

In case of multicasting, the tricky part of dealing with host groups and hardware addresses is performed by __
problems

How is the transmission of multicast packets done?

Transmission of multicast packets is a simple problem because they look exactly like any other packets.
The interface transmits them over the communication medium without looking at the destination address.
87 It's the kernel that has to assign a correct hardware destination address.
The kernel handles the job of tracking which multicast addresses are of interest at any given time. The list ca
running at any given time and the users' interest.
On the receiving end, it is the driver's job to accept the list of interesting multicast addresses and deliver to th

88 What is Broadcast address?

89 Broadcast addresses are always the same value, which is ____

90 Most LAN technologies define a frame to consist of two parts. List them

91 the ____ area of a frame does not have a fixed size

HW sometimes enforces a minimum as well as a maximum frame size
92
If the sender has less than the minimum, the data can be extended with ___

An Ethernet frame begins with a header that contains three fields. List and Explain
The 64-bit preamble - alternating 1s and 0s that allow the receiver's hardware to synchronize with the incom
93
The first two fields of the header contain HW Address i.e. Destination Address and Source Address
The third field of the header consists of a 16-bit Ethernet frame type
94 0800h in the Frame Type field specifies that data in the frame is for ___
95 To read packets, analyzer software places the computer's network interface hardware into ____ mode
96 What happens when analyser software is put into promicuous mode ?
97 A computer CPU does not process individual bits on the NW. Who Does that
98 Most NICs contain Direct Memory Access (DMA) circuit. How does it help?
How is NW packet handled in a computer?
To receive a packet,
the CPU allocates buffer space in memory
99
and then instructs the NIC to read the next incoming packet into buffer
the NIC waits for a frame to cross the network
makes a copy of the frame and process it
100The original Ethernet wiring scheme was informally called ___ or ___

The ___ handles the digital aspects of the communication, e.g. address recognition and error detection and __
converting bits into voltages, etc.

101

Ethernet specifies a minimum distance separation between two transceivers, so when there are several compu
between multiple connections

102

103if a carrier signal is present on the network, the multiplexor reports the carrier to ____
104A second generation of Ethernet wiring uses a thinner more flexible ___ cable than the original thick wiring

Difference between Thinnet and Thicknet ?

Thinnet generally costs less than Thicknet to install and operate than Thicknet
105
Because HW that performs the transceiver function is built into the NIC no external transceivers are needed
Thinnet does not use an AUI cable to attach the NIC to the communication medium / it attaches directly to t

106A third generation of Ethernet (todays widely used technology) is

107An electronic device serves as the center of the NW is known as ___ or ___
108The connection uses UTP wiring with ___ connectors
109A connection in a hub is called ___
As per the Topology Paradox, how does twisted pair Ethernet function physically & logically?
110Physically, twisted pair Ethernet uses a star topology
Logically, twisted pair Ethernet functions like a bus

Is Ethernet a bus topology, or does the topology depend on the wiring? Explain the Topology Paradox
A twisted pair Ethernet forms a classic star where each computer has a dedicated connection to the central hu
111
Physically, twisted pair Ethernet uses a star topology
Logically, twisted pair Ethernet functions like a bus

112Because physically, twisted pair Ethernet uses a star topology and Logically, twisted pair Ethernet functions

113What is Fast Ethernet?

114Of the fast Ethernet standards ____ is by far the most common and is supported by the vast majority of Ether
115100BASE-TX - 100 Mbit/s used Cateory ___ UTP cable and is most popular LAN cabling this days
116100BASE-FX is a version of Fast Ethernet over _____

117100Base-FX uses a 1300 nm near-infrared (NIR) light wavelength transmitted via two strands of optical fiber
118List 2 connectors options for 100BaseFX

1191000BASE-T (also known as IEEE 802.3ab) is a standard for gigabit Ethernet over copper wiring must use C

120_____ is a fiber optic gigabit Ethernet for distance capability between 220 metres and 550 metres using multi

____ is a fiber optic gigabit Ethernet standard specified in IEEE 802.3 Clause 38 which uses a long waveleng
over single-mode fiber.

121

122IEEE Standard _____ deals with Wireless LANs

123802.11a uses ___ frequency
124802.11b and 802.11g uses ___ frequency
125802.11g gave speed Up to ___ in 2.4 GHz band
126802.11b gave speed Up to ___ in 2.4 GHz band

127802.11a used ___ channels in which ___ are used for data ___ for synchronisation
128802.11a gave speed upto ____
129____ is used to tackle the 2 main issues hiden terminal and expose station in wireless

130Distribute Coordination Function (DCF) used ___ or ___ method to tackle the problem of hiden terminal and

131Virtual carrier sensing uses additional ACKs, Carrier Sense, and Binary Exponential Backoff (BEB) per ____
132Wireless communication quality between two nodes can be unequal due to ___
133IEEE ___ deals with bluetooth standard
134In Bluetooth, Slave nodes need to be within __ meters of the master node.
135In Bluetooth, Piconet uses centralized ____ division Multiplexing.
136What was the cause for rise in demand for Wireless LAN?

137List four most popular wireless standards

Name 3 Network Terms Associated with Wireless and Explain them
1. Base Station - all communication through an Access Point (AP) or Wireless Hub
138
2. Infrastructure Wireless : AP is connected to the wired Internet.
3. Ad Hoc Wireless : wireless nodes communicate directly with one another without the need of AP
2 main issues in 802.11a
139Complex Encoding
More difficulty in penetrating walls
140What was the problem with frequency used by 802.11b

141In wired Ethernet (802.3) you could seize the channel i.e. take the full control of the medium. But it is not po

Explain Hidden Terminal Problem with diagram

Wireless stations have transmission ranges and not all stations are within radio range of each other.
142Simple CSMA will not work!
C is transmitting to B.
If A senses the channel, it will not hear Cs transmission and falsely conclude that A can begin a transmissi

Explain Exposed Station Problem with diagram

143B wants to send to C and listens to the channel.
When B hears As transmission, B falsely assumes that it cannot send to C.

Explain in brief how virtual carrier sensing works

Sender broadcasts a Request-to-Send (RTS) and the intended receiver sends a Clear-to-Send (CTS).
144
Upon receipt of a CTS, the sender begins transmission of the frame.
RTS, CTS helps determine who else is in range or busy (Collision Avoidance).
145what is NAV with reference to virtual carrier sensing
Explain Persistent Physical Carrier Sensing
The station senses the channel when it wants to send.
146If idle, the station transmits
If the channel is busy, the station defers until idle and then transmits (1-persistent).
Upon collision, wait a random time using binary exponential backoff (BEB)
List 3 types of nodes in bluetooth and their numbers as specified in architecture
1 Master node
147
1 to 7 active slave nodes
0 to 255 parked nodes

List 2 types of nodes in bluetooth as specified in architecture

1 Master node
148
1 to 7 active slave nodes
0 to 255 parked nodes

List the 13 profiles and exlpain them

1. Generic access profile
provides secure channels between the master and slave.
2. Service discovery profile
allows devices to discover what services are available from other devices.
3. Serial port profile
for applications that need a serial port communication
4. Generic object exchange profile
provide support for the client/server model.
note that a slave can be a client or a server.
5. LAN access profile
is a direct competitor of 802.11.
allows a Bluetooth device to connect to a fixed network.
6. Dialup access profile
149
Ericssons original motivation
allows a notebook computer to communicate to a mobile phone without wires
7. Fax profile
allows fax machines to connect to mobile phones wirelessly to send and receive faxes
8. Cordless Telephony Profile
connect a cordless telephone handset to a base station without wires.
9, Intercom profile
allows two telephones to connect like walkie-talkies
10, Headset Profile
good for hands free telephony I.E. while driving a car
The last three profiles are for wireless devices to exchange a wide variety of data
11. Object Push profile for simple objects
12. File transfer profile - general file transfer
13. Synchronization profile - was designed to facilitate the exchange of data in both directions between a P.C
Infrared technology used in local networks exists in three different forms. List with speed at each form
IrDA-SIR (slow speed) infrared supporting data rates up to 115 Kbps
150
IrDA-MIR (medium speed) infrared supporting data rates up to 1.15 Mbps
IrDA-FIR (fast speed) infrared supporting data rates up to 4 Mbps
151Which profile is used if you want to synchronise phonebook in your smartphone with your computer

152While original V 1.0 of bluetooth is a complete specification from application layer to physical layer, 802.15
153Communication in bluetooth is only possible between ____ and ____nodes

The Bluetooth 802.15 specification not only creates competition for other wireless technologies, namely 802.
other.

154

What are parked nodes in bluetooth

155a slave device in a low power state to conserve the drain on the devices batteries
In this state the device can only respond to the signal from the master node
156Each LAN technology is designed for a specific combination of ____, distance and cost

157To overcome distance limitations, some LAN technologies allow two LANs to be joined together with a devi
158_____ Limitation is the fundamental part of LAN designs.

159When designing a NW technology, we choose a combination of ____, _____ and _____achieved at a low co
160To help save expense, LAN technologies usually use a ______ communication medium such as a shared bus

161As a consequence of using a shared medium, a LAN design must include a mechanism that guarantees each s

162The two most popular access mechanisms, CSMA / CD and ______, each take time proportional to the size o

163To ensure that delays do not become significant a LAN technology works with a fixed maximum _____ leng
164_____ has low delay and high bandwidth

165Repeaters are part of the Ethernet standard, which specifies that the network will not operate correctly if mor
166Like a Repeater, ____ is an electronic device that connects 2 LAN segments.
167Two LAN segments connected by a ____ behave like a single LAN
168The most valuable function a bridge performs is ____
How is the interconnections among switches and the capacity of each connection chosen?
169to accommodate the expected traffic
to provide redundancy in case of failure

170To ensure that all stations attached to a LAN receive a sufficiently ____signal, we should calculate the maxim
171A repeater is usually an analog ____ device that continuously monitors electrical signals on each LAN

172When a frame arrives on a segment, the bridge extracts and checks ____ address and takes one of the two de
173Most bridges are called ____ OR ____ bridge - Because they learn the locations of computers automatically

174To learn the locations of computers automatically the bridges uses ___ address information in the frames tha
175In bridging between multiple locations, Filtering at both sites is performed because of ___ constraints

176Bridges HW used with long-distance connections must perform ____i .e. saving a copy of each frame in mem

177The bridges perform a computation known as the _____ algorithm to decide which bridges will not forward
178DST allows a bridge to determine whether forwarding will introduce a ____

Fiber modems contains HW to perform two chores. List them

1791. electronic circuitry in fiber modem converts between AUI signals and digital representation
2. and optical driver translates between the digital representation and pulses of light which travel along the fib

Can an arbitrarily long Ethernet be constructed by using repeaters? Why?

1. The answer is NO
1802. Although such an arrangement does guarantee sufficient signal strength, each repeater and segment along t
3. If the delay becomes too large, the scheme fails.
4. Repeaters are part of the Ethernet standard, which specifies that the network will not operate correctly if m

Repeaters have several drawbacks. List them

1. repeaters do not understand complete frames - a repeater does not distinguish between a valid frame and ot
181
2. When a collision/interference occurs on one segment - a repeater recreates the signals on the other segmen
3. Similarly when interference generates unwanted electrical noise on a segment, repeaters transmit a copy o

Why are Bridges more popular than repeaters ?

because they help isolate problems like
1821. bridge will not forward a collision from one segment to another
2. if interference occurs on one of the 2 segments connected by a bridge, it will simply discard the same.
3. bridge keeps problems on one segment from affecting the other

When a frame arrives on a segment, the bridge extracts and checks destination address and takes one of the t
1. If the bridge knows that the destination computer is attached to the same segment over which the frame arr
183
the bridge can discard the frame
2. If the destination does not lie on the segment over which the frame arrived the bridge must send a copy of

Most bridges are called adaptive or learning bridge - Because they learn the locations of computers automat
1841. a bridge uses source address information in the frames that arrives
2. When a frame arrives, the bridge extracts the physical source address from the frame header and adds it to

If a computer did not send any frames a bridge could not detect its location. So how will bridge learn the segm
Computers do not usually remain silent
185
1. A host usually emits at least one frame when the system first boots
2. Furthermore, computer communication is usually bidirectional, a computer that receives a frame usually se

What are the three advantages of using bridges between Buildings?

First, because it requires only a single fiber connection, the bridge solution is less expensive than using a sepa
Second, because the connection between buildings attaches to the bridge, individual computers can be added
186
between buildings
Third, because a bridge allows simultaneous communication on the two segments, using a bridge instead of a
impact communication among computers in the other building

Two methods are popular for a bridged NW to span long distances and each involves a long-distance point-to
187First uses a leased serial line to connect the sites - more common because it is less expensive
Second uses a leased satellite channel - because it permits communication across an arbitrary distance

List operational differnce between a hub and a switch.

188a hub simulates a single shared medium
while a switch simulates a bridged LAN with one computer per segment
189The table used to store next-hop information is commonly called a __________

190The Software used to compute the entries for a Routing Table for shortest path computation is known as ___

191A switch usually has multiple I/O connectors, making it possible to connect multiple computers

192As per the routing in WAN, the relationship between graph theory and NW is strong. A machine attached to a
What are the key issue that separates WAN technologies from LAN technologies?
1. Scalability - a WAN must be able to grow as needed to connect many sites
193
2. it can deliver reasonable performance for large size NW
3. provides sufficient capacity to permit the computers to communicate simultaneously

How can a WAN scale to handle many computers?

1. Instead of using a point-to-point (PTP) leased data circuit that connects one computer directly to another, a
194connect
2. The initial size of a WAN is determined by the number of sites and the number of computers connected
3. Additional switches can be added as needed to connect additional sites or additional computers
195The basic electronic switch used in a WAN is called a ____ switch in general
196Each PS is a small computer with special HW has a ___, ____ and ____to send and receive
What forms of PTP (Point to Point) are used to build a WAN?
197Almost every form of PTP communication has been used to build a WAN i.e.
Copper cables, optical fibers, microwaves, and satellite channels
On what basis the interconnections among switches and the capacity of each connection is chosen?
1981. to accommodate the expected traffic
2. to provide redundancy in case of failure
199The fundamental paradigm used with wide area PS systems is ___ and ____ switching

Explain how Store and Forward works in a PS

1. To perform store and forward, a PS must buffer packets in memory
2. the store operation occurs when a packet arrives the forward operation occurs next
200
3. the processor examines the packet, determines over which interface it should be sent and starts the output h
4. if multiple packets must be sent to the same output device,
the PS can hold packets in memory, until the output device is ready

In WAN addressing, the simplest hierarchical scheme partitions an address into two parts. List them.
the first part identifies a PS and the second part identifies a computer attached to that PS

201

202In WAN, an address is represented as a single ___ value

In WAN, if the packet is destined for a computer attached to another PS

the packet must be forwarded further that leads to the switch and a PS uses the ____ address

203

204A PS does not keep complete information about how to reach all possible destinations. A switch simply send
205In next hop forwarding, a PS usually assigns each interface a small integer, ____
What is source independence in Next-hop forwarding?
Next-hop forwarding depends only on the destination known as source independence

206

What are the advantages of Source independence in next hop forwarding?

Source independence in next hop forwarding.allows the forwarding mechanism to be compact and efficient
1. Because all packets follow the same path only one table is required
207
2. Because forwarding does not use source information only the destination address needs to be extracted fro
3. Furthermore, a single mechanism handles forwarding uniformly - packets that originate on directly connec
mechanism
208The process of forwarding a packet to its next hop is known as ____

What are the advantages of two-part hierarchical addressing?

1. The advantages of two-part hierarchical addressing is that more than one entry contains the same next-hop
209
2. all destination addresses that have an identical first part will be forwarded to the same PS
3. Thus, a PS only needs to examine the first part of a hierarchical address

What are benifits of using only one part of a two-part hierarchical address?
Using only one part of a two-part hierarchical address has two practical consequences
210
1. First, the computation time required to forward a packet can be reduced
2. Second, the entire RT can be shortened to contain one entry per destination PS instead of one entry per des

Explain in brief the next-hop forwarding algorithm.

the next-hop forwarding algorithm can be summarized as below:
To forward a packet when using two-part hierarchical addresses
211begin by extracting the part of the packet's destination address that corresponds to a PS called p
If p matches the number assigned to the local PS then
use the second part of the address to locate an attached computer
Otherwise use p to select a next hop from the RT
212PS having computers attached can be classified as ____ switches
213PS not having computers attached can be classified as ___ switches

What the values in the RT must guarantee?

2141. Universal routing - The RT in a switch must contain a next-hop route for each possible destination
2. Optimal routes - In a switch, the next-hop value in the RT for a given destination must point to the shortes
215A serial data circuit connecting two machines is often called a ____
216In routing in WAN, a ___ can be used to compute and understand next-hop routes

Explain the use of Default Route in WAN.

1. Although hierarchical addressing reduces the size of the RT by removing duplicate routes for individual c
2. Abbreviated RT still contains many entries with the same next hop
2173. Most WAN systems include a mechanism that can be used to eliminate the common case of duplicate entri
4. the mechanism allows a single entry in a RT to replace a long list of entries that have the same next-hop va
5. Only one default entry is allowed in any RT, and the entry has lower priority than other entries
6. If the forwarding mechanism does not find an explicit entry it uses the default entry, if exist (optional)

What is the difference between Static routing and Dynamic routing

Static routing - A program computes and installs routes when a PS boots;
218the routes do not change
Dynamic routing - A program builds an initial RT when a PS boots;
the program then alters the RT as conditions in the NW change
List at least one advantages and disadvantages of Static Routing
219The chief advantages of static routing are simplicity and low NW overhead
The chief disadvantage is inflexibility -- static routes cannot be changed easily

Wht does most NWs use dynamic routing?

2201. because it allows the NW to handle problems automatically. For example, programs can monitor traffic in
2. The programs can then modify routes to accommodate failure - Because large NWs are designed with redu

The SW to compute the entries for a RT represents the NW as a graph, known as ______ Algorithm, which f
the other nodes in the graph.

221

Why is Dijkstra's Algorithm popular?

DA is popular because it can be used with various definitions of shortest path
222it does not require edges to represent geographic distance
it allows each edge to be assigned a value, called a weight
and defines the distance between two nodes to be the sum of the weights along a path between the nodes
223Dijkstra's Algorithm computes shortest paths in a graph by using ____ on edges as a measure of distance
Dijkstra's Algorithm needs three data structures to store. List them
1. The current distance to each node,
224
2. the next hop for the shortest path,
3. and information about the remaining set of nodes

Dijkstra's Algorithm uses weight (i, j) as a function that returns the weight of the edge from node i to node
exists from node i to node j

225

Explain in brief the distributed route computation.

1. Each PS computes its RT locally,
2262. Then sends messages across the NW to neighboring PS to inform them of the result
3. Each PS to send its routing information to neighbors periodically (e.g., seconds)
4. After an initial startup period, each PS learns the shortest paths to all destinations

227One of the best-known algorithms for distributed route computation is ____ algorithm

In Distance Vector Algorith, when will a PS change its Routing Table?

228When a message arrives at a PS from neighbor N, the PS examines each item in the message and changes its
PS has been using
An alternative form of distributed route computation exists
called ____ routing

229

Like a Distance Vector Algorith, an Shortest Path First algorithm can adapt to HW failures. What is the adva
SPF has the advantage that all computations can be carried out simultaneously
230
1. After the status of a link changes, all PS receive a status message, and each switch begins computing its RT
2. In contrast, a DVA it requires a PS to update its RT before sending a message to another PS

231What is a network protocol?A set of rules that specify the format of messages and the appropriate actions req

232A set of rules that specify the format of messages and the appropriate actions required for each message is kn
What is the advantage of dividing a protocol in to sub-pieces?
233Makes easier to design, analyze, implement, and test
increases flexibility because it allows subsets of protocols
What needs to be considered when dividing a protocol design into sub-pieces?
The division must be chosen carefully to
234To ensure the resulting system is efficient and effective
To avoid duplication of effort, they can share data structures and information
To handle all possible HW failures or other exceptional condition

How to guarantee that protocols will work well together?

instead of developing each protocol in isolation, protocols are designed and developed in complete, cooperat

235

236One of the most important tools in a plan for Protocol Design is called a ____ model
237Layering model describes one way the communication problem can be divided into sub-pieces called ____
List all the 7 layers of OSI model and functionality defined at each layer
Layer 1 Physical:
Basic NW HW, specification of LAN HW
Layer 2 Data Link
How to organize data into frames and how to transmit frames
Layer 3 NW
How addresses are assigned and how packets are forwarded
238Layer 4 Transport
How to handle details of reliable transfer
Layer 5 Session
How to establish a communication session with a remote system
Layer 6 Presentation
How to represent/match data
Layer 7 Application
How particular application uses a NW

239Layering models provide a simple explanation of the ____ among the complex HW and protocol component

What were the issues in protocol stacks created by several vendors and had to be replaced with TCP/IP proto
240They had few common issues
1. mostly incompatible - protocols from a given stack cannot interact with protocols from another

List the protocol stack and their developer which are now replaced by TCP / IP
Novell - Netware
Banyan - VINES
241
Apple - Appletalk
Digital - DECNET
IBM - SNA
242Usually, each layer places additional information in a ____ before sending data to a lower layer

What must happen as per the Scientific Basis For Layering?

1. Layer N SW on the destination computer must receive the exact message sent by layer N SW on the sen
243
2. Whatever transformation a protocol applies before sending a frame
must be completely reversed when the frame is received
List techniques being used to tackle different issues in protocol design
1. Sequencing For Out-Of-Order Delivery
2. Sequencing To Eliminate Duplicate Packets
2443. Retransmitting Lost Packets
4. Avoiding Replay Caused By Excessive Delay
5. Flow Control To Prevent Data Overrun
6. Mechanisms To Avoid NW Congestion

Explain Sequencing For Out-Of-Order Delivery

1. One of the problem is out-of-order delivery.
2. A connectionless NW system that can change routes may deliver packets out of order
3. To handle out-of-order deliveries, transport protocols attaches a sequence number to each packet
245
4. Receiver stores the sequence number of the last packet received in order
as well as a list of additional packets that arrived out-of-order
5. If the packet is the next one expected, delivers the packet to the next highest layer and checks its list for ad
6. If the packet has arrived out of order adds the packet to the list and wait

Explain Sequencing To Eliminate Duplicate Packets

1. Malfunctioning HW can cause packets to be duplicated
2. Duplication often arises in WANs, but can also occur in LAN Ex. a transceiver malfunction in a LAN that
246the sender senses a collision
3. Sequencing solves the problem of duplication;
4. The receiving SW checks for duplicates when it examines the sequence number of an arriving packet
5. If the packet has already been delivered or the sequence number matches one of the packets waiting on the

Explain in breif the Retransmitting Lost Packets

1. For reliable transfer (i e , transfer without loss), protocols use a small message, called acknowledgement (A
2. Sender starts a timer when sending a frame;
247
3. Receiver sends an ACK if frame received correctly
4. If an ACK arrives before the timer expires, sender cancel the timer
5. If the timer expires before an ACK arrives, send another copy of the packet (retransmission) and starts the

In what situation the Retransmission cannot succeed?

Retransmission cannot succeed if a HW failure has permanently disconnected the NW or if the receiving com

248

249There should be a bound on the ___ number of retransmissions of lost packets

How can Retransmission introduce duplicate packets

2501. Because a sender cannot distinguish between a packet that has been lost and a packet that experiences long
2. Both copies of the packet may be delivered

What adverse effect can a Replay cause with control packets?

2511. Protocols often send a special control packet to terminate a conversation
2. If a copy of a termination request arrives from a previous conversation, it can cause protocol SW to termin

What precautions does a protocol take to prevent replay?

Protocols mark each session with a unique ID (e g time session was established), and require ID be present i

252

253____ occurs when a computer sends faster than the destination can absorb it, so data is lost

254Several techniques are available to handle data overrun and collectively, the techniques are known as ____me
How does a stop-and-go system work in flow control.
255A sender waits after transmitting each packet for an ACK
When the receiver is ready for another packet, the receiver sends a control message, usually a form of ACK
256To obtain high throughput rates with flow control, we can use _____

How does sliding window works in flow control?

1. The sender and receiver use a fixed window size i.e. maximum amount of data that can be sent before an A
2. Sender and receiver might agree on a window size
3. The sender extracts data to fill packets that correspond to the first window
257and transmits a copy of each packet
4. If reliability is needed, the sender retains a copy in case retransmission is needed
5. The receiver must have buffer space to receive the entire window
6. When a packet arrives in sequence, receiver passes the packet to the application and transmits an ACK
7. When an ACK arrives, the sender discards its copy of the acknowledged packet and transmits the next pac

258If congestion in network persists, a PS will run out of memory and begin discarding packets. Furthermore, if
List the two approaches for dealing with congetion
2591. Arrange for PS to inform senders when congestion occurs
2. Use packet loss as an estimate of congestion

In protocol design, why details must be chosen carefully? Explaing with supporting example.
small design errors can result in incorrect operation, unnecessary packets, or delays
260
Ex: sequence # should be chosen so that they are not reused frequently, but small enough to avoid wasting un
Similarly, a higher-level protocol can cause excessive overhead if the protocol chooses a non-optimal messag

261____ technologies are designed to provide high-speed communication across short distances
262___ technologies are designed to provide communication across large areas

What is universal service?

263Most modern computer communication systems allow communication between any two computers analogou
telephones, known as universal service
264With ____ , a user on any computer in any organization can send messages or data to any other user

Why cannot extension techniques such as bridging be used with heterogeneous network technologies ?
2651. each technology uses its own packet format and addressing scheme
2. a frame created for one network technology cannot be transmitted on a network that uses a different techno

266Despite the incompatibilities among network technologies, researchers have devised a scheme that provides u
267The basic component used to connect heterogeneous networks is a _____
What can a router connect?
two LANs
268
a LAN and a WAN
or two WANs

Why would an organisation need multiple connections? Explain both reasons.

1. Load-balancing and speed - the processor in a given router is insufficient to handle the traffic passing amo
269
2. Redundancy improves internet reliability - To avoid a single point of failure
The protocol software continuously monitors internet connections and It instructs routers to send traffic along

What does the exact details of internet topology chosen be dependent on?
The exact details of internet topology to be chosen often depend on the following
1. bandwidth of the physical networks
2702. expected traffic
3. organization's reliability requirements
4. cost
5. performance of available router hardware
What details are hidden by the Internet software in general
1. physical network connections
271
2. physical addresses
3. routing information

272We say that an internet is a ____ network system because Users/application programs are not supposed to be

273Several protocols have been proposed for use with internets but ____ Internet Protocol suite is the most wide
List 5 Layers of TCP / IP reference model from top to bottom.
1. Application
2. Transport
274
3. Internet
4. Network Interface
5. Physical
275____ computer to refer to a computer that connects to the Internet and runs applications
276The addressing scheme IP version 4 is also known as ____

Why would MAC addresses do not suffice for internet addressing

because
277
the Internet can include multiple network technologies
and each technology defines its own MAC addresses
278In IPv4, each host is assigned a unique ___-bit number known as the host's IP address or Internet address

When sending a packet across the Internet, what should senders protocol software must specify at the minim
279its own 32-bit IP address (the source address)
and the address of the intended recipient (the destination address)
List and explain the 2 parts of IP address.
IP addressis divided into two parts:
A prefix
identifies the physical network to which the host is attached
280
Each network in the Internet is assigned a unique network number
A suffix
identifies a specific computer (host/node) on the network
Each computer on a given network is assigned a unique suffix

IP addressis divided into two parts: A ___ which identifies the physical network to which the host is attached
network

281

282The original classful IP addressing divided the IP address space into___primary classes, each class has a diffe

283The first ___ bits of an IP address determined the class to which the address belonged. It specifies how the re
List the binary values for first 4 bits for class A and B
0000,1000
List the binary values for first 4 bits for class A B and C
285
0000,1000,1100
284

286Notation that has been accepted is to express each 8-bit section of a 32-bit number as a decimal value and use
287dotted decimal addresses range is from ___ to ____
288Equivalent Dotted Decimal / Binary Representation for
a. 10000001 00110100 00000110 00000000 - 129.52.6.0
b. 11000000 00000101 00110000 00000011 - 192.5.48.3
289c. 00001010 00000010 00000000 00100101 - 10.2.0.37
d. 11000000 10101000 00000001 00001010 - 192.168.1.10
e. 00001110 10001011 01111001 01101101 - 14.139.121.109
How many bits are used in suffix i.e. for hosts in class A, B and C?
290
24, 16, and 8

What is the maximum no of host per network in class C?

256 i.e. 2 raise to 8
292To obtain a network prefix, a corporation usually contacts an ___
291

As the Internet grew, the original classful addressing scheme became a limitation. Two mechanisms were inv
What are they?
293
Subnet addressing
Classless addressing

What did the two mechanisms do to overcome the limitation of classful addressing scheme.
1. instead of having three distinct address classes, it allowed the division between prefix/suffix on an arbitrary

294

How can an IP address be divided at an arbitrary boundary?

The classless and subnet addressing schemes require hosts and routers to store an additional piece of informa
295
and the host suffix
To mark the boundary, IP uses a 32-bit value known as an address mask, also called a subnet mask

296The classless and subnet addressing schemes mark the boundary, using a 32-bit value known as an address m

Consider the mask needed for the example. It has 26 bits of 1s followed by 6 bits of 0s. In dotted decimal, th
297192.5.42.59?
192.5.42.59/26

Assume an ISP has the following block 192.162.121.0/24

Suppose the ISP has 2 customers where one customer needs 12 IP addresses and the other needs 9. The mask

298

What are the possible host address in 128.211.0.16/28 block?

128.211.0.17 through 128.211.0.30

299

List five special IP addresses

Network Address
Directed Broadcast Address
300
Limited Broadcast Address
This Computer Address
Loopback Address

Explain Special Address - Network Address

1. It is convenient to have an address that can be used to denote the prefix assigned to a given network
3012. IP reserves host address zero and uses it to denote a network
3.Thus, the address 128.211.0.16/28 denotes a network because the bits beyond the 28 are zero
4. A network address should never appear as the destination address in a packet

Directed Broadcast Address

1. To simplify broadcasting (send to all), IP defines a directed broadcast address for each physical network
3022. When a packet is sent to a network's directed broadcast, a single copy of the packet travels across the Inter
3. the packet is then delivered to all hosts on the network
4. The directed broadcast address for a network is formed by adding a suffix that consists of all 1 bits to the n

303Suppose you have a network 192.168.1.0/24. Network ID is 192.168.1.0 (All 0s in Suffix) Hosts = 192.168.1

Limited broadcast
1. Limited broadcast refers to a broadcast on a directly-connected network:
informally, we say that the broadcast is limited to a single wire
304
2. Limited broadcast is used during system startup by a computer that does not yet know the network number
3. IP reserves the address consisting of 32-bits of 1s refer to limited broadcast
4. Thus, IP will broadcast any packet sent to the all-1s address across the local network

This Computer Address

1. A computer needs to know its IP address before it can send or receive Internet packets
2. TCP/IP contains protocols a computer can use to obtain its IP address automatically when the computer bo
305
3. The startup protocols also use an IP to communicate
4. When using such startup protocols, a computer cannot supply a correct IP source address
5. To handle such cases, IP reserves the address that consists of all 0s to mean this computer

Loopback address
1. Loopback address used to test network applications
2. It is used for preliminary debugging after a network application has been created
3. A programmer must have two application programs that are intended to communicate across a network
4. Each application includes the code needed to interact with TCP/IP
5. Instead of executing each program on a separate computer, the programmer runs both programs on a single
communicating
306
6. When one application sends data to another data travels down the protocol stack to the IP software then for
7. A programmer can test the program logic quickly without needing two computers and without sending pac
8. IP reserves the network prefix 127/8 for use with loopback
9.
10. During loopback testing no packets ever leave a computer
the IP software forwards packets from one application to another
11. The loopback address never appears in a packet traveling across a network

307____ the most popular loopback address

Purpose of each Special Address
Network Address - identifies a network
Directed Broadcast Address - broadcast on specific net
308
Limited Broadcast Address - broadcast on local net
This Computer Address
- Used during bootstrap
Loopback Address - testing
Why each router is assigned two or more IP addresses?
one address for each network to which the router attaches
309
A router has connections to multiple physical networks
Each IP address contains a prefix that specifies a physical network
Why does a single IP address does not suffice for a router?
310because each router connects to multiple networks
and each network has a unique prefix
311A host computer with multiple network connections is said to be ____
Multi-homing is sometimes used to increase reliability. How is it done?
if one network fails, the host can still reach the Internet through the second connection

312

What are the two primary purposes of Multi-homing?

3131. increase reliability
2. increase performance

How can multihoming improve performance?

connections to multiple networks can make it possible to send traffic directly and avoid routers, which are so

314