Minerals Engineering 15 (2002) 593605

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Nickel laterite processing and electrowinning practice

R.R. Moskalyk

a,1

, A.M. Alfantazi

b,*

Nordic Metallurgical Consultants Inc., Sudbury, Ont., Canada

Department of Metals and Materials Engineering, University of British Columbia, 309-6350 Stores Road, UBC, Vancouver, B.C., Canada, V6T 1Z4
Received 4 April 2002; accepted 14 May 2002

Abstract
Nickel as cathodes, rounds, powders, and salts, is recognized as a useful substance in heavy industry. Today, only a few producers recover this important metal, which is employed worldwide in diverse commercial and residential applications. Nickel and
associated metal values are traditionally recovered from ores by mineral processing, smelting and rening processes. Associated host
minerals contain non-ferrous metals such as copper, cobalt, precious metals such as gold and silver, and the platinum group of
metals. The future trend is expected to involve the processing of laterites, which account for about 70% of the worlds nickel resources, by means of ecient pressure acid leaching and SX-EW facilities. Large quantities of laterites are found in Australia, Cuba,
Indonesia, New Caledonia, and the Philippines. Laterites are easily mined by open pit methods whereas sulphidic ores generally
involve more expensive underground mining. Cobalt, zinc, and copper are extracted from these sources as by-products. Modern
automated plants for processing laterites feature state-of-the-art technology and environmental compliance. Production plants
range in nameplate annual capacity from 10 to 50 thousand metric tonnes of nickel contained in the nal product(s).
On a worldwide basis the writers are aware of 12 nickel electrowinning reneries which produce class I nickel products. The paper
describes the established industrial processes for nickel recovery by means of being electrowon from either an aqueous sulphate
medium or chloride medium after initial leaching and solution purication techniques. Laterites are the main source of feedstock for
production of ferronickel as described herein. The paper includes information regarding nickel-bearing deep sea nodules and secondary scrap processing to recover nickel values. For completeness, other extraction processes involving pellets from the carbonyl
process, nickel powders, and briquettes are noted in the compendium of nickel processing practice which includes pyrometallurgical
principles. The purpose of the review for nickel operating practice is to provide a complete extractive processing summary rather
than the reader reviewing many authors.

2002 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Oxide ores; Electrowinning; Extractive metallurgy; Pyrometallurgy; Hydrometallurgy

1. Introduction
Nickel ranks 24th in abundance while elements such
as iron, silicon, oxygen and magnesium account for over
90% of the earths composition. Nickel occurs within
both laterite and sulphide ores and it is also associated
with deep-sea nodules. Nickel has several metallurgical
benets such as its high melting point of 1453 C, ferromagnetic properties, catalytic behaviour and ease of
electroplating, Anderson (1996). Principal industries
consuming nickel are the chemical, petroleum, power
*
Corresponding author. Tel.: +1-604-822-8745; fax: +1-604-8223619.
E-mail addresses: raymoskalyk@yahoo.ca (R.R. Moskalyk), alfantaz@interchange.ubc.ca (A.M. Alfantazi).
1
Fax: +1-705-522-3698.

and process applications which account for about one

quarter of the nickel consumed. End uses are consumer
products (18%), building and construction (14%),
automotive (12%), and electronics (9%). A detailed
breakdown of end usage was listed by Pariser (1998).
Anthony and Flett (1997) reported that about 55% of
the worlds nickel production originates from sulphide
ores while the balance of new nickel is derived from
lateritic sources. At present, 14 nickel producers are
members of the Nickel Development Institute, NiDi
(2002). Global markets annually consume in excess of
1,000,000 tonnes of nickel, McGurn (1999). An analysis
of nickel supply and demand, stainless steel scrap
availability, prices and inventories was provided by
Upton (1998). Producers anticipate that worldwide demand will improve via environmental projects such as
the Kyoto Protocol on climate change since this sector is

0892-6875/02/$ - see front matter
2002 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 8 9 2 - 6 8 7 5 ( 0 2 ) 0 0 0 8 3 - 3

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R.R. Moskalyk, A.M. Alfantazi / Minerals Engineering 15 (2002) 593605

a major consumer of stainless steels. If implemented,

Kyoto may generate $100-billion in business and investment.
The 2001 Inco Limited production amounted to 457
and 256 million pounds of nickel and copper respectively. The main production facilities in the Sudbury
Region accounted for an output of 210 M lbs during the
year 2001. The balance of 2001 nickel production included 136 M lbs from PT Inco and 111 M lbs from
Thompson. Incos Manitoba Division electrolytically
recovers nickel from a sulphidechloride electrolyte
using annealed nickel sulphide anodes contained in
specialized bags and compartmentalized cathodes containing a thin nickel starter sheet. Incos 59% owned
subsidiary, PT International Nickel Indonesia Tbk (PT
Inco) expanded capacity to 68,040 tonnes (150 million
pounds) of nickel contained in matte. The matte is
shipped from Soroako, Indonesia, to two Japanese reneries for conversion to primary nickel products, either
class I (electrolytic nickel) or class II (nickel oxide or
utility nickel). Tokyo Nickel Company, Ltd., which is
51% owned by Inco and located in Matsuzaka, Japan,
processes feed from the Indonesian operations, Ishiyama and Hirai (1997). Tokyo Nickel increased its annual rening capacity to 54,000 tonnes of nickel. Inco
(65% share) and its joint venture partner, Jinchuan NonFerrous Metals Corporation, produce nickel salts at the
plant near Shanghai in the Peoples Republic of China.
The Sudbury Division of Falconbridge Ltd., employing
6400 people globally, produced 54,900 and 17,900 metric tonnes of nickel and copper respectively during 2001,
Falconbridge (2002). The companys total rened output in 2001 amounted to 89,900 and 205,400 metric

tonnes of nickel and copper respectively. Other plant

operations at Kidd Creek, Ontario, produce copper,
zinc, and silver. The rm is developing its 2440 m deep
Onaping Depth project for increasing ore output via
the Strathcona Mill. Table 1 lists the 12 nickel electrowinning production facilities worldwide. A companion
paper titled Nickel Sulphide Smelting and Electrorening Practice provides commercial extraction techniques
and pyrometallurgical treatment for this sector while
including 47 smelters worldwide that mainly produce
class II nickel products.
The INSG (2001) reported that the Russian Federation exported 190,700 tonnes of rened nickel (class I)
and 4700 tonnes of charge nickel (class II) during the
year 2000. In 2000, the Russian mine output contained
235,000 tonnes of nickel while primary production accounted for 221,000 tonnes. For the rst seven months
of 2001, Russia exported 93,500 tonnes of class I rened
nickel while it imported 2300 tonnes. Apart from importing nickel ores, concentrates and unrought nickel,
Russia exports ferronickel, nickel powder and akes.
Norilsk is the worlds second largest nickel producer and
represents a signicant percentage of the worlds platinum and palladium production. Russian nickel and
platinum group metal (PGM) output is a state secret
and companies are forbidden to release production data,
E and Mj (1998). Norilsk Nickels production for 1997
was 180,000 tonnes of primary nickel products, 350,000
tonnes of copper cathodes, and approximately 100,000
kg of PGMs according to the Russian equities, mining
and metals report (1997). AO GMK Pechenganickel,
a subsidiary, is located in the Kola Peninsula. This
pelletising, sintering, and smelting operation located at

Table 1
Nickel electrowinning operations
Company

Plant location

Annual nameplate
capacity (tonnes)

E/W solution

Product form

Year
commissioned

Bindura Nickel Corporation

Ltd.
Centaur Nickel Ltd Pty

Bindura (Zimbabwe)

14,400

Sulphate

Cathodes

1966

11,500

Sulphate

Cathodes

1998

17,500

Sulphate

Cut cathode

1981

5700
3500

Sulphate
Sulphate

50,000

Sulphate

Outokumpu Metals Oy
Rustenburg Platinum
Philnico Mining & Industrial
Corp.

Harjavalta, Pori (Finland)

Merensky Reef (Transval)
Nonoc Island (Philippines)
Surigao del Norte

32,000
17,700
n/a

Sulphate
Sulphate
Sulphate

Cathodes
NiCo cathodes
Cathodes,
rounds
Cathodes
Cathodes
Cathodes,
powders

n/a
1947

Inco Limited

Cawse Nickel operations

(Kalgoorlie, Australia)
S^ao Miguel Paulista (S^ao Paulo,
Brazil)
Eiel Flats, Kadoma (Zimbabwe)
Shituru (Democratic Republic of
Congo)
Thompson, Manitoba (Canada)

Falconbridge Ltd. (Nikkelverk)

Kristiansand (Norway)

62,700

Chloride

Soci
et
e Le Nickel-SLN
Sumitomo Metal Mining Co.
(Japan)

Sandouville (Le Havre, France)

Niihama

10,300
26,800

Chloride
Chloride

Cia N
quel Tocantins

Empress Nickel Renery Ltd.
G
ecamines

Cathodes,
crowns
Cathodes
Cathodes

1961
n/a
n/a
n/a
1981
n/a
1989

R.R. Moskalyk, A.M. Alfantazi / Minerals Engineering 15 (2002) 593605

Zapolyarny and its sister subsidiary, AO Kombinat

Severonickel which accommodates some toll rening
are dependent upon raw materials of ore and matte
which are transported by sea. The Krasnoyarsk precious
metals plant produces platinum and palladium ingots,
plus valuable powders.

595

Peridotite. The limonitic fraction is comprised of Goethite, Gibbsite, Chromite and Absolite, Krause (1998).
The Saponite layer contains Talc, Quartz, Serpentine,
Fosterite, Olivine and Garnierite. The oxidized lateritic
ores normally contain impurities such as chrome, magnesium, manganese, iron, and aluminum. A schematic
owsheet depicting the generic treatment of laterite type
ores was documented by Piret (1998).

2. Sources of nickel
2.2. Secondary scrap and recycled material
2.1. Laterite ores
It is noteworthy that laterite ores account for over
two-thirds of the worldwide reserves for important nonferrous metals such as nickel and cobalt. It is not possible to quantify the amount of nickel contained in
deep-sea nodules with any accuracy at present. The
nickelmagnesiumsilicate is associated with mixtures
ranging from Serpentine, which is a hydrated magnesium silicate, to the clay-like Saponite and Deweylite
minerals. Nickeliferous limonite is comprised of nickel
bearing ferric oxides in deposits formed from ultrabasic
rocks. The mineral Limonite usually contains Goethite
and varies in water content. Lateritic deposits are found
in tropical regions and/or areas that were sub-tropical in
past geologic epochs. The deposits apparently originated
on levelled land forms of low elevation-peneplains. The
dominant theory is that the Upper Mantle is basically a
magnesium silicate, i.e., Peridotite which hosts various elements such as Ni, Cu, Co, Fe, Mn, Si, Au, Ag,
and others. Lateritic deposits were not discovered in
Northern regions with the exception of northern Oregon
which was laterized and contained nickeliferous magnesium silicates. This source provided feedstock for
Hannas ferronickel production facility which was last
operated by a subsidiary of Cominco and now shut
down indenitely. Northern areas, such as in the Canadian Shield, were strongly glaciated thereby removing
unconsolidated surface deposits.
Signicant laterite deposits were discovered in Australia, Cuba, Indonesia, New Caledonia, Papua New
Guinea, and the Philippines. Inco Limited operated
nickel production facilities in Guatemala to process
laterites during the period 19781980. Inco is currently
developing its Goro Nickel S.A. nickelcobalt property
in the Territory of New Caledonia. The nickel laterite
mainly occurs on the South Pacic island called Grand
Terre. Since laterite type ores naturally occur close
to surface, economical open pit mining techniques are
employed to recover the ore after removal of the overburden. Laterite deposits typically occur in layers
ranging from zero to 40 m in depth below the surface
and may contain the following geological formations:
(1) an iron cap which is mainly Goethite, (2) iron shot
overburden, (3) limonitic overburden, (4) Limonite ore,
(5) a transition zone, (6) Saponite plus boulders and (7)

About 45% of the nickel for the stainless steel industry originates from reprocessing of scrap which,
apart from the contained nickel, is important due to the
content of chrome and iron, McCutcheon (1997). Japanese consumption rose to a level of 1105 tonnes during
2000. The imports of stainless steel scrap, containing 8
10% nickel, were greater in 1997 for both Taiwan and
the Republic of Korea. The European Unions (EU)
imports of scrap has diminished since 1994. Nickelbearing scrap currently ranges from 20% to 55%, INSG
(2001). Recycling of spent nickelcadmium batteries is
another source of supply for secondary producers. The
batteries typically reach the end of their useful life after
about 1000 recharging cycles and serve as feedstock for
scrap processors such as INMETCO in the United
States for recovery of the cadmium and nickel. Cadmium is considered of strategic importance for military
usage such as in the former Soviet Union. INMETCO, a
wholly owned subsidiary of Inco Ltd. since 1978, handles a diverse mixture of feeds.
2.3. Sea nodules
The exploitation of sea nodules which were discovered at considerable depths on vast areas of the ocean
oors in the late 1800s has not been hindered by the lack
of practical methods to recover this resource, Kyle and
Furfaro (1997). Development has been hindered by the
world geo-political situation, environmental concerns,
and the signicant fact that the present supply of nickel
from land-based sources is more than adequate. This
natural resource contains metals such as copper, nickel
and cobalt which are not present as separate minerals
but occur as oxides and oxyhydroxides of the iron and
manganese phases. The hard sea nodules range in size
from a golf ball to the size of baseballs or potatoes and
require crushing and grinding prior to a pyrometallurgical procedure. Polymetallic sea nodules represent a
complex processing route consisting of a reduction roast
stage, ammonia leach, solvent extraction, and electrowinning to recover the non-ferrous metal values, Kumar
et al. (1990). Pyrometallurgical and hydrometallurgical treatment consequently results in cost prohibitive
operations at present market prices, Kohga et al. (1997).
The technologies for exploring mining potential and

596

R.R. Moskalyk, A.M. Alfantazi / Minerals Engineering 15 (2002) 593605

extraction have been proven and are no more complex

than technology applicable to land-based deposits. China
is presently encouraging foreign investment and researchers for a manganese nodule mining project which
would employ a hydraulic collector for mining the deepsea deposit, E and Mj (1999).

3. Commercial recovery processes

3.1. Sulphate medium
Although the majority of primary nickel produced by
means of an electrochemical route has been derived via
electrorening at seven producers, Table 1 lists the 12
known nickel electrowinning installations currently in
operation worldwide. The year 1984 was signicant
since the Amax nickel renery closed at Braithwaite,
Louisiana (USA) while Inco ceased nickel rening operations at its Port Colborne plant. The latter closure
was oset by an increase in electronickel products at
Incos Thompson renery. The technology for production of S and R nickel roundsTM was transferred from
Port Colborne to the Manitoba Division. The R
nickel rounds, which are the size of large coins, are
produced during a 10 day plating cycle using stainless
steel mandrels coated with a heat set epoxy masking.
Thompson personnel have publicly stated that their
nickel is electrorened, Goble and Chapman (1986).
Although this electrolytic operation mirrors the theoretical criteria of electrorening, some individuals regard
Thompson cathode nickel as being electrowon since
sucient voltage must be impressed to decompose the
nickel sulphide compound contained within the annealed matte anode. Incos Manitoba renery casts
sulphide anodes weighing 238 kg and containing about
73% nickel, 2.53% copper, 0.8% cobalt and 20% sulphur. Anodes are rst annealed at a controlled temperature and residence time to develop a ne crystalline
structure of Ni3 S2 during its phase transformation
change from beta to alpha. Anodes are contained in a
woven polypropylene bag within the cell due to the
voluminous sulphur slime produced during dissolution
of the anode during its 15 day cycle. The spent anode is
scrapped then recycled to the converters and re-incorporated into new anodes. Sulphur slimes are reverted to
the smelter while a portion of the spent anode material is
crushed, ground and then used in the electrolyte purication circuit. Nickel starter sheets, embossed with the
Inco logo, are employed to produce cathodes in either a
7 or 10 day cycle. Cathodes for slab nickel production
are contained within wooden boxes which are tted with
a stretched modacrylic diaphragm secured with a spline.
Rustenburgs facilities at Merensky Reef, South Africa, consist of a platinum group enrichment plant and
base metals renery which electrowins nickel from a

non-magnetic NiCu converter matte following leaching

and solvent extraction operations. Starter sheets are
produced on titanium blanks after two days while the
cathode (160 mm spacing) production pulling cycle
consists of six days. Operating parameters include a
current density of 205230 A/m2 , cell current of 1415
kA and voltage of 3.63.9 V, 6065 C electrolyte temperature, and current eciency of 9698% (Love, 1997).
Low capacity nickel electrowinning operations are presently in service at Cia N
iquel Tocantins in Brazil, while
the Empress Nickel Renery and the Bindura Nickel
Corp. are both located in Zimbabwe. Table 1 lists the
nine sulphate-medium E/W operations and three chloride-based E/W plants, World Nickel Statistics (1998).
During March 2000, Outokumpu sold its nickel renery
to the chemical and specialty metals group OMG, Inc.
which is based in Cleveland, OH, Metal Bulletin (2000).
Anthony and Flett (1997) noted that Outokumpu utilized a sulphate medium to electrowin 35,300 tpa nickel
at its Harjavalta facility in Finland, Knuutila et al.
(1997); Saarinen and Seilo (1983). Apart from producing
lead concentrates and gold, Outokumpu also produces
about 116,000 tpa cathode copper at its nearby Pori
renery while the Kokkola plant produces 175,000
tonnes per annum (tpa) of zinc, MMPD (1998). At
Harjavalta, the anode hoods were eliminated to permit
48 cathodes per cell. The shorter gap between adjacent
anodes and cathodes allowed a reduction of cell voltage
by 0.5 V thereby resulting in signicant energy savings.
The permanent anodes are placed within polyester bags
and the oxygen evolved during plating reactions is directed to anode lters before entering the tankhouse
atmosphere. Outokumpu employs cold rolled lead insoluble anodes of 8 mm thickness and titanium mother
blanks to permit full deposit stripping after a 36 h period
in its nickel tankhouse, Pariani (1987). The operating
parameters include a current density of 220230 A/m2 ,
9697% current eciency, and a 7 day cathode cycle
(130 mm spacing).
The most common form of electrowinning process for
nickel consists of pressure acid leaching (PAL) in a
sulphate-based medium followed by solvent extraction
and electrolytic recovery. The insoluble anodes utilized
in traditional electrowinning practice normally consist
of lead and/or lead alloys, Moskalyk et al. (1999).
Honey et al. (1997) provided a comparison regarding the
hydrometallurgical processing options for treatment of
nickel sulphide concentrates. A greeneld laterite processing operation to produce nickel cathodes via electrowinning, and recover electrowon copper and cobalt
sulphide as by-products was commissioned by Centaur
Nickel Pty. Ltd. about 50 km northwest of Kalgoorlie in
Western Australia, Kyle and Furfaro (1997). However,
Cawse Nickel is presently in receivership, CDI (2002). A
feasibility study was completed for the PAL of Ni/Co
laterite ores located in the Canala region adjacent to

R.R. Moskalyk, A.M. Alfantazi / Minerals Engineering 15 (2002) 593605

Nakety Bay which was to have been transported from

New Caledonia for the Calliope Project at the proposed
renery located at Gladstone, Queensland, Faris and
Collins (1997). The Calliope Project has since been
abandoned and a new company Argosy Minerals has
been formed, E and Mj (2001). An interesting variation
in electrowinning practice is in use at G
ecamines Shituru
plant, Democratic Republic of Congo, which markets
Co/Ni alloyed cathodes containing as much as 20%
nickel. Twite et al. (1997) illustrated the owsheets for
selective precipitation and the cobalt circuit. Antimonial
lead anodes are used in conjunction with mild steel
blanks. ZCCM operates a sulphate-based cobalt renery
at Chambishi in Zambia that produces brocken cathodes as the product form, Hawkins (1998). Impurities
such as nickel are removed from the cobalt solution by
ion exchange, Sheedy (1998); Kongolo et al. (1997).
Electrolyte entering the cobalt electrowinning section is
rst claried and ltered to contain less than 10 ppm
solids, then passed through activated carbon to remove
residual sulphides and/or organics. Stainless steel blanks,
MIM (1990), are cleaned in nitric acid, water rinsed then
dipped in a weak gelatin solution to control full deposit
adhesion, Love (1997). Electrowinning of nickel at the
Bindura operations in Africa was described by Brown
and Mason (1986).
Inco owns 85% of the Goro project in New Caledonia
while a French government agency, Bureau de Reserches Geologiques et Minieres (BRGM), owns the balance. The deposit in New Caledonia represents about
25% of the worlds known land-based nickel resources.
The Goro deposit contains 165 million tonnes of ore
grading about 1.6% nickel and 0.17% cobalt. The 400
km long by 30 km wide island boasts 15 operating open
pit mines, and a large smelter in Noumea, the capital.
Rather than adopting commercially proven pressure
leaching systems, Inco developed its own technology inhouse and operated an integrated pilot plant that processed 12 tonnes of ore daily. Laterite ores apparently
have the disadvantage of typically being moist thereby
requiring considerable energy for drying in the feed
preparation stage while the actual rening consumes
huge amounts of electrical energy as compared to processing of sulphide deposits for base metals. The added
moisture provides a large advantage for those laterites
being prepared for PAL. Consequently, the electrical
energy per pound of nickel is below that required for
other conventional processes.
The projects operating company, Goro Nickel S.A.,
is incorporated in New Caledonia as a 100% subsidiary
of Cie Miniere de Xere which is 85% owned by Inco
and 15% owned by BRGM. The Congress of New
Caledonia voted to give Inco a 15 year, 100% tax holiday and after that a ve year 50% holiday. Nickel is
presently selling for about US$6670 per tonne ($3/lb.).
Inco expects to start construction of the US$1.4-billion

597

Goro NiCo project but it is looking for another partner

and nancing. Production is anticipated in late 2004 and
would reach full capacity in three years. Inco expects
Goro to annually produce 54,000 tonnes of nickel,
which is about 25% more than its current worldwide
capacity, at a cash cost of less than one dollar per pound
after cobalt credits from 5400 tonnes output. The operation plans to supply customers in South Korea,
Taiwan, and eventually China with stainless steel and
specialty cobalt. During February 2002, Inco Ltd. released an Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)
prepared by Rescan of Vancouver, B.C., which was
published entirely in French. The local Kanak tribes and
others are concerned about the risk factors for a plant
facility only ve miles from the coast with a unique and
fragile coral reef system. In March 2002 Inco contracted
the Suez group of France (51% share) and the local
Enercal rm (49%) to construct and operate two 50 MW
generators for the island plant site.
Primary new nickel production by means of electrorening and electrowinning accounts for approximately 45% of the worlds output. Nickel reneries
customize reagent addition and cell operating parameters to produce ideal physical characteristics and chemically pure product shapes such as full plate cathodes,
metal powders and mixed sulphides. The global cobalt
supply mainly originates from hydrometallurgical processes which is in sharp contrast to copper and nickel
that traditionally are recovered pyrometallurgically.
Test work was completed to examine electrowinning
performance in a synthetic sulphate medium, Das et al.
(1985). Jayasekera and Kyle (1999) reviewed the production of electrowon nickel from a sulphate medium.
Gogia and Das (1990) investigated the plating eect of
Co2 , Cu2 , Fe2 and Fe3 concentrations in electrolyte
during the electrowinning of nickel. The eect of various
impurities in an aqueous sulphate medium during nickel
electrowinning was investigated by K
uzeci et al. (1994);
Gogia (1994). Nickel electrowinning theory and applied
industrial practice were described by several authors, Ji
et al. (1995); Ettel and Tilak (1981). Taylor (1995) described the electrolytic theory for nickel and cobalt
electrowinning in a sulphate medium, investigated plating parameters using diaphragm cells, and indicated
design criteria for the coupling of solvent extraction
with electrowinning operations (SX-EW).
3.2. Chloride medium
On the basis of the annual nameplate capacity of
nickel reneries using either the chloride route or sulphate-based medium to recover nickel products by
electrowinning, established producers only account for
about 25% of the electrolytically rened category while
the balance is electrorened. Falconbridge Nikkelverk
A/S in Kristiansand, completed conversion of its chlorine

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R.R. Moskalyk, A.M. Alfantazi / Minerals Engineering 15 (2002) 593605

leach and electrowinning process during the period

19751981, Stensholt et al. (1986). Prior to this date, the
Scandinavian plant had used the Hybinette electrorening process for producing cathode nickel. Nikkelverk
produced 68,221 tonnes of rened nickel during the year
2001. A portion of the cell house is devoted to the
production of nickel crownsTM which weigh 3060 g and
are stripped from the cathodes of special design, polished and sold to the plating industry. Nickel electrowinning conditions consist of a current density of 220
A/m2 , current eciency of 9899%, 60 C electrolyte,
and nickel concentrations in the anolyte and catholyte
compartments of 54 and 60 g/l respectively. Bessemer
matte from the Sudbury region is rst chlorine leached
in Norway to dissolve the contained nickel. The nickel
chloride solution is puried by: (1) precipitation of
iron and arsenic, (2) solvent extraction of cobalt and
other elements and then (3) precipitation of lead and
other impurities. The puried solution is directed to the
tankhouse for recovery of nickel by electrowinning while
the chlorine gas produced is collected and recirculated to
dissolve more sulphide matte. The copper leach residue
is dead roasted in uidized bed units followed by leaching of the calcine and subsequent copper electrowinning. Anthony and Flett (1997) provided a schematic
diagram to illustrate unit operations in the Falconbridge
chlorine-leach process facilitating the electrowinning of
nickel, copper, and cobalt products for worldwide
market distribution. SLNs Sandouville nickel renery
at Le Havre, France, produces electrowon nickel from a
chloride-based medium. Excess sulphate is removed
from solution via barium chloride while the lead is removed by electrolysis with nickel in the solution purication circuit. The Eramet-SLN facility produces nickel
cathodes and salts, World Nickel Statistics (1998). SLN
announced expansion of its Doniambo smelter in New
Caledonia to increase nickel production to 70,000 tonnes per annum. Earlier it had considered cooperation
with QNI (now Billiton) for treatment of limonitic ores
by ammoniacal leaching.
The Sumitomo Metal Mining Co. developed a matte
chlorine leach and electrowinning process (MCLE) to
treat its nickel matte at Niihama in Japan, Ishikawa et al.
(1992). Sumitomo formerly operated matte electrorening processes similar to Inco, Anthony and Flett
(1997); Suetsuna et al. (1980). The full-scale MCLE facility with a rated capacity of 330 t/M of electrolytic
nickel was commissioned in 1989. The nickel and cobalt
are extracted using Versatic acid while the Co/Ni separation is carried out by solvent extraction with Tri-noctyl amine. Stripping is accomplished with dilute HCl
to produce cobalt and nickel chloride solutions. Operating parameters consist of a 110 mm electrode spacing,
current density of 267 A/m2 , cell voltage of 3.03.1 V,
60 C electrolyte, anolyte ow of 25 l/min, and catholyte
ow of 10 l/min. During electrolysis the inlet nickel

concentration decreases from 7075 to 5560 g/l during

the rst and second stages respectively. Both Sumitomo
and Falconbridge utilize dimensionally stable anodes
composed of titanium with a thin layer of noble metal
oxide. Outokumpus chloride-based process produces
nickel cathodes as described by Saarinen and Seilo
(1983). Details of the chloride and sulphate-route nickel
electroreners are contained in the TMS short course
notes, Love (1997). Hydrochloric acid has been tested
for the recovery of base metals such as nickel and cobalt
from sea nodules, Kohga et al. (1995). Gibson and Rice
(1997) described a hydrochloric acid-based leaching
process for the treatment of nickeliferous laterites.
Several papers pertaining to physical defects formed
during plating, Zhilin and Changan (1993), and the effects of electrolyte impurities by Zhou and OKeefe
(1997) plus Gogia and Das (1990) are listed in the bibliography. Test work was completed to examine the
eect of the chloride to sulphate ratio with respect to the
theoretical reactions and physical conditions during
nickel electrowinning by authors Syzmanski et al. (1997),
while others evaluated applicable industrial technologies, Volkov and Filippov (1996). The removal of copper and other plating impurities were addressed by
Makino et al. (1997).
3.3. Production of nickel sulphides and oxides
These plants typically produce an end product containing both nickel and cobalt sulphides which serves as
feedstock for other remote downstream processing facilities. The Caron process, involving a reduction roast
and ammoniacal leach, was developed in the 1920s while
the rst commercial plant was built at Nicaro, Cuba,
during the Second World War. The process used at Moa
Bay is more advantageous than the Caron process since
it eliminates the need to dry and reduce the lateritic ore
while achieving recoveries for both nickel and cobalt in
excess of 90%. Thermal reduction of the laterite ore is
required prior to leaching when employing the ammoniacal Caron process. The Caron process consists of: (i)
drying and grinding of high-limonitic ore, (ii) reduction
roasting, (iii) leaching with ammoniacal-ammonium
carbonate to dissolve nickel and cobalt as ammine
complexes and (iv) recovery of the base metal from solution to produce a nickel oxide product, Anthony and
Flett (1997). Inco (2002) proposes to adopt an innovative PAL process for the nickel laterite operations at
New Caledonia. After solvent extraction nickel oxide
will be produced by pyrohydrolysis and this material
may easily be converted to utility nickel for the Asian
steel industry.
The majority of the Moa Bay laterite deposits, about
65 km from Nicaro, are high in iron content and rich
in cobalt. High magnesia ores such as Garnierite require
a higher acid consumption. Reduction roasting is more

R.R. Moskalyk, A.M. Alfantazi / Minerals Engineering 15 (2002) 593605

dicult for selective reduction of serpentinic and garnieritic ores. PAL has been used for the processing of
preferred low magnesium lateritic ore since 1959 at the
Pedro Sotto Alba plant in Moa, Cuba. Freeport Sulphur
had initially built the acid leaching plant at Moa Bay,
Krause et al. (1997). One acid-pressure-leaching plant is
currently in existence at Moa Bay. Concentrated sulphuric acid is the lixiviant in this proven extraction
process at Moa Nickel S.A., Chalkley and Toirac (1997)
which produces mixed nickel and cobalt sulphides
which serve as feedstock for the renery at Fort Saskatchewan, Canada, which in turn treats this material to
produce pure metal for market, Kerfoot and Cordingley (1997). The Moa Bay nickel plant operated by
General Nickel S.A. which was based on the Sherritt
process similarly converts cobalt and nickel sulphates
from the leaching stage into a mixed sulphide product, Matos (1997). Sherritt International Corporation
formed a joint enterprise with General Nickel S.A.
which is a state-owned company in the Holguin province of Cuba, Mackiw and Veltman (1980). Sherritts
simplied owsheet was illustrated by Anthony and
Flett (1997).
It is worth outlining the typical operating parameters
required for the PAL process as employed in several
laterite facilities. Autoclave conditions require: (i) a pulp
density of 2535% solids, (ii) 3090 min residence time,
(iii) 246 C (e.g., Moa) to 270 C (e.g., Goro), (iv) 200
520 kg/t of acid consumption per dry ore and (v) 3800
5400 kPa pressures in the autoclave. The horizontal
autoclaves range from 4.6 to 4.9 m in diameter while the
length varies from 31 to 33 m. The process employs
centrifugal and diaphragm pumping systems and several
stages (i.e., 3 or 4) of a heat recovery system. The high
pressure pumps of the trade name GEbroeders and
HOlthius (GEHO) are an important component of the
PAL system. Counter current decantation employed in
most plants normally involves six to seven stages of
process thickeners. The majority of laterite producers
burn elemental sulphur to produce sulphuric acid while
the acid plants consequently produce process steam as
a by-product. Recoveries of nickel may vary over the
range of 92.995.1% in relation to adjusting the acid
dosage from 20% to 60% by weight of ore, Krause
(1998). The leaching kinetics and leaching mechanisms were described by Krause et al. (1997) while details regarding industrial practice were provided by Love
(1997).
3.4. Production of nickel powders, pellets and briquettes
The simplied owsheet for Queensland Nickel Pty.
Ltd.s (QNI) Yabulu nickel renery in Australia (Qld.)
was illustrated by Anthony and Flett (1997). The Yabulu renery, which is roughly 25 miles inland, commenced operations in 1974 and is serviced by the port at

599

Townsville. QNI was acquired by Billiton PLC during

the latter part of 1998 which obtained the cobalt renery
in Townsville, Queensland, and the Cerro Matoso ferronickel production facilities in Colombia. QNIs nickel
and cobalt renery processes 3.6 million tpa of lateritic
nickel ore, based on the Caron process, Anthony and
Flett (1997). QNI Ltd.s cobalt renery presently produces about 1500 tpa of QN cobalt oxide hydroxide with
low levels of impurities. Nickel powders and briquettes
are produced at WMCs nickel renery in Western
Australia. Bacterial leaching of metal bearing concentrates and ores was researched over the years, Anthony
and Flett (1997). The BioNIC process developed by
Gencor, Ltd. provides an alternative to conventional
smelting of low grade sulphidic ores, Miller et al. (1997).
The BIOX Process owsheet involves: (i) bioleaching,
(ii) pH adjustment for iron removal, (iii) solid/liquid
separation, (iv) production of either a sulphide concentrate or upgraded electrolyte and (v) electrowinning to
produce a pure nickel cathode or hydrogen reduction to
produce nickel powder. Maggie Hays Nickel NL and
Glencore, Ltd. have considered a joint venture to apply
this process for treatment of concentrate at the Lake
Johnson project, Cobalt News (1998). The Corefco
nickelcobalt renery (The Cobalt Renery Company
Inc.) in Fort Saskatchewan, Canada, precipitates a cobalt-nickel hexammine salt from the ammoniacal nickel
sulphate leach solution, Kerfoot and Cordingley (1997).
The impure cobaltic hexammine salt is then recrystallized in ammonium sulphate solution followed by conversion to cobalt powder by hydrogen reduction. The
Joint Stock Company Yuzhuralnickel, located at Orsk
in the Russian Federation, accounts for the majority of
nickel hydroxide, nickel sulphate, and nickelous oxide
produced within the CIS. The pure nickel sulphate
product (NiSO4  6H2 O) which is not prone to caking
has been produced since 1993. Technical grade nickel
sulphate containing 22% nickel is another product of
this 1938 vintage facility.
The A$1-billion Murin Murin project in Western
Australia represents the largest installation for the
production of nickel and cobalt briquettes, Motteram
and Ryan (1997). Anaconda Nickel NL produced its
rst nickel at its Murin Murin project during May 1999.
The property is located in the vicinity of Yakabindie
and Mt. Keith projects which are all north of Kalgoorlie. Kalgoorlie is located roughly 450 km eastwards
of Perth while Murin Murin is located 250 km north of
Kalgoorlie. The minesite is the fth-largest nickel mine
in the world. The nickelcobalt laterite ore deposit is
jointly owned by Anaconda Nickel Ltd. (60%) and
Glencore International (40%), Cobalt News (1999a,b). In
July 1999 Anglo American PLC, the worlds biggest
mining company, paid $US157.6-million to obtain a 23%
stake in Anaconda Nickel Ltd. Sherritt International
Corp., best known for its controversial investments in

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R.R. Moskalyk, A.M. Alfantazi / Minerals Engineering 15 (2002) 593605

Cuba, acquired a 9% stake in Anaconda for $33.6-million. Anaconda plans to develop the Mount Margaret
mine which will be the same size as Murin Murin and
produce 100,000 tonnes of nickel per year. It is anticipated that Anaconda will not expand Murin Murin
since its newest shareholder, Anglo American, prefers to
expand the Bulong property in which it has purchased
control. Anacondas ore resources were estimated to
exceed 116 million tonnes at an average grade of 1.1%
nickel and 0.08% cobalt. The phase one annual nameplate capacity is listed as 45,359 tonnes of nickel and
2994 tonnes of cobalt. The facility employs the PAL
process for the recovery of metal values while the front
end is the same as at Moa Bay, (Krause, 1998). Anaconda signed a Technology License Agreement with the
Sherritt organization in Canada. Sulphuric acid is used
in the four horizontal titanium-lined autoclaves during
the leaching stage. The renery section contains another
eight autoclaves. Major plant equipment includes a
SAG mill, power station, acid plant, oxygen and hydrogen plants, water treatment, and ammonium sulphate facility. Fluor Daniel (Australia) were the project
engineering managers for the installation which had a
projected capital outlay of $700 US million for design,
construction and commissioning on an EPCM basis.
The plant produces mixed sulphides which are treated
by solvent extraction to separate the nickel and cobalt
fractions which then undergo hydrogen reduction to
produce metallic powder followed by briquetting as the
nal product shape. The estimated purity for both the
nickel and cobalt briquettes is 99.95%. Today, the plant
produces about 36,000 tonnes per year of nickel with
a 90% recovery. The hydromet facility experiences ongoing problems such as achieving sustainable PAL
throughput, achieving 90% plant availability and overall
recoveries of 92.5% for nickel, CDI (2002).
3.5. Ammonia medium
This particular recovery process involving a pressure
leaching approach is limited to only a few producers,
Suratman and Pramusanto (1997). Typically leaching
and subsequent separation of the cobalt fraction is carried out by means of the following chemicals: (i) ammonia-ammonium carbonate (ii) ammonium sulphate
and (iii) ammonia-ammonium nitrate.

4. Pyrometallurgical processing
4.1. Laterites
Hallet (1997) described the reduction of nickel from
lateritic ores. Apart from the widespread usage of pressure leaching techniques outlined earlier, the SERVO
Process was tested to extract nickel from lateritic Greek

ores by means of volatilization at moderate temperatures, Pichugin and Cox (1997). Another step involves
usage of a chelating agent. This aqueous method of
nickel recovery is in sharp contrast to accepted pyro/
hydro-metallurgical processes.
4.2. Ferronickel production
Processing of laterite ores traditionally consists of a
two stage process using fossil fuels (eg., coal, oil, natural
gas) in the kiln operation followed by electric furnace
smelting of the calcine to produce a ferronickel product
and discard slag, Lagendijk and Jones (1997). Ferronickel production accounts for 19% of the annual new
nickel output. This level will likely decrease due to lower
production in Japan plus the eect of increased tonnage
of class I nickel products from Australia. The reduction
kiln operations at PT Inco are described in a paper by
Daenuwy and Dalvi (1997) while the uid bed roasting
of a laterite based matte at Tokyo Nickel Co. was discussed by Ishiyama and Hirai (1997). Uceda et al.
(1997) outlined the process employed at Falconbridge
Dominicana which started in June 1972. During 1998,
Falconbridge Dominicana, C. por A., had projected production of 70 M pounds of nickel, which represents 39%
of the ferronickel content, at an average cost of about
US$4435 per tonne for market at an average realized
price of 7270 American dollars per tonne. During 2001 it
only produced 21,662 tonnes of ferronickel. Cerro
Matoso S.A.s 22,700 tpa plant is located 300 km south
of Cartegena and was designed to produce a FeNi alloy
containing 3540% nickel, Basto et al. (1997). Production was expanded from 20,000 to 50,000 tpa nickel
contained in ferronickel. Cerro Matoso (CMSA),
formed in 1979, is the worlds largest laterite furnace
operation and the operations are run by a QNI subdidiary while the modernization was funded by Billiton
PLC. The Colombian plant targets to reduce costs from
1.55 US dollars/lb. to the range of $1.201.30 per pound
of nickel. Ongoing investigations, such as in Japan and
Russia, strive to improve product output and quality
for this important market niche. Sumitomo Metal
Mining Co., Ltd. is now the major shareholder (60%) of
the Hyuga Smelting Co., Ltd., coastal plant facilities
which expanded stainless steel production to 3,300,000
tpa. The Hyuga ferronickel plant produces both ingots
and granules as the nal product shapes, Kohga et al.
(1997).
Ferronickel production, as per a typical owsheet, is
considered the preferred process route for treatment of
garnieritic type ores, Anthony and Flett (1997). Depending upon availability and associated cost of consumables such as electric power and gaseous fuels,
pyrometallurgical treatment of sulphide and/or laterite
sources of nickel provide an alternative to hydrometallurgical treatment. Related issues such as o-gas treat-

R.R. Moskalyk, A.M. Alfantazi / Minerals Engineering 15 (2002) 593605

ment via acid plants for SO2 xation, vessel integrity

and design, circulating loads, and impurity removal may
aect the route chosen. LME and ISO standards must
be addressed for each site specic owsheet. The CIS
contains producers such as Severonickel, Ufaleinickel,
Yuzhuralnickel, Rezh, and Pobuzhsky. The Rezh nickel
plant, with an output of 9000 tonnes per year of nickel
contained in FeNi, was commissioned in 1936 and
produces several grades of ferronickel for consumption
within the former Soviet Union. The Pobuzhsky plant in
the Ukraine processes 8000 tpa of nickel in a plant
dedicated to producing about 100,000 tpa FeNi in
many grades. The INSG (2001) reported that the Russian Federation exported 369,000 tonnes of nickel contained in ferronickel during 2000. The E and Mj (1998)
said that Cominco permanently retired its Glenbrook
Nickel Co. smelter at Riddle, Oregon once existing ores
supplies were processed. Production at this plant was
about 16,000 tpa of nickel contained in ferronickel. Low
nickel prices and oversupply were reasons listed for an
exit from the nickel business.

5. Discussion
In the past, only a few primary nickel producers
dominated the worlds supply and demand. During 1970
there were only four nickel producers in the world,
namely; two in Canada, one in each of New Caledonia
and Australia. This number increased to 13 by 1998,
including new output from South America, the Caribbean, China, and Scandinavia. It is anticipated that 24
primary nickel producers may be in active service by the
year 2005 once new installations come on stream in
Africa and the Pacic Rim. Development of new Australian mines threatens to further upset an industry already shaken by economic crisis after collapse of nickel
prices to 11-year lows. Laterite sources now challenge
the traditional dominance of higher cost sulphide nickel
producers. With the exception of copper, laterite type
ores represent the majority of the worlds resources for
non-ferrous metals such as nickel and cobalt. Sulphide
producers may choose to participate in the laterite sector
to remain viable. Although Inco Ltd. briey engaged in
this approach in Guatemala over 20 years ago, it is now
committed to processing New Caledonian laterites to
recover NiCo. The cost of imported consumables such
as elemental sulphur to produce acid and limestone for
neutralization, the haulage of laterite ore from some
remote site, and the generation of electrical power by
burning of fossil fuels may aect the cash costs when a
company implements a greeneld nickel production facility. Apart from establishing expensive infrastructure
in remote sites of lateritic deposits, process water must
be obtained from local and underground sources such as
boreelds in Australia.

601

Several years ago a cost analysis program was employed to evaluate the nickel operating costs thereby
comparing the processing of sulphides and laterites
based on production data for the period 19881994 inclusive. At that time, the author Torries (1995) concluded that the cash break even costs of the average
sulphide producer were below that of an average producer treating laterite ores. This observation appears to
have reversed during the past few years. New nickel
units and cobalt by-product from lateritic operations at
Murin Murin and Bulong apparently have shifted the
dierences between relative production costs from sulphide and laterite ore deposits. It is worth emphasizing
that 70% of the worlds mineral resources occur in
laterite ores while the balance is obtained from sulphurcontaining ores. Today, about 45% of the new nickel
supply is produced from lateritic sources while the balance originates from sulphide sources. Krause (1998)
indicated that the operating cost for the 45,000 tpa
(Phase 1) Murin Murin nickel facility decreases to
US$2690/tonne upon factoring in cobalt credits. Capital
costs for a laterite source having a well established infrastructure may approach 992014,330 American dollars per tonne of nickel produced while operating costs
range from US$880 to 3530/tonne of nickel product.
Conversely, traditional sulphide processing requires
a capitalization of 22,05028,660 American dollars
per tonne while the unit operating costs range from
US$2205 to 6615/tonne of nickel.
A National Post newspaper article (1999) indicated
that production costs using the new PAL technology
were expected to be as low as 50 cents per pound of
nickel after cobalt credits. The newspaper indicated that
the new Australian laterite production in Western
Australia could add 9% to world nickel production at
the beginning of the 21st century. Some analysts are
sceptical regarding projected operating costs since the
three projects employ somewhat dierent owsheets,
CDI (2002). All three plants dier quite signicantly in
the way the leaching liquors are processed, all share the
common head end-step of pressure leaching albeit with
minor variations with regards to operating pressures
and temperatures. The break even point in the nickel
industry apparently hovers within a cash cost range of
US$38604410/tonne. The article stated that Torontobased Inco produces nickel at a cash cost of 3090
American dollars per tonne while its competitor Falconbridge has a cash cost of US$3530/tonne. It is unlikely that laterite and sulphide-based operations would
coexist in the same geographic area due to major differences in geology. However, an exception in Western
Australia features a high-grade nickel sulphide deposit
(9.514% Ni) at the Silver Swan mining property which
is in the vicinity of several laterite operations near
the goldelds in the Kalgoorlie area. Nickel concentrates from the Silver Swan operations are shipped to

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R.R. Moskalyk, A.M. Alfantazi / Minerals Engineering 15 (2002) 593605

Outokumpus Harjavalta smelter in Finland. The nickel

laterite resources located at Weda Bay in Indonesia are
considerably larger than the Voiseys Bay sulphide ore
body in Labrador, Canada, Cobalt News (1999a). The
following list of active and potential laterite projects was
arranged alphabetically for ease of reference.
The Abednego Nickel project in Western Australia,
contains 67.9 million tonnes of ore grading 1.1%
nickel and 0.07% cobalt.
Bulong in Australia currently produces 6720 tpa of
nickel while experiencing PAL process diculties,
CDI (2002).
The Goro Project by Inco Ltd. in New Caledonia targets to produce 54,000 tpa of nickel as nickel oxide
starting in 2004, Inco (2002).
The Marlborough project in Queensland is owned by
Preston Resources.
Norilsk Nickel and Argosy Minerals have joined in
the development of the Nakety/Gogota laterite project in the Philippines with production targeted at
34.5k-mtpa nickel via the PAL process, E and Mj
(2001).
The Pinares project in Cuba is managed by Western
Mining Corporation.
The $838M Ramu project in Madang province, Papua New Guinea, jointly owned by Highlands Pacic
and Oregon Minerals Ltd.
The Ravensthorpe project in Western Australia is
being investigated by Comet Resources NL.
Titan Resources NL owns the Radio Hill Ni/Cu/Co
property in Australia that contains about 2.6% Ni,
1.8% Cu, and 0.11% Co in existing ore reserves totalling 976,500 tonnes; the company expects to have
WMC Resources sell the recovered concentrates.
The Weda Bay project is located in Indonesia.
The Wowo Gap project located in Papua New Guinea, Cobalt News (1998).
Although about one quarter of the worlds electrolytic nickel production is electrowon, 100% of all
electrolytically produced cobalt is electrowon, approximately 20% of copper is derived from SX-EW operations while in excess of 80% of worldwide zinc
production originates from electrowinning techniques.
Electrode performance in either a sulphate or choridebased medium signicantly impacts on the energy
requirements which traditionally are higher in electrowinning than electrorening operations. The 21st century should herald innovation with respect to tankhouse
mechanization, optimization of plating parameters and
anodes while addressing issues such as product chemical
and physical quality and cell house environment. The
anodes may be formed from the host metal such as the
hydrogen reduced metallic nickel anodes employed in
Norilsk operations or a sulphide anode such as currently

used in the process at Thompson. The need for improved quality and physical integrity of insoluble anodes
becomes quite evident. Considerable advances have
been accomplished upon employing full deposit stripping, Pariani (1987); Moskalyk and Pariani (1984a),
from stainless steel mother blanks, Moskalyk et al.
(1999); Kemp et al. (1991); MIM (1990). Prior studies
investigated the automation of both electrorening and
winning operations for the recovery of metal values,
Moskalyk and Pariani (1984b). Signicant advances in
solvent extraction technology were made during the past
years for the selective extraction of various base metals,
Soldenho et al. (1998a,b); Anthony and Flett (1997).
The summary of applicable processing technologies for
nickeliferous laterite sources to recover nickel and associated by-products such as copper, cobalt and precious metals, is intended to provide the reader with
a one stop reference document. The comprehensive
paper and representative bibliography allows individuals to quickly obtain a suitable background concerning a
particular aspect of nickel recovery. The state-of-the-art
review regarding nickel processing methodologies provides alternate approaches for greeneld sites or plant
retrots in situ.

6. Conclusions and recommendations

Electrowinning operations are important when recovering associated by-products of nickel production
such as copper, cobalt, and zinc from pressure leach
solutions. Investigations should be carried out to improve the cell performance of permanent anodes during electrolytic operations.
A prospective nickel producer has the choice of
adopting a commercially proven process. The company may decide to accept the risk of a new venture
based on a new owsheet, which may or may not
have been tested and proven in a pilot plant, thereby
introducing potentially increased operating and capital costs due to unforeseen contingencies.
A review outlining appropriate mining methods for
laterite sources of ore may be considered as a standalone topic.

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