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Notes on
Lie Algebras
algebras consists of (1) the special- linear ones, i.e. all matrices (of any
fixed dimension) with trace 0, (2) the orthogonal ones, i.e. all skewsym-
metric matrices (of any fixed dimension), (3) the symplectic ones, i.e. all
matrices M (of any fixed even dimension) that satisfy M J = −JM T with
a certain non-degenerate skewsymmetric matrix J , and (4) five special Lie
algebras G2 , F4 , E6 , E7 , E8 , of dimensions 14, 52, 78, 133, 248, the “excep-
tional Lie algebras", that just somehow appear in the process). There is
also a discussion of the compact form and other real forms of a (com-
plex) semisimple Lie algebra, and a section on automorphisms. The third
chapter brings the theory of the finite dimensional representations of a
semisimple Lie algebra, with the highest or extreme weight as central
notion. The proof for the existence of representations is an ad hoc ver-
sion of the present standard proof, but avoids explicit use of the Poincaré-
Birkhoff-Witt theorem.
Complete reducibility is proved, as usual, with J.H.C. Whitehead’s proof
(the first proof, by H. Weyl, was analytical-topological and used the exis-
tence of a compact form of the group in question). Then come H. Weyl’s
formula for the character of an irreducible representation, and its conse-
quences (the formula for the dimension of the representation, Kostant’s
formula for the multiplicities of the weights and algorithms for finding
the weights, Steinberg’s formula for the multiplicities in the splitting of
a tensor product and algorithms for finding them). The last topic is the
determination of which representations can be brought into orthogonal or
symplectic form. This is due to I.A. Malcev; we bring the much simpler
approach by Bose-Patera.
Some of the text has been rewritten and, I hope, made clearer. Errors
have been eliminated; I hope no new ones have crept in. Some new ma-
terial has been added, mainly the section on automorphisms, the formulas
of Freudenthal and Klimyk for the multiplicities of weights, R. Brauer’s
algorithm for the splitting of tensor products, and the Bose-Patera proof
mentioned above. The References at the end of the text contain a some-
what expanded list of books and original contributions.
In the text I use “iff" for “if and only if", “wr to" for “with respect to"
and “resp." for “respectively". A reference such as “Theorem A" indicates
Theorem A in the same section; a reference §m.n indicates section n in
chapter m; and Ch.m refers to chapter m. The symbol [n] indicates item n
in the References. The symbol “√" indicates the end of a proof, argument
or discussion.
I thank Elizabeth Harvey for typing and TEXing and for support in my
effort to learn TEX, and I thank Jim Milgram for help with PicTeXing the
diagrams.
These notes are a slightly expanded version of lectures given at the Uni-
versity of Michigan and Stanford University. Their subject, the basic facts
about structure and representations of semisimple Lie algebras, due mainly
to S. Lie, W. Killing, E. Cartan, and H. Weyl, is quite classical. My aim
has been to follow as direct a path to these topics as I could, avoiding de-
tours and side trips, and to keep all arguments as simple as possible. As an
example, by refining a construction of Jacobson’s, I get along without the
enveloping algebra of a Lie algebra. (This is not to say that the enveloping
algebra is not an interesting concept; in fact, for a more advanced devel-
opment one certainly needs it.)
The necessary background that one should have to read these notes con-
sists of a reasonable firm hold on linear algebra (Jordan form, spectral
theorem, duality, bilinear forms, tensor products, exterior algebra,. . . ) and
the basic notions of algebra (group, ring, homomorphism,. . . , the Noether
isomorphism theorems, the Jordan-Hoelder theorem,. . . ), plus some no-
tions of calculus. The principal notions of linear algebra used are collected,
not very systematically, in an appendix; it might be well for the reader to
glance at the appendix to begin with, if only to get acquainted with some
of the notation. I restrict myself to the standard fields: R = reals, C =
complex numbers (ā denotes the complex-conjugate of a); Z denotes the
integers; Zn is the cyclic group of order n. “iff” means “if and only if”;
“w.r.to” means “with respect to”. In the preparation of these notes, I sub-
stituted my own version of the Halmos-symbol
√
that indicates the end of
a proof or an argument; I use “ ”. The bibliography is kept to a mini-
mum; Jacobson’s book contains a fairly extensive list of references and
some historical comments. Besides the standard sources I have made use
of mimeographed notes that I have come across (Albert, van Est, Freuden-
thal, Mostow, J. Shoenfield).
Stanford, 1969
x
Contents
1 Generalities 1
1.1 Basic definitions, examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Structure constants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.3 Relations with Lie groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.4 Elementary algebraic concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.5 Representations; the Killing form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.6 Solvable and nilpotent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.7 Engel’s theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.8 Lie’s theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.9 Cartan’s first criterion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
1.10 Cartan’s second criterion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
1.11 Representations of A1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
1.12 Complete reduction for A1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2 Structure Theory 33
2.1 Cartan subalgebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.2 Roots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.3 Roots for semisimple g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
2.4 Strings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.5 Cartan integers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
2.6 Root systems, Weyl group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
2.7 Root systems of rank two . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
2.8 Weyl-Chevalley normal form, first stage . . . . . . . . . . 46
2.9 Weyl-Chevalley normal form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
2.10 Compact form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
2.11 Properties of root systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
2.12 Fundamental systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
2.13 Classification of fundamental systems . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
2.14 The simple Lie algebras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
2.15 Automorphisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
xii
3 Representations 89
3.1 The Cartan-Stiefel diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
3.2 Weights and weight vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
3.3 Uniqueness and existence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
3.4 Complete reduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
3.5 Cartan semigroup; representation ring . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
3.6 The simple Lie algebras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
3.7 The Weyl character formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
3.8 Some consequences of the character formula . . . . . . . . 122
3.9 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
3.10 The character ring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
3.11 Orthogonal and symplectic representations . . . . . . . . . 137
Appendix 147
References 153
Index 155
In more abstract terms (a) says that [ ] is a linear map from the second
exterior power of the vector space to the vector space.
Property (b) is called the Jacobi identity; it is related to the usual asso-
ciative law, as the examples will show.
Usually we denote Lie algebras by small German letters: a, b, . . . , g, . . ..
Naturally one could generalize the definition, by allowing the vector
space to be of infinite dimension or by replacing “vector space” by “mod-
ule over a ring”.
Note: From here on we use for F only the reals, R, or the complexes, C.
Some of the following examples make sense for any field F.
Example 0: Any vector space with [XY ] = 0 for all X, Y ; these are the
Abelian Lie algebras.
2 1 G ENERALITIES
with |a|2 + |b|2 = 1 occurring here make up exactly the group SU (2). How-
ever the matrix is determined by the transformation above only up to sign;
we have a double-valued map. Going in the opposite direction, we have
here a homomorphism of SU (2) onto SO(3), whose kernel consists of I
and −I . This is a local isomorphism, i.e., it maps a small neighborhood of
I in SU (2) bijectively onto a neighborhood of I in SO(3). There is then
an induced isomorphism of the Lie algebras (= tangent spaces at the unit
elements); and that is the isomorphism from su(2) to o(3) above.
1.4 E LEMENTARY ALGEBRAIC CONCEPTS 9
of g1 , is a sub Lie algebra, resp. ideal of g. The image ϕ(g) (also denoted
by im ϕ) is a sub Lie algebra of g1 , as is the image of any sub Lie algebra
of g.
Conversely, if q is an ideal of g, then the natural map π of g into the
quotient Lie algebra g/q, defined by X → X + q, is a homomorphism,
whose kernel is exactly q and which is surjective. In other words, there
is a natural “short exact sequence” 0 → q → g → g/q → 0. If ψ is a
homomorphism of g into some Lie algebra g1 that sends q to 0, then it
“factors through π ”: There is a (unique) homomorphism ψ 0 : g/q → g1
with ψ = ψ 0 ◦ π ; the formula ψ 0 (X + q) = ψ(X) clearly gives a well-
defined linear map, and from the definition of [ ] in g/q it is clear that ψ 0
preserves [ ].
There is the first isomorphism theorem (analogous to that of group the-
ory): let q be the kernel of the homomorphism ϕ : g → g1 ; the induced
map ϕ0 sets up an isomorphism of g/q with the image Lie algebra ϕ(g).
For the proof we note that clearly im ϕ = im ϕ0 so that the map in ques-
tion is surjective; it is also injective since the only coset of q with ϕ-image
0 is clearly q itself. An easy consequence of this is the following: Let a
and b be ideals in g, with a ⊂ b; then the natural maps give rise to an
isomorphism g/b ≈ (g/a)/(b/a).
Next: if a and b are ideals of g, so are a + b and [ab]; if a is an ideal and
b a sub Lie algebra, then a + b is a sub Lie algebra. The proof for a + b is
trivial; that for [ab] uses the Jacobi identity.
The intersection of two sub Lie algebras is again a sub Lie algebra, of
course; if a is a sub Lie algebra and b is an ideal of g, then a ∩ b is an ideal
of a. The second isomorphism theorem says that in this situation the natural
map of a into a + b induces an isomorphism of a/a ∩ b with (a + b)/b; we
forego the standard proof.
Two elements X and Y of g are said to commute, if [XY ] is 0. (The term
comes from the fact that in the case g = gl(n, F) (or any AL ) the condition
[XY ] = 0 just means XY = Y X ; it is also equivalent to the condition that
all exp(sX) commute with all exp(tY ) (see §1.3 for exp).) The centralizer
gS of a subset S of g is the set (in fact a sub Lie algebra) of those X in g
that commute with all Y in S . For S = g this is the center of g. Similarly
the normalizer of a sub Lie algebra a consists of the X in g with [Xa] ⊂ a;
it is a sub Lie algebra of g, and contains a as an ideal (and is the largest
sub Lie algebra of g with this property).
The (external) direct sum of two Lie algebras g1 , g2 , written g1 ⊕ g2 , has
the obvious definition; it is the vector space direct sum, with [ ] defined
“componentwise”: [(X1 , Y1 ), (X2 , Y2 )] = ([X1 X2 ], [Y1 Y2 ]). The two sum-
mands g1 and g2 (i.e., the (X, 0) and (0, Y )) are ideals in the direct sum
that have intersection 0 and “nullify” each other ([g1 , g2 ] = 0). Conversely,
1.4 E LEMENTARY ALGEBRAIC CONCEPTS 11
if a and b are two ideals in g that span g linearly (i.e., a + b = g) and have
intersection 0, then the map (X, Y ) → X + Y is an isomorphism of a ⊕ b
with g (thus g is internal direct sum of a and b). (This uses the fact that
[ab] is contained in a ∩ b, and so is 0 in the present situation.) One calls
a and b complementary ideals. An ideal a is direct summand if there ex-
ists a complementary ideal, or, equivalently, if there exists a “retracting”
homomorphism ρ : g → a with ρ ◦ i = ida (here i : a ⊂ g).
We make some comments on change of base field: A vector space V ,
or a Lie algebra g, over C can be regarded as one over R by restriction of
scalars; this is the real restriction or realification, indicated by writing VR
or gR . In the other direction a V or g over R can be made into (or, better,
extended to) one over C by tensoring with C over R; or, more elementary,
by considering formal combinations v + iw and X + iY (with i the usual
complex unit) and defining (a + ib) · (v + iw), (a + ib) · (X + iY ), and
[X + iY, X 0 + iY 0 ] in the obvious way. This is the complex extension or
complexification; we write VC and gC . We call V a real form of VC . (A
basis for V over R is also one for VC over C; same for g.)
A simple example: gl(n, C) is the complexification gl(n, R)C of gl(n, R).
All this means is that a complex matrix M can be written uniquely as
A + iB with real matrices A, B .
For a slightly more complicated example: gl(n, C) is also the complexi-
fication of the unitary Lie algebra u(n). This comes about by writing any
complex matrix M uniquely as P + iQ with P, Q skew-Hermitean, putting
P = 1/2(M − M ∗ ) and Q = 1/2i(M + M ∗ ). (This is the familiar decom-
position into Hermitean plus i·Hermitean, because of “skew-Hermitean =
i·Hermitean”.)
κ(X, Y ) = tr (ad X ◦ ad Y ) ,
the trace of the composition of ad X and ad Y ; we also write hX, Y i for this
and think of h·, ·i as a—possibly degenerate—inner product on g, attached
1.5 R EPRESENTATIONS ; THE K ILLING FORM 15
to the Lie algebra structure on g (in the important case of semisimple Lie
algebras—see §1.7—it is non-degenerate). (The symmetry comes from
the relation tr (ST ) = tr (T S) for any two operators.)
Similarly any representation ϕ gives rise to the symmetric bilinear trace
form tϕ , defined by
and then the values tr (ad H ◦ ad H) etc. of the coefficients of the Killing
form, with the result
ad Rx = Rx , ad Ry = Ry , ad Rz = Rz
16 1 G ENERALITIES
for the matrices. (In other words, the adjoint representation is equivalent
to the original representation.) Computing the traces of Rx · Rx etc. one
finds the Killing form as
κ(X, X) = −2(a2 + b2 + c2 ).
Surprisingly (?) the quadratic form that defined the orthogonal Lie algebra
in the first place, appears here also as the Killing form (up to a factor).
Example 3: The general linear Lie algebra gl(n, F). Given an element A
of it, the map (ad A)2 (acting on the space of all n × n matrices) sends any
M to A2 · M − 2A · M · A + M · A2 . One reads off from this that the Killing
form, the trace of the map, is
For the special linear Lie algebra, which is an ideal in the general one,
the Killing form is obtained by restriction. Thus one gets here simply
2ntr (A2 ).
A derivation of a Lie algebra g is an operator D : g → g that satisfies
D[XY ] = [DX, Y ] + [X, DY ] for all X, Y in g.
This is the infinitesimal version of automorphism: If α(s) is a differen-
tiable family of automorphisms with α(0) = id, one finds on differenti-
ating (using Leibnitz’s rule) the relation α(s)([XY ]) = [α(s)(X)α(s)(Y )]
that α0 (0), the derivative at 0, is a derivation. In other words, the first order
term in the expansion α(s) = id + sD + · · · is a derivation. Conversely, if
D is a derivation, then all exp(sD) are automorphisms, as one sees again
by differentiating.
An important special case: Each ad X is a derivation of g; this is just the
Jacobi identity; the ad X ’s are the inner derivations of g, analogs of the
inner automorphisms of a group.
The Killing form is (infinitesimally) invariant under any derivation D
of g, i.e., we have κ(DX, Y ) + κ(X, DY ) = 0 for all X, Y . (This is the
infinitesimal version of invariance of κ under automorphisms—consider
the derivative, at s = 0, of hα(s)(X), α(s)(Y )i = hX, Y i.)
The proof uses the easily verified relation ad DX = D ◦ ad X − ad X ◦ D,
and symmetry of tr .
Specialized to an inner derivation, this becomes the important relation
[X1 [X2 [. . . Xr+1 ] . . . ] (which we abbreviate to [X1 X2 . . . Xr+1 ]). Again the
gr are characteristic ideals, and the relation gr+1 ⊂ gr holds. One calls
g nilpotent, if the lower central series goes down to 0, i.e., if gr is 0 for
large r. The standard example for nilpotence are the upper supra-triangular
matrices, those with aij = 0 for i ≥ j . (This is the derived Lie algebra of
the upper-triangular one.)
One sees easily that the derived and lower central series of an ideal of g
consists of ideals of g.
Nilpotency implies solvability, because of the relation g(r) ⊂ gr (easily
proved by induction); the converse is not true—consider aff(1). It is also
fairly clear that a sub Lie algebra of a solvable (resp nilpotent) Lie algebra
is itself solvable (resp nilpotent), and similar for quotients. For solvability
there is a “converse”:
In one direction we have seen this already. For the other, note that g(r)
maps into p(r) ; the latter is 0 for large r, and so g(r) is contained in the
(r+s)
image
√ of q. Then g is in the image of q(s) ; and the latter is 0 for large
s.
We show next that g contains a unique maximal solvable ideal (i.e.,
there is such an ideal that contains all solvable ideals), the radical r of
g; similarly there is a unique maximal nilpotent ideal, occasionally called
18 1 G ENERALITIES
(and so isomorpic to g/r). Thus every Lie algebra is put together from a
solvable and a semisimple part. We describe how the two parts interact:
If one analyzes the brackets between elements of r and s, one is led to
the notion of semidirect sum: Let a, b be two Lie algebras, and let there
be given a representation ϕ of a on (the vector space) b by derivations of
b (i.e., every ϕ(X) is a derivation of b). We make the vector space direct
sum of a and b into a Lie algebra, denoted by a ⊕ϕ b, by using the given
brackets in the two summands a and b, and by defining [XY ] = ϕ(X)(Y )
for X in a and Y in b. This is indeed a Lie algebra (the derivation property
of the ϕ(X)’s is of course essential here), and there is an exact sequence
0 → b → a ⊕ϕ b → a → 0, which is in fact split, via the obvious embedding
of a as the first summand of a ⊕ b. (For ϕ = 0 this gives the ordinary direct
sum.) In these terms then, the general g is semidirect sum of a semisimple
Lie algebra s and a solvable Lie algebra r, under some representation of s
on r by derivations.
is not 0.
Note that the combination XY , and not [XY ], appears here. The proof uses
the Jordan form of operators. Take X in g0 ; we have X = S +N with SN =
N S , N nilpotent, and S diagonal = diag (λ1 , . . . , λn ) relative to a suitable
basis of V . (We consider all operators on V as matrices wr to this basis and
take the usual matrix units Eij , with 1 as ij -entry and 0 everywhere else, as
basis for gl(V ).) Put S = diag(λ̄1 , . . . , λ̄n ) (i.e., the complex conjugate of
S ); then S can be written as a polynomial in S , by Lagrange interpolation
(since λi = λj implies λ̄i = λ̄j , there is a polynomial p(x) with p(λi ) = λ̄i ).
1.10 C ARTAN ’ S SECOND CRITERION 23
The proof is substantially the same as that for Corollary B. The com-
plementary ideal is found as the subspace orthogonal to the ideal wr to
the Killing form. The intersection of the two is √ 0, since by Cartan’s first
criterion it is a solvable ideal in the given ideal.
1.11 R EPRESENTATIONS OF A1 25
Let g be the Lie algebra and D the derivation. In the vector space g⊕FD,
spanned by g and the abstract “vector” D, we define a [ ]-operation by
[DD] = 0, [DX] = −[XD] = DX (i.e., equal to the image of X under D),
and the given bracket within g. One checks that this is a Lie algebra, and
that it has g as an ideal. By Corollary C there is a complementary ideal,
which is of dimension 1 and is clearly spanned by an element of the form
−X0 + D, with some X0 in g. Complementarity implies [−X √ 0 + D, X] = 0,
i.e., DX = ad X0 .X for all X in g; in short, D = ad X0 .
1.11 Representations of A1
From §1.1 we recall that A1 , = sl(2, C), is the (complex) Lie algebra with
basis {H, X+ , X− } and relations
Lx = z∂y − y∂z
Ly = x∂z − z∂x
Lz = y∂x − x∂y .
(Verify that the L’s satisfy the correct commutation relations. Physicists
like to take instead the operators Jx = i · Lx , etc., the angular momen-
tum operators, because these versions are self-adjoint wr to the usual inner
product between complex-valued functions.) There is also the Laplace op-
erator ∆ = ∂x2 + ∂y2 + ∂z2 ; the polynomials (or functions) annulled by it are
the harmonic ones. ∆ commutes with the L’s. It is easy to see (e.g., using
the coordinates w, w̄, z defined below) that ∆ maps the space Ps of poly-
nomials of degree s onto Ps−2 ; one computes then the dimension of the
harmonic subspace Vs of Ps as 2s + 1.
Now to our representations: The harmonic space Vs is invariant under
the L’s. We claim that the induced representation is exactly Ds . To es-
tablish this , we note that the operator corresponding to the H of sl(2, C)
is −2iRz (see above); thus we have to find the eigenvalues of −2iLz . To
this end we introduce the new variables w = x + iy and w̄ = x − iy ,
so that we write our polynomials as polynomials in w, w̄, z . There are
the usual operators ∂w = 1/2(∂x − i∂y ) and ∂w̄ = 1/2(∂x + i∂y ) with
1.12 C OMPLETE REDUCTION FOR A1 29
We add two more remarks about the Ds , namely about invariant bilinear
forms and about invariant anti-involutions on their carrier spaces.
As noted earlier, sl(2, C) is also sp(1, C) – there is the invariant skew-
symmetric form x1 y2 −x2 y1 or det[XY ] on C2 . This form induces invariant
bilinear forms qs on the symmetric powers of C2 , i.e., on the carrier spaces
of the Ds . For half-integral s (even dimension 2s + 1) the form turns out
skew-symmetric, and so Ds is symplectic (meaning that all the operators
are in the symplectic Lie algebra wr to qs ). For integral s (odd dimension
2s+1) the form turns out symmetric, and so Ds is orthogonal (all operators
are in the orthogonal Lie algebra of qs ). Explicitly this looks as follows:
For the representation space of Ds we take the physicists’ basis {vm }
with m = −s, −s+1, −s+2, . . . , s−1, s. Then qs is given by qs (vm , v−m ) =
(−1)s−m and by qs (vi , vj ) = 0 if i 6= −j . (This is skew for half-integral s
and symmetric for integral s.) Invariance under H is clear, since vm and
v−m are eigenvectors with eigenvalues 2m and −2m. Invariance under X+
and X− takes a little more computation.
Now to the second topic: An anti-involution on a complex vector space
V is a conjugation (an R− linear operator on V (i.e.,on VR ), say σ , with
σ(iv) = −iσ(v)) that satisfies the relation σ ◦ σ = ±id.
In the case +id (first kind) the eigenvalues of σ are ±1. Let V+ , resp V− ,
be the +1-, resp −1-, eigenspace of σ . Then V− is i · V+ and VR is the direct
sum of V+ and V− .
In the case −id (second kind) one can make V into a quaternionic vec-
torspace, by defining multiplying by the quaternion unit j as applying σ .
(Usually one lets the quaternions act on V from the right side.)
On C2 there is a familiar anti-involution, of the second kind, say σ ,
namely “going to the unitary perpendicular”: In terms of the basis {u, v}
defined earlier we have σ(u) = v and σ(v) = −u, and generally σ(au +
bv) = −b̄u + āv .
32 1 G ENERALITIES
We note: The results of the next two sections will imply that for semisim-
ple g a CSA can be defined as a sub Lie algebra that is maximal Abelian
and has ad X semisimple (diagonizable) on g for all its elements X .
2.2 ROOTS 35
2.2 Roots
Let h be a CSA. Nilpotence implies that h is contained in g0 (H) (as defined
in §1.1) for any element H of h . (For any H 0 in h we have (ad H)r .H 0 =
[HH . . . HH 0 ] = 0 for large r.) Thus, if H and H 0 are two elements of h,
all gλ (H) are invariant under ad H 0 , by formula (1) in §2.1, and it follows
that each gλ (H) is direct sum of its intersections with the gµ (H 0 ). (This
is simply the primary decomposition of ad H 0 on gλ (H).) Furthermore, all
these intersections are invariant under ad h, again by (1) in §2.1.
Iterating this process with elements H 00 , H 000 , . . . of h (we look for ele-
ments, under whose primary decomposition some subspace of the previous
stage decomposes further; for dimension reasons we come to an end after
a finite number of steps) we see that g can be written as direct sum of sub-
spaces invariant under ad h with the property that on each such subspace
each operator ad H , for any H in h , has only one eigenvalue. It follows
from Lie’s Theorem (§1.8) that for each of these subspaces the (unique)
eigenvalue of ad H , as function of H , is a linear function on h . (This is
clear in the triangularized form of the action.)
As an example: The subspace g0 corresponding to the linear function 0,
i.e., the intersection of the nilspaces on g of all ad H with H in h (which
contains h) is h itself: Apply Lie’s Theorem to the action of h on the quo-
tient g0 /h; all eigenvalues (= diagonal elements) are 0. If g0 were different
from h, one could then find a vector Y , not in h, with [HY ] in h for all H
in h; but h is its own normalizer in g.
We restate all this as follows: For each linear function λ on h (= element
of the dual space h> ) denote by gλ the intersection of the nilspaces of all
the operators ad H − λ(H) on g, with H running over h. Those λ, different
from 0, for which gλ is not 0, are called the roots of g wr to h; there are
only finitely many such, of course; they are usually denoted by α, β, γ, . . . .
The subset of h> formed by them is denoted by ∆. To each α in ∆ there is
a subspace gα of g , invariant under ad h , called the root space to α, such
that
(a) g is direct sum of h and the gα , for α in ∆,
(b) for each α in ∆ and each H in h the operator ad H has only one
eigenvalue on gα , namely α(H), the value of the linear function α on H .
(As a matter of fact, for each α all the ad H on gα have a simultaneous
triangularization, with α(H) on the diagonal, by Lie’s Theorem.) Occa-
sionally we write ∆0 for ∆ ∪ 0. We note that ∆ is not a subgroup of h> :
it is after all a finite subset; in general “α and β in ∆” neither implies nor
excludes “α + β in ∆”. Clearly (1) of §1.1 implies
Proof: By (2) we have [gλ [gµ gν ]] ⊂ gλ+µ+ν for all ν in ∆; i.e., for X in gλ
and Y in gµ the operator ad X · ad Y sends gν into gλ+µ+ν . Since g is direct
sum of the gν with ν in ∆0 , we see by iteration that ad X √· ad Y is nilpotent,
if λ + µ is not 0; and so hX, Y i = tr (ad X · ad Y ) = 0.
X
(4) κ(H, H 0 ) = nα · α(H) · α(H 0 ), for H, H 0 in h, with nα = dim gα .
(For nilpotent g we have h = g. For af f (1) (see §1.1) we can take CX2
as CSA.)
2.4 Strings
P ROPOSITION A. For each α in ∆ the subspace [gα , g−α ] of h has
dimension 1, and the restriction of α to it is not identically 0.
Proof: h[XY ], Zi = −hY, [XZ]i = hY, [ZX]i = hY, α(Z)Xi = α(Z). Here
the first = comes from invariance of the Killing form, and the third from
(e) in §2.3.
By Prop. A we have hhα , hα i = α(hα ) 6= 0 (since hα is of course not
0). We introduce the important elements Hα = (2/hhα , hα i) · hα , for α in
∆; they are the coroots (of g wr to h) and will play a considerable role.
They span h (just like the hα ) and satisfy the relations α(Hα ) = 2 and
[gα , g−α ] = Chα (= Ch−α ). More is true about the gα .
X
(40 ) hX, Y i = α(X) · α(Y ) for all X, Y in h
(5) aβα = q − p.
(For β = −α the string consists of g−α , ((Hα )), and gα ; and one has
aαα = −aα,−α = 2.)
(In the literature one also finds the notation aαβ for the value β(Hα ),
instead of aβα .)
Relation (5) follows from the fact that the smallest eigenvalue, β(Hα ) −
2q , must be the negative of the largest one, β(Hα ) + 2p. (And the represen-
tation on gαβ is the Ds with 2s = p + q .) — We note that from the definition
we have aβα = β(Hα ) = 2hhβ , hα i/hhα , hα i and aαα = 2.
aβα can be different from aαβ . We shall see soon that only the numbers
0, ±1, ±2, ±3 can occur as aβα . We develop some more properties.
P ROPOSITION B. For any two roots α, β the combination β−aβα ·α is
a root. In fact, with ε = sign aβα all the terms β, β −εα, β −2εα, ..., β −aβα α
are roots again (or 0).
This follows from the fact that aβα lies in the interval [−p, q], by (5).
(Here 0 can occur in the sequence only if β = −α, by Prop.C. ) We note a
slightly different, very useful version.
40 2 S TRUCTURE T HEORY
Proof: The if-part is (f) in §2.3. For the only if, suppose β = cα is also
a root. Evaluating on Hα and on Hβ we get aβα = 2c and 2 = c · aαβ .Thus
by Prop. A both 2c and 2/c are integers. It follows that c must √ be one of
±1, ±2, ±1/2. Prop. C of §2.4 forbids ±2 and then also ±1/2.
Generators Xα of gα , always subject to [Xα X−α ] = Hα , will be called
root elements (to be distinguished from the root vectors hα of §2.4). One
might say that g is constructed by putting together a number of copies of
A1 (namely the g(α) ), in such a way that the X+ ’s and X− ’s are indepen-
dent, but with relations between the H ’s [they all lie in h, and there are
usually more than l (= dim h) roots].
Integrality of the aβα and formula (40 ) of §2.4 imply that all inner prod-
ucts hHα , Hβ i are integers.
Proof: We have Ch0 = h (since the Hα span h), and so h is at any rate
spanned by h0 and ih0 (over R). For any X in the intersection h0 ∩ ih0
we have X = iY with X and Y in h0 ; therefore 0 ≤ hX, Xi (by positive
definiteness) = −hY, Y i (by C-linearity of √
κ) ≤ 0 (positive definiteness
again). So hX, Xi = 0 and then also X = 0.
.....
......
.
.......
....
....
... β
..... β
.....
.....
........
.......
....... β
.. ... ..... .......
.......
β
...
...
...
...
...
.....
.....
.....
.......
.......
.. α
..........................................
... α
........................................
.
..... α
...........................................
.......
....... α
.........................................
Figure 1
The change needed for the case aαβ ≥ 0 is the removal of all minus-
signs and the replacement of θ by π − θ ; the only acute angles possible are
π/6, π/4, π/3 (and π/2).
We come now to the root systems of rank 2.
P ROPOSITION A. Any root system of rank two is equivalent to one
of the four shown in Figure 2 below:
.
.....
β
....
... α⊥β
...
.
(i) A1 ⊕ A1 ..........................................................................................................
...
... α any ratio |α| : |β|
...
.......
.. permissible
..
....
.... ....
... ....
... ..
β ... .
....
... .
... ...
... ....
... .. all vectors of the same
... ...
(ii) A2 .................................................................................................
... ...
.
α
norm; angle between ad-
... .....
....
.
... ...
...
...
jacent vectors = π/3
... ...
..
. ....
...... .....
2.7 ROOT SYSTEMS OF RANK TWO 45
..... . ....
....... β ....... .....
..... ... .....
..... ... .....
.....
..... .
. ...
......
.... .....
.....
.....
.....
..... ... ........
.. .....
.... Ratio |β| : |α| =
√
..... .. .....
(iii) B2
.... . ... . . α
..........................................................................................................
2; angle between
... .. ...
..... .. .....
......
....... .... ........
. .....
adjacent vectors
...... ... .....
.....
.....
.....
..... ...
...
.
.....
.....
.....
= π/4
... .
...
.... .... .....
.....
.. .....
..... . .....
.
.....
.....
...
..
...
...
β........ ... ...
... ....... ..
....... ..
... ........
....... . ... ... .......
....... ... .. ... .......
.......
.......
...
... .... .... ...
.......... √
....... . . . ......
....... .... .... .... .............
....... ... . ... .......
....... ..... .. .......
Ratio |β| : |α| = 3;
......................
(iv) G2 .......................................................................................................
....... .........
....... ... .. .. ....... α angle between adjacent
....... .. ... ... .......
............. .... .... ..... ............. vectors = π/6
...... . .... .... .......
....... .. .......
....... .. .... ... .......
....... ... ... .......
....... ..... ... ........ ......
....... .... ... .......
...
...
...
...
...
...
.
.......
..
Figure 2
(The usual metric in the plane is intended.)
Comment: The names for these figures are chosen, because these are
the root systems of the corresponding Lie algebras in the Cartan-Killing
classification (G2 refers to an “exceptional" Lie algebra, see §2.14.)
Proof : Type A1 ⊕ A1 clearly corresponds to the case of a decomposable
(not simple) root system of rank 2. We turn to the simple case. One verifies
easily that figures (ii), (iii), (iv) above are root systems, i.e., that conditions
(i), (ii), (iii) of §2.6 are satisfied. The Weyl groups are the dihedral groups
D3 , D4 , D6 . In each case the reflections Sα and Sβ , for the given α and β ,
generate the Weyl group; also, the whole system is generated by applying
the Weyl group to the two vectors α and β . — We must show that there are
no other systems:
Let a simple root system of rank two be given. Choose a shortest vec-
tor α, and let β be another vector, independent of, but not orthogonal to
α (this must exist). Applying Sα , if necessary, we may assume hα, βi <
0, i.e., aβα < 0. We then have the possibilities in Fig.1 for the pair α, β .
In cases (iii) and (iv) we know already that the reflections S wr to α and
β will generate the systems B2 and G2 ; and it is clear that there can’t be
46 2 S TRUCTURE T HEORY
any other vectors in the system because of the restrictions on angles and
norms from the table above. In case (ii) α and β generate A2 ; and the only
way to have more vectors in the system√ is to go to G2 , again because of
the restrictions on angles and norms.
The importance of the rank 2 case stems from the following simple ob-
servation: If R is a root system in the space V , and W is a subspace of V ,
then R ∩ W , if not empty, is a root system in W . Thus, if α and β are any
two independent vectors in R, the intersection of the plane ((α, β)) with R
is one of our four types. (In case A1 ⊕ A1 , i.e., α orthogonal to β and α + β
not in R, one calls α and β strongly orthogonal.)
A glance at figures (i) - (iv) shows
Property (i), in detail, says that we have Nαβ = ±(q + 1) for any two
roots α, β with α + β also a root, with q the largest integer t such that
β − tα is a root.
We shall comment on the corollaries after the proof of the main result.
We begin by noting that by Prop.A in §2.8 for any pair α, β in ∆ with α+β
also a root the relation Nαβ = ±(q + 1) is equivalent to the relation
For the proof of Theorem A we shall show that one can adjust the origi-
nal Xα so that (∗) holds for all α and β . This will be done inductively wr to
a (weak) order in h> 0 , defined as follows: Choose an element H0 in h0 with
α(H0 ) 6= 0 for all roots α (this clearly exists) and for any λ, µ in h>
0 define
λ > µ to mean λ(H0 ) > µ(H0 ), and also λ ≥ µ to mean λ(H0 ) ≥ µ(H0 ).
2.9 W EYL -C HEVALLEY NORMAL FORM 49
Clearly the relation > is transitive (and irreflexive); but note that λ ≥ µ
and λ ≤ µ together do not imply λ = µ. We use obvious properties such
as: If λ > 0, then λ + µ > µ. We describe λ > 0 as “λ is positive", etc. (One
can and often does refine this weak order to a total order on h0 , defined
by lexicographical order of the components wr to some basis.) We write
∆+ for the set of positive roots, i.e.those roots that are > 0 in this order;
similarly ∆− is the set of negative roots. Clearly ∆− is simply −∆+ , and
∆ is the disjoint union of ∆+ and ∆− .
We first reduce the problem to the positive roots.
We prove (ii); the proof for (i) results by omitting all references to λ.
The case where α and β are both negative follows trivially. Let then α and
β be given as in the second part of (ii), and put γ = −α−β . Say γ < 0; then
we have 0 > γ + β = −α > −λ. From the hypothesis and §2.8, (1) and (2),
we find Nαβ /hγ, γi = Nβγ /hα, αi = −N−β,−γ /hα, αi = N−γ,−β /hα, αi =
N−β,−α /hγ, γi = −N−α,−β /hγ, γi, i.e., (∗) holds for α and β .
Note that (∗) holds trivially for Nλµ with λ or µ or λ + µ not a root.
The induction step for the proof of (*) is contained in the next compu-
tation.
L EMMA E. Let η be a positive root, and suppose that (∗) holds for
all pairs of positive roots with sum < η . Let γ, δ, ε, ζ, be four positive roots
with γ + δ = ε + ζ = η . Then the relation
This relation also holds, of course, with all roots replaced by their neg-
atives. Now under our induction hypothesis this replacement does not
change the left-hand side of (∗∗). Namely, first we have Nδ,−ε = −N−δ,ε
50 2 S TRUCTURE T HEORY
Next the important Corollary C. Note that the map ϕ, the weak equiv-
alence of ∆1 and ∆2 , is not assumed to be a linear map, but only a map
between the finite sets ∆1 and ∆2 , preserving the relations of the two types
α + β = 0 and γ = α + β . Now the Cartan integers are determined by
these relations, through the notion of strings and formula (5) of §2.5; thus
we have a1αβ = a2ϕ(α)ϕ(β) for all roots α and β . The Cartan integers in
turn determine the inner products hHα , Hβ i, by aαβ = α(Hβ ) and formula
(2.4) of §2.4 for h·, ·i; these in turn determine the hα, βi (= hhα , hβ i) by
hHα , Hα i = 4/hhα , hα i and aβα = 2hhβ , hα i/hhα , hα i. Thus the map ϕ
from ∆1 to ∆2 is an isometry. It therefore extends to a (linear) isometry of
2.10 C OMPACT FORM 51
h2 > >
0 to h1 0 (the linear map that sends some l independent ones of the α’s
to their ϕ-images is an isometry, and thus sends every α to ϕ(α)). This map
extends to a C-linear map of h> >
2 to h1 , whose transpose in turn is an iso-
morphism, again denoted by ϕ, of h1 and h2 ; it clearly preserves the Killing
form and sends the coroots H1,α to the coroots H2,ϕ(α) . We now take g1
and g2 in Weyl-Chevalley normal form. Then Theorem A implies that the
N1,αβ equal the N2,ϕ(α)ϕ(β) , provided one is careful about the signs. That
this is correct up to sign follows from the fact that the q -values entering
into the N ’s are determined by the additive relations between the roots, and
these are preserved by ϕ. To get the signs to agree, we choose the weak
order and normalization for h2 as the ϕ-images of those for h1 . Finally we
define a linear map Φ from g1 to g2 by Φ|h1 = ϕ, and Φ(X1,α ) = X2,ϕ(α) .
It is clear that this is a Lie algebra isomorphism,√since it preserves the aαβ
and the Nαβ (see the formulae in Corollary B).
To put the whole matter briefly: The normal form describes g so explic-
itly in terms of the set of roots ∆ (up to some ambiguity in the signs) that a
weak equivalence of ∆1 and ∆2 induces (although not quite uniquely) an
isomorphism of g1 and g2 .
P P
β = −α (see (3) in §2.2) one computes: for X = iH + r α Uα + sα Vα
with H in h0 and rα , sα real one has
X X
hX, Xi = − α(H)2 − (rα2 + s2α )/hα, αi.
∆ ∆+
(The first sum over all roots, the second one over the positive ones.)
Clearly the form is negative definite, and so u is a compact real form.
We will see soon that up to automorphisms of g there is only one compact
real form.
(The importance of the compact form comes from the theorem of H.Weyl
that any Lie group to this Lie algebra is automatically compact. This makes
integration over the group very usable; it is the basis of Weyl’s original,
topological-analytical proof for complete reducibility of representations
(§3.4).)
The next theorem shows how to construct all real forms of g from facts
about the compact real form. The main ingredient are involutory automor-
phisms of u.
Thus, in order to find the real forms of g , one should find the involutions
of u – usually a fairly easy task.
Proof: Let A be an involution of u. The equation A2 = id implies by
standard arguments that the eigenvalues of A are +1 and −1, and that u
is direct sum of the corresponding eigenspaces k and p. From A[XY ] =
[AX, AY ] one reads off the important relations
brackets. Then A preserves the Killing form, and it follows that k and p are
orthogonal to each other (via hX, Y i = hAX, AY i = hX, −Y i = −hX, Y i
for X in k and Y in p).
The proof of part (ii) is more complicated. First we introduce the notion
of (complex) conjugation. (Cf.§1.4.) Let V0 be a real form of the (com-
plex) vector space V (so that every vector X of V is uniquely of the form
X 0 + iX 00 with X 0 , X 00 in V0 ). Then the conjugation of V wr to V0 is the
conjugate-linear map σ of V to itself given by σ(X 0 + iX 00 ) = X 0 − iX 00 .
(“Conjugate-linear" means σ(a · v) = ā · v for a in C, v in V .) Note that σ
is of order two, i.e., σ 2 = id, or σ = σ −1 .
Let now g0 be a real form of our Lie algebra g. Let σ and τ be the con-
jugations of (the vector space) g wr to its real forms g0 and u respectively.
Both σ and τ are R-automorphisms of g (they are R-linear and preserve
brackets, as immediately verified using X = X 0 + iX 00 etc.). The two com-
positions σ ◦ τ and τ ◦ σ are again C-automorphisms.
The following observation is crucial: If σ and τ commute, then u is σ -
invariant, and conversely.
Indeed, if σ ◦ τ = τ ◦ σ , then σ preserves the +1-eigenspace of τ , which
is precisely u. Conversely, if σ(u) = u, then also σ(iu) = iu, since σ is
conjugate linear. Now τ |u = id and τ |iu = −id, and so clearly σ and τ
commute on u and on iu, and so on g.
Our plan is now to replace g0 , via an automorphism of g, by another (iso-
morphic) real form g1 , whose associated conjugation σ1 commutes with τ .
And then the composition σ1 ◦ τ will function as the involution A of The-
orem B.
The definition of real form implies that the Killing form κ of g is simply
the extension to complex coefficients of the Killing form of either g0 or u;
in particular κ is real on g0 and on u. One concludes
Therefore the eigenvalues λi of P are real (and non-zero), and g is the di-
rect sum of the corresponding eigenspaces Vλi . From P [XY ] = [P X, P Y ]
one concludes
we have absorbed the earlier factor i into p). We restate part of Theorem B
as follows.
T HEOREM B0 . Every real form of g has a Cartan decomposition.
There is also a uniqueness statement. Suppose k1 + p1 and k2 + p2 are
two Cartan-decompositions of the real form g0 , corresponding to the two
compact forms u1 = k1 + ip1 and u2 = k2 + ip2 .
by multiplying the p− part by i, is o(n) + s(n). This is precisely the Lie al-
gebra sl(n, R) of all real n × n matrices of trace 0 (it being well known that
any real matrix is uniquely the sum of a symmetric and a skew-symmetric
one).
On the other hand, any complex matrix is uniquely of the form A + iB
with A and B Hermitean; we have therefore the direct sum decomposition
sl(n, C) = su(n) + isu(n). Thus, finally, we can say that su(n) is “the"
compact real form of sl(n, C) and that sl(n, R) is a real form (there are still
other real forms).
There exist more algebraic proofs, see [13, 24]. It is also possible to
classify the Cartan sub algebras of real semisimple Lie algebras.
(We give G. Hunt’s proof.) Let h1 and h2 be two CSAs of g. Each deter-
mines a compact form ui of g as in Theorem A. By Corollary C we may
assume u1 = u2 , = u say (replacing h2 by a conjugate CSA). One veri-
fies from the formulae after Theorem A that ih1,0 and ih2,0 are maximal
Abelian sub Lie algebras of u. In fact, let H be an element of h1,0 such
that no root wr to h1 vanishes on H (one calls such elements regular or
general); then the centralizer of iH in u is exactly ih1,0 .
The Killing form κ of g is negative definite on u. Therefore the group G
of all those operators on (the vector space) u that leave κ invariant (a closed
subgroup of GL(u)) is compact; it is just the orthogonal group O(u, κ).
For X in u the operators exp(t·ad X) are in G, by infinitesimal invariance
of κ and the computation of §1.3. Let G1 be the smallest closed subgroup
of G that contains all the exp(ad X); it is compact and all its elements are
automorphisms of u (and g). Now take general elements H1 and H2 of h1,0
and h2,0 . On the orbit of iH1 under G1 (i.e., on the set {g(iH1 ) : g ∈ G1 })
there exists by compactness a point with minimal distance (in the sense
of κ) from iH2 . Since all the g in G1 are automorphisms of u, we may
assume that iH1 itself is that point (this amounts to replacing h1 by its
58 2 S TRUCTURE T HEORY
Another real form that occurs for every semisimple g is the normal real
form; it is defined by the requirement that for some maximal Abelian
sub Lie algebra all operators ad X are real-diagonizable.
P In the Weyl-
Chevalley normal form it is simply given by h0 + ∆ RXα . (For sl(n, C)
this turns out to be sl(n, R).)
For any real form one defines the character as the signature of the
Killing form (number of positive squares minus of negative squares in the
diagonalized form). One can show that the character always lies between
l ( = rank of g ) and −n ( = − dimC g).
The compact form is the only real form with character = −n and the
normal real form the only one with character = l. (That these are the right
values for the compact and normal real forms can be read off from the
Weyl-Chevalley form of g.) We describe the arguments briefly. Given a
Cartan decomposition k + p of a real form g0 (with the corresponding com-
pact form u = k + ip and the involution A of u or g) one finds a maxi-
mal subspace a of pairwise commuting elements of p (by [pp] ⊂ k this is
the same as a maximal sub Lie algebra of p). One extends it to a max-
imal Abelian sub Lie algebra h0 (= CSA) of u; it is of the form t + ia
with t an Abelian sub Lie algebra of k. One also introduces the centralizer
2.11 P ROPERTIES OF ROOT SYSTEMS 59
P ROPOSITION A.
(a) For distinct α and β in F one has hα, βi ≤ 0;
(b) F is a linearly independent set;
60 2 S TRUCTURE T HEORY
Proof:
(a) If hα, βi is positive, then α − β and β − α belong to R (see §2.7); say
α − β belongs to R+ . Then α = β + (α − β) contradicts simplicity of α.
P P P
(b) A relation xi αi = 0 can be separated into yi αi = zj αj with
all coefficients non-negative. Calling the left side λ and the right side µ,
we get 0 ≤ hλ, λi = hλ, µi ≤ 0 (the last step by (a) upon expanding); thus
λ = µ = 0. But then v0 (λ) = v0 (µ) = 0 implies that all yi and zi vanish.
(c) If α in R+ is not simple, it is, by definition, sum of two vectors
in R+ . If either of these is not simple, it in turn splits into two positive
vectors. This can be iterated. Since the v0 -values clearly go down all the
time, eventually all the terms must be simple.
This shows that F spans V and that l (= #F ) equals dim V . It is also
fairly clear from (b) and (c) that F can be characterized as a linearly inde-
pendent subset of R+ such that R+ lies in the cone spanned by it.
P
(d) By (c) there is an equation αP= ni αi with non-negative integral
coefficients. From 0 < hα, αi = ni hα, αi i it follows that some hα, αi i
must be positive. Then α − αi belongs to R, by Proposition B of §2.7, and
so either α − αi or αi − α is in R+ . But the latter +
√ can’t be in R , since
αi = α + (αi − α) contradicts simplicity of αi .
Proof: Given two chambers, take a (piece-wise linear) path from the
interior of one chamber to that of the other, through the interiors of the
walls (i.e., avoiding the intersections of any two different singular planes);
each time the path crosses a plane (α,√ 0) use the Weyl reflection Sα . (We
complement this in Proposition E.)
of its points with any element of R cannot vanish; but for each boundary
point some hαi , λi is 0. We also see that every Weyl chamber is linearly
equivalent to the positive orthant of Rl (the set with all coordinates posi-
tive). More important, it follows that the Weyl group acts transitively on
the set of fundamental systems, since it is transitive on the set of Weyl
chambers. As a consequence, any two fundamental systems of R are con-
gruent, and the Basic Isomorphism Theorem, Cor.C of §2.9 shows that
there is an automorphism of g that sends one to the other. Together with
conjugacy of CSA’s (Theorem F of §2.10) this yields
One sees easily that Prop.E can be restated as saying: If S has a fixed
point in (the interior of) a Weyl chamber, then it is the identity. We prove
a consequence:
(Thus the space of orbits or equivalence classes under the Weyl group
can be identified with any given Weyl chamber; usually one takes the fun-
damental one as set of representatives for the orbits.)
We prove first that the stability group Wρ of ρ, i.e., the subgroup of the
Weyl group consisting of the elements that keep ρ fixed, (a) is generated
by the reflections Sα for those roots α that are orthogonal to ρ, and (b)
is simply transitive on the set of Weyl chambers that contain ρ in their
closures.
For this purpose consider the set R0 of all of those roots α for which ρ
lies in the singular plane (α, 0), i.e., which are orthogonal to ρ. The space
((R0 )) = V 0 is the orthogonal complement, in V , of the intersection of the
singular planes for the roots in R0 ; the set R0 is a root system in V 0 and so
defines Weyl chambers in V 0 . Their translates by ρ are the intersections of
the linear variety V 0 + ρ with those Weyl chambers of R whose closures
contain ρ (let us write temporarily Wρ for the set of these). Then the Weyl
group W 0 of R0 (which is a subgroup of W in a natural way) is transitive
(in fact, simply transitive) on Wρ . This implies W 0 = Wρ (the elements
of W 0 clearly keep ρ fixed; in the other direction, Wρ clearly permutes the
elements of Wρ , and using Prop. E we see that each of its elements is an
element of W 0 .
Prop.H follows now by counting: There are |W|/|Wρ | points in the orbit
W · ρ, each point belongs to |Wρ | closed Weyl chambers, and each √ closed
Weyl chamber contains at least one point (by transitivity of W ).
The number of singular planes (α, 0) that contain ρ is called the degree
of singularity of ρ. Elements of V that lie on no singular plane, i.e., points
in the interior of a Weyl chamber, are called regular.
√
Proof: Immediate from Lemma J, since we have α(H) > 0, if α > 0.
We come to the last topic of this section, the notion of maximal or dom-
inant element of a root system (wr to the given order in V ).
First an important definition: An element α of R+ is called extreme or
highest , if α + β is not a root for any positive root β .
(Actually this is equivalent to requiring that α + αi is not a root for any
fundamental root αi . Writing β as sum of a positive and a fundamental
root if it is not fundamental itself (Prop.A (d)), one reduces this to the
following: If α,β ,γ ,α + β , and α + β + γ are in R, then at least one of α + γ
and β + γ is also a root. This in turn follows easily from the Jacobi identity
for Xα ,Xβ ,Xγ and the fact that Nαβ is different from 0 iff α + β is a root.)
The aij are the Cartan integers of F ; they form the Cartan matrix A =
[aij ]. One sees as in §2.7 that only the values 0, −1, −2, −3 can occur for
i 6= j and that the table of §2.7 applies to any two vectors in F . (In the
literature one also finds aji for our aij , i.e., the indices are reversed.)
Usually one assumes ((F )) = V .
Equivalence of fundamental systems is defined, as for root systems, as
a bijection induced by a similarity of the ambient Euclidean spaces. There
is again a Weyl group W , generated by the reflections S of V in the hy-
perplanes orthogonal to the αi . W is again finite: The formula Si (αj ) =
αj − aji αi shows that each Si leaves the lattice R generated by F invariant;
since the elements of W are isometries of V , there are only finitely many
possibilities for what they can do to the vectors in F .
There is the notion of decomposable fundamental system: union of two
non-empty mutually orthogonal subsets. Every fundamental system splits
uniquely into mutually orthogonal simple ( = not decomposable) ones.
In §2.11 we associated with every root system R a fundamental system
F contained in it, unique up to an operation of the Weyl group of R. F in
turn determines R: First, since the reflections Si attached to the elements
of F generate the Weyl group of R (as we saw), the Weyl groups of R and
F are identical. Second, we showed (in effect) that the orbit W · F , the set
of the S(αi ) with S in W and αi in F , is R.
The main conclusion from all this for us is that in order to construct all
root systems it is enough to construct all fundamental systems. This turns
out to be quite easy; we do it in the next section.
To complete the picture we should also show that every (abstract) fun-
damental system comes from a root system. One way to do this is to con-
struct all possible (abstract) fundamental systems (we do this in the next
2.12 F UNDAMENTAL SYSTEMS 67
section), and to verify the property for each case (we will write down the
root systems explicitly).
There is also a general way of proceeding: The root system would have
to be, of course, the orbit W · F of F under its Weyl group. We first have to
show that this set R is indeed a root system. We prove properties (i)0 , (ii)0
and (iii) of §2.6. First, the Weyl group of R is again identical with that of
F , since for any α = S(αi ) we have Sα = S · Si · S −1 , and so Sα is in the
Weyl group of F . It follows that R is invariant under its Weyl group, i.e.,
(ii)0 holds. Next, for any β in R we have Si (β) − β = n · αi with integral
n (the left-hand side is in the lattice R and is a real multiple of αi , and αi
is a primitive element of the lattice). Applying S and recalling the relation
Sα = S · Si · S −1 , we get Sα · S(β) − S(β) = nS(αi ) = nα . This proves
(i)0 ,since S(β) runs over all of R as β does. Finally, for (iii) we note that
α is also a primitive element of the lattice, since S is invertible.
We still have to prove that the given F is a fundamental system of the
root system R = W · F defined by it. That is not quite so obvious. It
amounts to showing that the fundamental Weyl chamber CF of F , i.e. the
set {λ : hλ, αi i > 0, 1 ≤ i ≤ l} is identical with the corresponding chamber
CR of R (clearly we have CR ⊂ CF anyway), or that the W -transforms of
CF are pairwise disjoint. We proceed by induction on dim V . The situation
is trivial for dim = 0, and also for dim = 1; in the latter case F consists of
one vector α, with R = {α, −α}, W = {id, −id}, CF = CR = {tα : t > 0}.
The case dim = 2 is a bit exceptional; we have in effect considered it in
§2.7, when we constructed all root systems of rank 2. According to the
table there, there are four possibilities for F , and one easily verifies our
claim for each case.
Now the induction step, assuming l = dim V > 2. Let Σ be the unit
sphere in V . Choose r with 1 ≤ r ≤ l, and let v be a point of Σ in the
closure of CF that lies on exactly r singular planes (αi , 0), i.e. that is or-
thogonal to r of the elements of F . These r elements form a fundamental
system Fv , whose Weyl group Wv is a subgroup of W . Our induction as-
sumption holds for this system. This means that the Wv -transforms of the
fundamental chamber CF fit together around v without overlap. We in-
terpret this on Σ: Let D denote the intersection of Σ with the closure of
CF ; this is a (convex) spherical cell. Then the Wv -transforms of D will fit
together around v , meeting only in boundary points and filling out a neigh-
borhood of v on Σ. We form a cell complex by taking all the transforms of
D by the elements of W and attaching them to each other as indicated by
the groups Wv above, at their faces of codimension r, 1 ≤ r ≤ l − 1. The
fact just noted about the Wv -transforms filling out a neighborhood means
that the obvious map of our cell complex onto Σ is a covering in the usual
topological sense (each point in Σ has an “evenly covered” neighborhood).
It is well known that the sphere Σ has only trivial coverings for l − 1 > 1.
This means that our map is bijective, i.e. that the transforms S · D, with S
68 2 S TRUCTURE T HEORY
d
G2 H d l=2
F4 d d d d l=4
H
E6 d d d d d l=6
d
E7 d d d d d d l=7
d
E8 d d d d d d d l=8
didn’t allow earlier); this “is" the Dynkin diagram for a one-dimensional
(Abelian) Lie algebra (there are no roots). All this makes good sense
in terms of the so-called accidental isomorphisms between certain low-
dimensional classical Lie algebras and groups (see [3], also §1.1).
We note that the diagrams Al (for l > 1), Dl , and E6 have obvious self-
equivalences (automorphisms) : For Al and E6 reversal of the horizontal
arrangement, for Dl switching of the two vertices on the right. The diagram
D4 shows an exceptional behavior: it permits the full symmetric group
on three objects (the endpoints) as group of automorphisms. This will be
reflected in automorphisms of the corresponding Lie algebras.
For the proof of Theorem A we will construct all possible (connected)
diagrams with positive form h·, ·i by simple geometric arguments. The
proof will be broken into a number of small steps. We will be using slightly
undefined notions such as subdiagram (some of the vertices of and some
of the edges connecting them in a larger diagram). For any αi in F we
write vi for the normalized vectors αi /|αi |. Thus corresponding to the “ba-
sic links"
s s , s s , s s
√ √
we have respectively hvi , vj i = −1/2, −1/ 2, − 3/2.
1) The diagram G2 is not subdiagram of any larger diagram (with positive
form h·, ·i): Otherwise we find a subdiagram
s s s
v1 v2 v3
with the arrow in the G2 -part going either way and the other part one
of√the three basic links. This gives three vectors v1 , v2 , v3 with hv1 , v2 i =
− 3/2, hv1 , v3 i ≤ 0, hv2 , v3 i ≤ −1/2. (For the second inequality note that
in the√larger diagram there could be 0, 1, 2, or 3 edges from v1 to v3 .) For
α = 3v1 + 2v2 + v3 we compute hα, αi ≤ 0 (we use here and below,
without further comment, the fact that all hvi , vj i for i 6= j are ≤ 0). But
this contradicts positive definiteness of h·, ·i.
From now on we consider only diagrams without G2 as subdiagram, i.e.,
only diagrams made up of the basic links
s s and s s
s s s p p p p p s s s
Let v√
1 , v2 , . . . be the corresponding
√ vectors (from left to right) and put
α = 1/ 2v1 + v2 + · · · + vt−1 + 1/ 2vt . One computes hα, αi ≤ 0 (note
2.13 C LASSIFICATION OF FUNDAMENTAL SYSTEMS 71
again that there might be additional edges between some of the vertices in
the big diagram). This again contradicts positive definiteness of the inner
product.
3) There is no closed polygon containing B2 in a diagram: Otherwise on
going around the polygon the weight would change exactly once, by a
factor 2, manifestly impossible.
4) If there is a B2 , then there is no branchpoint: Otherwise there would be
a subdiagram
s
s s s p p p p p s sP
PP s
Let v1 , v2 , . . . , vt be the vectors, in√order from the left, with vt−1 and vt
the two ends at the right. Put α = 1/ 2v1 + v2 + · · · + vt−2 + 1/2(vt−1 + vt ),
and verify hα, αi ≤ 0; contradiction.
5) The diagram
s s s s s
is impossible as subdiagram.
Let v1 , . . . , v7 be the vectors on the horizontal, v8 the one below. Then
α = v1 + 2v2 + 3v3 + 4v4 + 3v5 + 2v6 + v7 + 2v8 has hα, αi ≤ 0.
10) The diagram
s s s s s s s s
is impossible as subdiagram.
With the analogous numbering put α = v1 + 2v2 + 3v3 + 4v4 + 5v5 + 6v6 +
4v7 + 2v8 + 3v9 and verify hα, αi ≤ 0.
From 6) to 10) it follows easily that diagrams √ with all links of type A2
must be Al , Dl , E6 , E7 , or E8 of Theorem A.
As noted before, we still have to show that the diagrams listed in The-
orem A are Dynkin diagrams of fundamental systems, i.e., that the corre-
sponding quadratic form is positive definite. (We verify that this is so in
the next section, where we will write down the fundamental systems and
root systems for each case.) As an example we look at F4 . The quadratic
form works out to x1 2 + x2 2 + 2x3 2 + 2x4 2 − x1 x2 − 2x2 x3 − 2x3 x4 . By com-
pleting squares this can be written as (x1 − 1/2x2 )2 + 1/4(x2 − 4/3x3 )2 +
2 2 √
2/3(x3 − 3/2x4 ) + 1/2x4 .
We comment on how the vectors α with hα, αi ≤ 0 were constructed
above: Recursively the coefficients of the vi are so chosen that the norm
square of each vector cancels the sum of the inner products with the ad-
jacent (in the subdiagram) vectors. (Any additional links in the original
diagram contribute non-positive amounts.) Take 5) as an example: We
start with v5 . The factor r of v4 is determined from the relation hv5 , v5 i +
hrv4 , v4 i = 0; with the rule noted just before 1) this gives r = 2. The
next equation, involving the coefficient s of v3 , is h2v4 , 2v4 i + h2v4 , v5 i +
h2v4 , sv3 i = 0, yielding s = 3. (As long as only links A2 occur, the rule
is: each coefficient is 1/2 the sum of the adjacent ones.) The √ factor t of v2
comes from h3v3 , 3v3 i + h3v3 , 2v4 i + h3v3 , tv2 i = 0 as t = 2 2. The next
2.14 T HE SIMPLE L IE ALGEBRAS 73
√ √ √ √
step, h2 √2v2 , 2 2v2 i + h2 2v2 , 3v3 i + h2 2v2 , uv1 i = 0 gives the factor u
of v1 as 2. This happens to be one-half the factor of v2 ; this “accident" is
responsible for hα, αi ≤ 0 (the sum of the squares cancels twice the sum
of the relevant inner products).
In case 9) we start with v1 and work our way to v4 ; the factor of v8 is
one-half that of v4 ; then we find v5 etc.
(1) [hi hj ] = 0,
(3) [ei fj ] = 0,
One proves that this is a (finite dimensional!) semisimple Lie algebra with
the correct root and fundamental system. The hi form a Cartan sub Lie
algebra. (See [24].)
Another approach (Tits, [23]) uses the relations between the aij (or
equivalently the strings) and the Nαβ of §2.8, 2.9 to show that the Nαβ
can be so chosen (recall they are determined up to some signs) that the
result is in fact a Lie algebra, with the correct root system.
We shall not reproduce these arguments here, but shall follow the tra-
ditional path of Killing and Cartan of simply writing down the necessary
Lie algebras. That turns out to be easy for the four classical classes. For
the five exceptional we write down the root system, but do not enter into
the rather long verification of the fact that there is a Lie algebra behind the
root system.
We state the main result.
74 2 S TRUCTURE T HEORY
1) Al .
For sl(l + 1, C) one can take as P CSA h the space of all diagonal matrices
H = diag(a1 , a2 , . . . , al+1 ) (with Pai = 0). We treat h in the obvious way
as the subspace of Cl+1 on which ωi vanishes. One computes [HEij ] =
(ai − aj )Eij ; thus the linear functions αij = ωi − ωj , for i 6= j , are the roots
2.14 T HE SIMPLE L IE ALGEBRAS 75
and the Eij , for i 6= j , are the root elements. h0 is obtained by taking all ai
real; it is thus h ∩ Rl+1 . We define the order in h>
0 through some (arbitrarily
chosen) H0 in h0 with a1 > a2 > ... > al+1 . The positive roots are then the
αij with i < j . The fundamental system consists of α12 , a23 , α34 , . . . , αl,l+1 ;
for i < j we have αij = αi,i+1 + αi+1,i+2 + · · · + αj−1,j . The fundamental
Weyl chamber consists of the H with a1 > a2 > · · · > al+1 . The maximal
root is α12 + α23 + · · · + αl,l+1 , = ω1 − ωl+1 .
The only way to form non-trivial strings of roots is to add two “adja-
cent" roots: αij and αkl with either j = k or i = l. This means that for
two adjacent fundamental roots we have q = 0 and p = 1 (in the nota-
tion of §2.5), so that then the Cartan integer is −1, and that non-adjacent
fundamental roots are orthogonal to each other. Thus the Dynkin diagram
is
1d 1d 1d 1d 1d 1d
p p p p p
ω1 − ω2 ω2 − ω3 ω3 − ω4 ωl−2 − ωl−1 ωl−1 − ωl ωl − ωl+1
2) Bl .
For o(2l + 1, C), the orthogonal Lie algebra in an P odd number of vari-
ables, we take instead of the usual quadratic form xi 2 the variant x0 2 +
2(x1 x2 + x3 x4 + · · · + x ), which leads to somewhat simpler for-
2l−1 x2l
0 1
mulae; i.e., with P = and K = diag(1, P, . . . , P ) = E00 +
1 0
E12 + E21 + E34 + E43 + · · · + E2l−1,2l + E2l,2l−1 , we take our Lie al-
gebra to be the set of matrices A that satisfy A> K + KA = 0. For h
we take the sub Lie algebra of diagonal matrices; they are of the form
H = diag(0, a1 , −a1 , a2 , −a2 , . . . , al , −al ). We treat h as Cl , with H corre-
sponding to (a1 , a2 , . . . , al ); the real subspace Rl is h0 .
The roots and root elements are then described in the following table.
Roots Root
√ elements
ωi f or 1 ≤ i ≤ l √ 2(E 2i−1,0 − E0,2i )
−ωi ” 2(E0,2i−1 − E2i,0 )
ωi − ωj i 6= j E2i−1,2j−1 − E2j,2i
ωi + ωj i<j E2j−1,2i − E2i−1,2j
−ωi − ωj ” E2i,2j−1 − E2j,2i−1
The order in h>0 is defined by some H0 with a1 > a2 > · · · > al > 0; the
positive roots are the ωi and the ωi ± ωj with i < j .
The fundamental system is {ω1 −ω2 , ω2 −ω3 , . . . , ωl−1 −ωl , ωl }; one verifies
that every positive root is sum of some of these.
The fundamental Weyl chamber is given by a1 > a2 > · · · > al > 0.
The maximal root is ω1 + ω2 = ω1 − ω2 + 2(ω2 − ω3 + · · · + ωl−1 − ωl + ωl ).
Now the diagram: for the first l − 1 fundamental roots we can form
strings only by adding adjacent roots; this means that we have links of
type A2 between adjacent roots. For the last pair, ωl−1 − ωl and ωl , one
cannot subtract ωl , but one can add it twice to ωl−1 − ωl ; thus the Cartan
integer is −2 and there is a link of type A2 with the arrow going from
ωl−1 − ωl to ωl . The Dynkin diagram is then
2d 2d 2d 2d 2d H 1d
p p p p p
ω1 − ω2 ω2 − ω3 ω3 − ω4 ωl−2 − ωl−1 ωl−1 −
ω ω
l l
diag(0, a1 J1 , a2 J1 , . . . , al J1 ),
3) Cl .
sp(l, C) consists of the 2l × 2l matrices M satisfying M > J + JM = 0
(see §1.1 for J ). We let h be the set of matrices
1d 1d 1d 1d 1d 2d
p p p p p
ω1 − ω2 ω2 − ω3 ω3 − ω4 ωl−2 − ωl−1 ωl−1 −
Hω 2ω
l l
The Killing form is again k· ωi 2 . We note that Bl and Cl have the same
P
infinitesimal diagram and the same Weyl group (but the roots are not the
same: Cl has ±2ωi where Bl has ±ωi ).
Fundamental coroots: H1 = e1 − e2 , . . . , Hl−1 = el−1 − el , Hl = el .
The Cartan matrix is the transpose of that for Bl .
78 2 S TRUCTURE T HEORY
4) Dl .
For o(2l, C), the orthogonal Lie algebra in an even number of variables,
we take the quadratic form as x1 x2 +x3 x4 +· · ·+x2l−1 x2l . Then, putting L =
E12 +E21 +E34 +E43 +. . . , our Lie algebra consists of the matrices M with
M > L+LM = 0. For h we can take the H = diag(a1 , −a1 , a2 , −a2 , . . . , al , −al ).
2 dω − ωl
2d 2d 2d p p p p p 2d 2d!!! l−1
ωl−2 − ωl−1
ω1 − ω2 ω2 − ω3 ω3 − ω4 ωl−3 − ωl−2aaa 2 dωl−1 + ωl
The Killing form is a multiple of ωi 2 . The Weyl group contains the inter-
change of any two axes, corresponding to reflection across ωi −ωj = 0, and
also the operation that interchanges two coordinates together with change
of their signs, corresponding to reflection in ωi + ωj . Thus it consists of the
permutations together with an even number of sign changes of l variables;
its order is 2l−1 · l!.
Fundamental coroots: H1 = e1 − e2 , . . . , Hl−1 = el−1 − el , Hl = el−1 + el .
The Cartan matrix differs from that of Al by having al−1,l = al,l−1 = 0 and
al−2,l and al,l−2 equal to −1.
(With 2l 2
P
0 xi as quadratic form, a Cartan sub Lie algebra is formed by
all matrices diag(a1 J1 , a2 J1 , . . . , al J1 ), the ai again purely imaginary for
h0 .)
5) G2 .
h is the subspace of C3 with equation ω1 + ω2 + ω3 = 0, and h0 is the
corresponding subspace of R3 . (Vectors in C3 are written (a1 , a2 , a3 ).)
The roots are the restrictions to h of ±ωi and ±(ωi − ωj ). Order in h> 0
defined by (2, 1, −3).
Positive roots: ω1 , ω2 , −ω3 , ω1 − ω2 , ω2 − ω3 , ω1 − ω3 .
Fundamental system: ω2 , ω1 − ω2 .
Fundamental Weyl chamber: a1 > a2 > 0.
Maximal root: ω1 − ω3 , = 3ω2 + 2(ω1 − ω2 ).
ω2 is a short root, of norm square 1; ω1 −ω2 is a long root, of norm square
3. We can add ω2 three times to ω1 − ω2 (the arrow goes from ω1 − ω2 to
ω2 ). The Dynkin diagram is
1d 3d
ω2 ω1 − ω2
HH
The Killing form is again k· ωi 2 . The Weyl group contains the in-
P
terchange of any two coordinates, corresponding to ωi − ωj (these act as
reflections in h0 ), and so all permutations; it also contains the rotations of
h0 by multiples of π/3, in particular the element −id.It is isomorphic with
the dihedral group D6 . Its order is 12, in agreement with the fact that there
are twelve chambers in the C − S diagram. [For the computation we note
that the operation associated with ω3 sends (a1 , a2 , a3 ) to (−a2 , −a1 , −a3 ).]
Fundamental coroots: H1 = (1, −1, 0), H2 = (−1, 2, −1).
The Cartan matrix is
2 −1
−3 2
.
Actually all this is part of an explicit description of G2 as sub Lie algebra
of B3 , i.e., o(7, C): Let Yi , Y−i , Yi,−j , . . . be the root elements of B3 as in the
table for Bl above, and put Z±1 = Y±1 ± Y∓2,∓3 etc. (permute cyclically).
Then the subspace of B3 spanned by the Z±i , the Yj,−k and the subspace
h0 of h defined by ω1 + ω2 + ω3 = 0 is a sub Lie algebra of B3 , isomorphic
to G2 , with h0 as CSA and the restrictions to h0 of the ±ωi and the ωj − ωk
as roots. (Note ω1 = −ω2 − ω3 etc. on h0 .)
6) F4 .
h is C4 , and h0 is R4 .
The roots are the forms ±ωi and ±ωi ± ωj with i, j = 1, 2, 3, 4 and i < j ,
and the forms 1/2(±ω1 ± ω2 ± ω3 ± ω4 ). Order in h> 0 defined by (8, 4, 2, 1).
Positive roots: ωi , ωi + ωj and ωi − ωj with i < j , 1/2(ω1 ± ω2 ± ω3 ± ω4 ).
80 2 S TRUCTURE T HEORY
1 1 2 2
d d d d
α1 α2 H α3 α4
7) E6 .
h is C6 , and h0 is R6 .
The roots are the ωi − ωj , the ±(ωi + ωj + ωk )
with i < j < k, and ±(ω1 + ω2 + · · · + ω6 ).
Order in h>
0 defined by (5, 4, . . . , 0).
Fundamental system: α1 = ω1 − ω2 , α2 = ω2 − ω3 , . . . , α5 = ω5 − ω6 , α6 =
ω4 + ω5 + ω6 .
1 1 1 1 1
d d d d d
α1 α2 α3 α4 α5
1 d α6
ωi 2 + 8( ωi )2 .
P P
The Killing form is not Pythagorean; it is 24
Order of the Weyl group, as determined by Cartan: 72 · 6! (see [3]).
Fundamental coroots: H1 = e1 − e2 , . . . , H5 = e5 − e6 , H6 = 1/3(−e1 −
e2 − e3 + 2e4 + 2e5 + 2e6 )
√
(One could consider h as the subspace 3 · ω0 + ω1 + ω2 + · · · + ω6 = 0
of C7 (with coordinates a0 , a1 , . . . , a6 ) and Pythagorean metric.)
For the Cartan matrix and another description see below.
8) E7 .
h is C7 , and h0 is R7 .
P roots are the ωi − ωj , the ±(ωi + ωj + ωk ) with i < j < k , and the
The
± r6=i ωr .
Order in h> 0 defined by (6, 5, . . . , 0). P
Positive roots: ωi − ωj with i < j , ωi + ωj + ωk with i < j < k, r6=i ωr .
Fundamental system: α1 = ω1 − ω2 , . . . , α6 = ω6 − ω7 , α7 = ω5 + ω6 + ω7 .
Fundamental Weyl chamber: a1 > a2 > · · · > a7 , a5 + a6 + a7 > 0.
Maximal root: ω1 + · · · + ω6 , = α1 + 2α2 + 3α3 + 4α4 + 3α5 + 2α6 + 2α7 .
We can add each αi to the preceding one once, up to α6 , and we can add
α4 and α7 . The Dynkin diagram is
1d 1d 1d 1d 1d 1d
α1 α2 α3 α4 α5 α6
1 d α7
The Killing
√ form is not Pythagorean. (One could consider h as the sub-
space 2 · ω0 + ω1 + · · · + ω7 = 0 of C8 with Pythagorean metric.)
Order of the Weyl group, as determined by Cartan: 56 · 27 · 16 · 10 · 6 · 2 (see
[3]).
Fundamental coroots:H1 = e1 − e2 , . . . , H6 = e6 − e7 , H7 = 1/3(−e1 − e2 −
e3 − e4 + 2e5 + 2e6 + 2e7 ).
82 2 S TRUCTURE T HEORY
9) E8 .
For h we take the subspace ω1 +ω2 +· · ·+ω9 = 0 of C9 , with h0 = h∩R9 .
Roots: the ωi −ωj with i 6= j and the ±(ωi +ωj +ωk ) with 1 ≤ i < j < k ≤ 9.
Order in h>0 defined by (8, 7, . . . , 1, −36).
Positive roots: ωi − ωj with i < j, ωi + ωj + ωk with i < j < k < 9 , and
−ωi − ωj − ω9 with i < j < 9.
Fundamental system: α1 = ω1 − ω2 , . . . , α7 = ω7 − ω8 , α8 = ω6 + ω7 + ω8 .
Maximal root: ω1 − ω2 , = 2α1 + 3α2 + 4α3 + 5α4 + 6α5 + 4α6 + 2α7 + 3α8 .
We can add α2 to α1 etc. up to α7 , and we can add α5 and α8 .
The Dynkin diagram is
1d 1d 1d 1d 1d 1d 1d
α1 α2 α3 α4 α5 α6 α7
1 d α8
2 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0
−1 2 0 0
0 −1 2 −1 0
0 0 −1 2 −1 0
E8 =
0
0 0 −1 2 −1 0 −1
0
0 −1 2 −1 0
0 0 −1 2 0
0 0 −1 0 0 2
Fundamental coroots:H1 = e1 − e2 , . . . , H6 = e6 − e7 , H7 = e7 − e8 , H8 =
e6 + e7 + e8 − 1/3e, with e = (1, . . . , 1).
1d 1d 1d 1d 1d 1d 1d
α1 α2 α3 α5 α6 α7 α8
1 d α4
P
Fundamental coroots:H1 = 1/2 ei , H2 = −e1 − e2 , H3 = e2 − e3 , H4 =
e1 − e2 , H5 = e3 − e4 , H6 = e4 − e5 , H7 = e5 − e6 , H8 = e6 − e7 .
The Cartan matrix in this scheme is derived from the earlier one by rear-
ranging rows and columns by the permutation which describes the change,
namely (1, . . . , 8) → (8, 7, 6, 5, 3, 2, 1, 4).
There are models for E6 and E7 in terms of E8 (we stay with the alter-
native picture): The root system of E7 is isomorphic to the subset of the
root system of E8 consisting of those roots that do not involve α8 when
written as linear combinations of the αi . Similarly the root system of E6
“consists” of those roots of E8 that involve neither α8 nor α7 . More than
that, E7 is (isomorphic to) the sub Lie algebra of E8 formed by all Hα and
X±α for the α that do not involve α8 ; this sub Lie algebra is generated by
the X±i with 1 ≤ i ≤ 7. Similarly for E6 one omits α8 and α7 .
In general, if for a semisimple g one takes a subdiagram of the Dynkin
diagram obtained by omitting some of the vertices (and the incident edges),
then the X±i of g corresponding to the subdiagram generate a sub Lie alge-
bra of g which is semisimple and has precisely the subdiagram as Dynkin
diagram.To prove this one should verify that each sub Lie algebra corre-
sponding to one of the components of the subdiagram is simple (the ideal
84 2 S TRUCTURE T HEORY
generated by any non-zero element is the whole Lie algebra; use Prop.A(d)
of §2.11).
The Cartan matrices for E7 and E6 in this system are obtained from
that for E8 by omitting the last row and column or the last two rows and
columns.
2.15 Automorphisms
We continue with our semisimple Lie algebra g (over C), with a Cartan
sub Lie algebra h, the associated root system ∆, the Weyl group W , etc.
The first thing we prove is that the operations of the Weyl group in h are
induced by inner automorphisms of g. To recall, an inner automorphism of
g is a product of a finite number of automorphisms of the form exp(ad X)
with X in g . We write Int(g) for the group formed by all inner automor-
phisms; this is a subgroup of the group Aut(g) of all automorphisms of
g which in turn is a subgroup of the general linear GL(g) of (the vector
space) g.
For the proof we shall use elementary facts about Lie groups, without
much of a definition or proof (see §1.3). The prime example, and the start-
ing point of the proof, is sl(2, C), with h = ((H)) (see §1.1). The Weyl
group is Z/2; the non-trivial element T sends H to −H .
The Lie group, of which sl(2, C) is the Lie algebra, is the special linear
group SL(2, C). In it we find the element J1 (= X+ −X− ), which conjugates
H to −H .
Now J1 can be written as exp(π/2 · J1 ), by the familiar computation with
series that shows exp(it) = cos t + i · sin t, because J1 2 is −I . This suggests
to use as the A of our theorem for the present case the inner automorphism
exp(t · ad(X+ − X− )) for a suitable t-value. Indeed, the operator 1/2 ad J1
has matrix diag(0, J1 ) wr to the basis {J1 , P, −H} of sl(2, C) (here P is
X+ + X− , see p.75). Then we have exp(π/2 ad J1 ) = diag(1, −1, −1), since
exp(πJ1 ) equals −I , and this sends H to −H .
We now consider our general g. Let Sα be the reflection in h associated
with the root α. Recall the sub Lie algebra g(α) = ((Hα , Xα , X−α )). Put
temporarily Jα = Xα − X−α , and form the inner automorphism Aα =
exp(π/2 ad Jα ). Our computation for sl(2, C) yields Aα (Hα ) = −Hα . For
any H orthogonal to Hα , i.e. for any H with α(H) = 0 we have ad Jα (H) =
0 [from [HX±α ] = ±α(H)X±α ] and so Aα (H) = H . Thus Aα sends h to
itself and agrees on h with Sα . Now the Sα generate the Weyl group, and
Theorem A follows.
2.15 AUTOMORPHISMS 85
Together the two theorems say that the Weyl group of h consists of those
operators on h that come from the normalizer Nh of h in Int(g) (the ele-
ments that send h to itself). In addition we have
the Killing form and the induced isomorphism of h0 and h> 0 invariant) and
by the same token permutes the Weyl chambers. Since the Weyl group
is transitive on the chambers, we can, using Theorem A, find an inner
automorphism B that induces an element of the Weyl group on h and such
that the composition A0 = BA preserves the fundamental Weyl chamber
C . The next step is to show that A0 |h is in fact the identity. We note first
that the linear map A0 |h0 has a fix vector (eigenvector with eigenvalue 1)
H0 in C , e.g. the sum of the unit vectors, wr to the Killing form, along the
edges of C .
One now introduces a compact form u of g, which one can assume to
contain ih0 (see §2.10). With the scalars restricted to R one has g = u + iu.
One shows now (a long story) that the real sub Lie algebra u of g generates
a compact Lie group A in Int(g), with Lie algebra u, and that every element
of Int(g) is (uniquely) of the form k · exp(ad iY ) with k in K and Y in
u (analogous to writing any invertible complex matrix as unitary times
positive definite Hermitean – the polar decomposition). In particular the
automorphism A0 above can be so written. Now comes a lemma, which
allows one to disregard the iY -term. Note that the fix vector H0 of A0 lies
in h0 and so in iu.
Thus k lies in exp(ih0 ) (by Prop.F), and therefore it and then also A0 acts
as id on ih0 and on h.
Finally then A|h0 equals B −1 |h0 and is therefore
√ equal to an operator in
the Weyl group, establishing Theorem B.
We now want to go from Int(g) to Aut(g). The important concept here is
that of a diagram automorphism. We recall the basic Isomorphism Theo-
rem (§2.9, Cor.2). It suggests looking at the weak equivalences of the root
system ∆ of g with itself; as noted loc cit, each such equivalence extends
uniquely to an isometry of h0 with itself, and we will use both aspects in-
terchangeably. Under composition the self-equivalences form a group, a
subgroup of the group of all permutations of ∆, called the automorphism
group of ∆ and denoted by Aut(∆). It has the Weyl group as a subgroup,
in fact as a normal subgroup (the conjugate of a Weyl reflection Sα by an
element T in Aut(∆) is the reflection wr to the root T (α)). There is also
the subgroup of those elements that send the fundamental Weyl chamber
to it self, or—equivalently—permute the fundamental roots among them-
selves; it can also be interpreted as the group of automorphisms (in the
obvious sense) of the Dynkin diagram; we denote it by Aut(DD). (See
§2.13.)
Since W is simply transitive on the chambers, it is clear that Aut(∆)
is the semidirect product of W and Aut(DD), and that Aut(DD) can be
identified with the quotient group Aut(∆)/W .
The basic isomorphism theorem cited above allows us to associate with
each element of Aut(∆) an automorphism of g . However there are choices
involved, and one does not get a group of automorphisms of g this way.
This is different if one restricts oneself to Aut(DD). An element T of it
permutes the fundamental roots αi in a certain way; one gets an associ-
ated automorphism AT of g by permuting the corresponding root elements
Xi and X−i (which generate g) in the same way. It is now clear that the
map T → AT is multiplicative. The automorphisms of g so obtained from
Aut(DD) are called diagram automorphisms.
This depends of course on the choice of h and of the fundamental Weyl
chamber. However, for any two fundamental systems Φ and Φ0 we know
that there exist inner automorphisms that send Φ to Φ0 and that the map
Φ → Φ0 so obtained is unique (Propositions C, D, E, §2.11, and Theo-
rems A, B and C); thus we can identify all fundamental systems of g to
a generic fundamental system, with a corresponding generic Dynkin dia-
gram. It is easily seen that any automorphism of g induces a well-defined
automorphism of the generic fundamental system and Dynkin diagram,
and that this yields a homomorphism of Aut(g) into Aut(DD) (the latter
now interpreted as the group of automorphisms of the generic Dynkin di-
agram). Theorem C implies that the kernel of this map is precisely Int(g).
The diagram automorphisms above show that Aut(g) contains a subgroup
that maps isomorphically onto Aut(DD). We now have a good hold on the
88 2 S TRUCTURE T HEORY
Another way to put (part of) this is to say that “the group Out(g) of
outer automorphisms of g ", i.e., the quotient group Aut(g)/Int(g), can be
identified with Aut(DD).
We noted already in effect in §2.13 what Aut(DD) is for the Dynkin di-
agrams of the various simple Lie algebras: A1 , Bl , Cl , G2 , F4 , E7 , E8 admit
only the identity (and so all automorphisms of the Lie algebra are inner).
Al for l > 1, Dl for l 6= 4 and E6 admit one other automorphism (“hor-
izontal" reversal for Al and E6 , interchanging the two “ends" for Dl ), so
that Aut(DD) is Z/2; and finally D4 permits the full symmetric group S3
on three objects (the endpoints of its diagram). (The non-trivial element of
Aut(DD) is induced for sl(n, C), n > 2, by the automorphism “infinitesi-
mal contragredience", X → X 4 , and for o(2n, C) by conjugation with the
improper orthogonal matrix diag(1, . . . , 1, −1); as noted, o(8, C) has some
other outer automorphisms in addition.)
Our final topic is the so-called opposition element in the Weyl group of
any g. It is that element of the Weyl group that sends the fundamental Weyl
chamber C to its negative, −C ; we denote this element by op. Clearly, if
W contains the element −id, then op is −id. This is necessarily so for a
g with trivial Aut(DD): For g we have the contragredience automorphism
C ∨ of §2.9 (end), whose restriction to h is −id. By the results above, C ∨
is inner iff −id is in the Weyl group; and for a g with trivial Aut(DD) all
automorphisms are inner.
For Dl with even l the element −id is in W .
For Al , with l > 1, where W acts as the symmetric group on the coordinate
functions ωi , op is the permutation ωi → ωl+2−i . This sends each funda-
mental root αi = ωi − ωi+1 to ωl+2−i − ωl+1−i = −αl+1−i , and so sends the
fundamental chamber to its negative.
For Dl with odd l the opposition is given by ωi → −ωi for i = 1, . . . , l − 1
and ωl → ωl . This sends the fundamental roots αi = ωi − ωi+1 with i =
1, . . . , l − 2 to their negatives, and sends αl−1 = ωl−1 − ωl [resp αl =
ωl−1 + ωl ] to −αl [resp −αl−1 ], thus sending C to −C .
We come to E6 . First a general fact: for any root α and any weight λ the
element Sα (λ)−λ = λ(Hα )α lies in the root lattice R (see §3.1); it follows,
using the invariance of R under W , that S(λ) − λ lies in R for any S in W .
We use this to show that −id is not in the Weyl group of E6 ; namely, for
the fundamental weight λ1 (see §3.5)the element −id(λ1 ) − λ1 = −2λ1 =
−2/3 · (4ω1 + ω2 + · · · + ω6 ) is not in R.
In all three cases we have op 6= −id, −id is not in the Weyl group, −op
gives a non trivial element of Aut(DD), and C ∨ is not an inner automor-
phism.
3
Representations
establish our claim; it also follows that the numbers ai hαi , αi i/hα, αi are
(non-negative) integers.
We regard the Weyl group W as an abstract group, associated to g, which
acts on h>
0 (with the original definition of §2.6) and also on h0 with the con-
tragredient (transposed-inverse) action. Thus we have Sλ(H) = λ(S −1 H)
for S in W , λ in h>
0 , and H in h0 . Since the inner products in h0 and h0
>
are compatible (|α| = |hα |), the action on h0 is also orthogonal, and in par-
ticular each Sα acts as reflection across the singular plane (α, 0) = {H :
α(H) = 0} (cf.§2.11). The formula for this is Sα (H) = H − α(H)Hα .
We recall that the union over ∆ of these singular planes is the infinites-
imal Cartan-Stiefel diagram D0 of g (in h0 ). It divides h0 into the Weyl
chambers. The fundamental Weyl chamber C consists of all the H in h0
for which the values αi (H), or equivalently the hHi , Hi, or again all the
α(H) with α in ∆+ , are positive. Similarly the fundamental Weyl chamber
C > in h>
0 consists of the λ with all λ(Hi ) positive. The Weyl chambers are
cones, of the linear kind described in the Appendix. The walls of the fun-
damental chamber lie in the planes orthogonal to the Hi (in h0 ), resp. the
αi (in h>
0 ). (As examples see the figures for the cases A2 , B2 , G2 in §3.5.)
Now for (c): Let Q(= W · c) denote the set described in (c). Since the
closed cells cover h0 , it follows from (b) that each point of h0 can be trans-
lated into Q by a suitable element of T . On the other hand, Prop.D implies
that for any point H in Q and any root α we have |α(H)| ≤ 1; i.e., Q is
contained in the strip {H : |α(H)| ≤ 1}. Suppose now that H and H 0 are
two points in Q that are equivalent under T , so that H − H 0 = t(6= 0) is
in T . Lemma E provides a root α with α(t) ≥ 2. But then we must have
α(H) = −α(H 0 ) = 1, so that both H and H 0 lie on the boundary of the
strip associated with α, and so also on the boundary of Q. Thus Q has the
properties required of a fundamental domain for T .
√
Finally (d) is immediate from (a).
Remark to (c): One sees easily that the set Q is the intersection, over ∆,
of all the strips described. But for some α the strip may contain Q in its
interior (e.g. for the short roots of G2 ), and for some α the intersection of
Q with the boundary of the strip may be (non-empty and) of dimension
less than l − 1 (e.g., for the short roots of B2 ). This corresponds to the
fact that in general the roots that occur as maximal roots wr to some weak
order form a proper subset of ∆.
If α, β, γ are in ∆+ , then
(**)
X γ · Z −α,−β = Z −α,−β · X γ + Nγ,−α · Z γ−α,−β + Nγ,−β Z −α,γ−β .
Z αβ · X −γ
=X α · X β X −γ − X β · X α X −γ − Nαβ X α+β X −γ
=X α · X −γ X β + Nβ,−γ X β−γ − X β X −γ X α +
Nα,−γ X α−γ − Nαβ X −γ X α+β + Nα+β,−γ X α+β−γ
= X −γ X α + Nα,−γ X α−γ X β + Nβ,−γ X α X β−γ
− X −γ X β + Nβ,−γ X β−γ X α − Nα,−γ X β X α−γ
− Nαβ X −γ X α+β − Nαβ Nα+β,−γ X α+β−γ .
We can now prove Lemma A: We apply (∗) and (∗∗), and also the rela-
tions X θ X −η = X −η X θ +X θ,−η (i.e., Z θ,−η = 0) for θ, η > 0, to the vector
in the lemma, in order to shift all factors X δ and X with δi or j < 0 all
the way to the left, in the case α, β > 0, or to shift the X δ and X with δi
or j > 0 all the way to the right, in the case α, β < 0.
These shifts introduce additional, similar (with other Z ’s), but shorter
terms (i.e., smaller s or t) , which are 0 by induction assumption. After
the shifts have been completed, the term is 0: In case α, β > 0 it must
begin with at least one X −γ ; but v is not in the image space of any such
3.3 U NIQUENESS AND EXISTENCE 101
P ROPOSITION B.
(a) Γϕ commutes with all operators ϕ(X);
(b) tr (Γϕ ) = dim a = dim g − dim ker ϕ.
The key to complete reducibility is the next result, known as JHC White-
head’s first lemma. (“The cohomology space H 1 (g, V ) is 0.")
(Note that for given v the function X → Xv satisfies the relation that
appears in Proposition D, which is thus a necessary condition.)
We have now finished the proof of the main result, Theorems F and G of
§3.2, existence and uniqueness of the irrep to prescribed dominant weight
λ.
One might of course consider reps of real semisimple Lie algebras.
Complex representations are the same as those of the complexification;
so there is nothing new. We shall not go into the considerations needed for
classifying real, real-irreducible reps. Complete reduction goes through
for real reps almost exactly as in the complex case. The only difference is
that the Casimir operator for an irrep is not necessarily scalar (as in Corol-
lary C); it is however still non-0 (since its trace is not 0) and thus invertible
(by Schur’s lemma), and that is enough for the argument.
3.5 C ARTAN SEMIGROUP ; REPRESENTATION RING 105
and product. To get an actual ring out of this, one introduces the represen-
tation ring, also character ring or Grothendieck ring of virtual represen-
tations Rg:
Write [ϕ] for the equivalence class of the rep ϕ. The additive group of
Rg is simply the universal (Abelian) group attached to the additive group
of D (cf. Z and N): We consider pairs ([ϕ], [ψ]) of representation classes
(which eventually will become differences [ϕ] − [ψ]), with componentwise
addition, and call two pairs ([ϕ], [ψ]), ([ϕ0 ], [ψ 0 ]) eqivalent if ϕ ⊕ ψ 0 is equiv-
alent to ϕ0 ⊕ ψ . Then Rg, additively, is the set of equivalence classes of
these pairs, with the induced addition. The tensor product of reps induces
a product in Rg, under which it becomes a (commutative) ring. (The triv-
ial rep becomes the unit.) One writes [ϕ] for ([ϕ], [0]) (in Rg); ([0], [ψ]) then
becomes −[ψ], ([ϕ], [ψ]) becomes [ϕ] − [ψ], and [ϕ ⊕ ψ] equals [ϕ] + [ψ].
(It is because of the appearance of minus signs that one speaks of virtual
representations. An integral-linear combination of reps represents 0 if the
direct sum of the terms with positive coefficients is equivalent to that of
the terms with negative coefficients.) (Note: We used tacitly that complete
reduction implies cancelation; i.e., ϕ ⊕ ψ1 ≈ ϕ ⊕ ψ2 implies ψ1 ≈ ψ2 .
Otherwise one would have to define equivalence of pairs by: there exists
χ with ϕ ⊕ ψ 0 ⊕ χ ≈ ϕ0 ⊕ ψ ⊕ χ.)
For an alternate description, write (temporarily) F for the free Abelian
group generated by the set D and let N be the subgroup of F generated by
all elements of the form [ϕ ⊕ ψ] − [ϕ] − [ψ]; then the additive group of Rg
is by definition the quotient group F/N , and multiplication is induced by
the tensor product. Equivalence of the two definitions comes, e.g., from
the universal property: Every additive map of D into any Abelian group A
extends uniquely to a homomorphism of Rg into A. One also sees easily
that additively Rg is a free Abelian group with the set g∧ of (classes of)
irreps as basis. (g∧ generates Rg by the complete reducibility theorem. The
map of F that sends each rep into the sum of its irreducible constituents
vanishes on N and thus factors through Rg, and shows that there are no
linear relations between the elements of g∧ in Rg.)
Consider two irreps ϕ and ϕ0 of g, on vector spaces V and V 0 , with
extreme weights λ and λ0 . The tensor product rep ϕ ⊗ ϕ0 of g, on V ⊗ V 0 ,
is not necessarily irreducible (in fact, it is almost always reducible). (Note
that as a rep of g ⊕ g it would be irreducible, but that in effect we are
restricting this rep to the “diagonal" sub Lie algebra of g⊕g, the set of pairs
(X, X).) By complete reducibility it splits then into a certain number of
irreps. In §3.8 we shall give a “formula" for this splitting (cf. the Clebsch-
Gordan series of §1.12); but for the moment we have a less ambitious goal.
Let v, v 0 be weight vectors of ϕ, ϕ0 , with weights ρ, ρ0 ; it is clear from
the definition of ϕ ⊗ ϕ0 that v ⊗ v 0 is weight vector of ϕ ⊗ ϕ0 , with weight
ρ + ρ0 , and that one gets all weight vectors and weights of ϕ ⊗ ϕ0 this
way. In particular, since λ and λ0 have multiplicity 1, λ + λ0 is the unique
maximal weight of ϕ ⊗ ϕ0 (thus extreme) and it has multiplicity 1. This
3.6 T HE SIMPLE L IE ALGEBRAS 107
In other words, the ϕi generate Rg, and there are no linear relations
between the various monomials in the ϕi . For the obvious natural homo-
morphism Ψ of the polynomial ring into Rg we first prove surjectivity by
induction wr to the order in h> 0 . Let λ = Σni λi be a dominant weight, and
assume that all the elements of g∧ with smaller extreme weight are in the
image of Ψ.
We form ϕn1 1 ⊗ · · · ⊗ ϕnl l (the exponents are meant in the sense of tensor
product), the Ψ-image of the monomial ϕn1 1 . . . ϕnl l in the polynomial ring.
By the discussion above this is the sum of the irrep ϕλ belonging to λ and
other terms that belong to lower extreme weights. √ Since all the other terms
belong to the image of Ψ already, so does ϕλ .
Vr
V = V ∧ V ∧ · · · ∧ V . (In more detail: ϕ ∧ ϕ(X) sends v ∧ w to Xv ∧
w + v ∧ Xw.) If ρ1 , ρ2 , . . . are the weights of ϕ (possibly with repetitions),
with weight vectors v1 , v2 , . . . , then the ρi + ρj with i < j are the weights
Vrϕ ∧ ϕ, with the vi ∧ vj as weight vectors; more generally the weights on
of
V are the sums ρi1 + ρi2 + · · · + ρir with i1 < i2 < · · · < ir and with the
corresponding products vi1 ∧ vi2 ∧ · · · ∧ vir as weight vectors. As usual we
write ei for the i−th coordinate vector in Rn or Cn (thus e1 = (1, 0, . . . , 0)
etc.), and ωi for the i−th coordinate function. — An analogous description
holds for the induced rep on the symmetric products S r V .
1) Al , sl(l + 1, C).
(Recall the restriction ω1 + ω2 + · · · + ωl+1 = 0 for h; elements of h> are
linear combinations of ω1 , . . . , ωl+1 modulo the term Σl+1
1 ωi .)
H1 = e1 − e2 , H2 = e2 − e3 , . . . , Hl = el − el+1 .
λ1 = ω1 , λ2 = ω1 + ω2 , . . . , λl = ω1 + ω2 + · · · + ωl .
δ = l · ω1 + (l − 1) · ω2 + · · · + 1 · ωl .
ϕ1 = sl(l + 1, C) = the representation of sl(l + 1, C) “by itself", = Λ1 in
V2 Vl
short, ϕ2 = sl(l + 1, C) = Λ2 , . . . , ϕl = sl(l + 1, C) = Λl .
T : The H = (a1 , a2 , , , , al+1 ) with all coordinates ai integral (and of course
Σai = 0).
Z : The H such that for some integer k all ai are congruent to k/l + 1 mod 1
(and Σai = 0).
Z/T = Z/l + 1 (the cyclic group of order l + 1).
I d (the dominant forms): the forms λ = Σl1 fi ωi with integral fi satisfying
f1 ≥ f2 ≥ · · · ≥ fl ≥ 0.
To justify these statements we recall that the Killing form on h is the
restriction to the subspace ω1 +· · ·+ωl+1 = 0 of Cl+1 of the usual Euclidean
form Σl+1 2
1 ωi , up to a factor. Therefore the root vector h12 corresponding
to the root α12 = ω1 − ω2 is certainly proportional to e1 − e2 ; and since the
latter vector has the correct value 2 on α12 , it is the coroot H12 .
The λi exhibited are clearly the dual basis to the Hi ; we have λi (Hj ) =
δij . The conditions that define I d simply say that the values λ(Hi ) are
non-negative integers. Note that λ in reality is of the form Σl+1 1 fi ωi and
is defined only mod Σl+1 1 ω i , and that in effect we have normalized λ by
putting fl+1 = 0.
The weights of Λ1 are the ωi , i = 1, 2, . . . , l + 1, since h consists of the
diagonal matrices (of trace 0). The weights of Λr are the ωi1 +ωi2 +· · ·+ωir
with 1 ≤ i1 < i2 < · · · < ir ≤ l + 1. This is the orbit of λr under the
Weyl group (all permutations of the coordinates). Since the irrep ϕr to
λr as extreme weight must have all these as weights, it follows that Λr
is ϕr . That T is as described is fairly clear from the form of the Hi . For
Z note that all roots ωi − ωj are integral on an H in Z ; i.e., all ai are
congruent to each other mod 1 (and Σai = 0). For Z/T : The vector v1 =
3.6 T HE SIMPLE L IE ALGEBRAS 109
2) Bl , = o(2l + 1, C).
H1 = e1 − e2 , . . . , Hl−1 = el−1 − el , Hl = 2el .
λ1 = ω1 , λ2 = ω1 + ω2 , . . . , λl−1 = ω1 + ω2 + · · · + ωl−1 , λl = 1/2(ω1 + ω2 +
· · · + ωl ).
δ = (l − 1/2)ω1 + (l − 3/2)ω2 + · · · + 1/2ωl
V2
ϕ1 = o(2l + 1, C) = Λ1 , ϕ2 = ϕ1 = Λ2 , . . . , ϕl−1 = Λl−1 ; finally ϕl
corresponding to the “unusual" weight λl , is a quite “non-obvious" rep-
resentation, called the spin representation and denoted by ∆l or just ∆,
of dimension 2l as we shall see in the next section. (The proper algebraic
construction for the spin rep is through Clifford algebras.)
T : The H with integral coordinates ai and even Σai .
Z : The H with all ai integral.
Z/T = Z/2; e1 is a representative of the non-trivial element.
I d consists of the forms λ = Σl1 fi ωi with f1 ≥ f2 ≥ · · · ≥ fl ≥ 0, all
fi integral, or all fi half-integral (i.e., congruent to 1/2 mod 1). (These
conditions express again the integrality of the λ(Hi ).)
3) Cl , = sp(l, C).
H1 = e1 − e2 , . . . , Hl−1 = el−1 − el , Hl = el .
λi = ω1 + ω2 + · · · + ωi for i = 1, 2, . . . , l.
δ = l · ω1 + (l − 1) · ω2 + · · · + ωl .
110 3 R EPRESENTATIONS
ϕ1 is again Λ1 , = sp(l, C) itself, on C2l . For the other ϕi : The basic 2-form
Vi Vi−2
Ω of C2l maps C2l onto C2l (“inner product” or contraction, dual
Vi−2 Vi
2l >
to the map (C ) to (C2l )> by exterior product with Ω). Since
Ω is invariant under sp(l, C), the map is equivariant, and its kernel is an
Vi
invariant subspace. The restriction Λi of ϕ1 to this kernel is ϕi , for i =
2, . . . , l. (With coordinates: Represent Ω by the skew matrix [ars ]; a skew
tensor tu1 u2 ...um goes to ars tu1 u2 ...um−2 rs .)
T : The H with all ai integral
Z : The H with all ai integral or all half-integral (≡ 1/2 mod 1)
Z/T = Z/2.
I d consists of the Σfi ωi with fi integral, f1 ≥ f2 ≥ · · · ≥ fl ≥ 0.
4) Dl , = o(2l, C).
H1 = e1 − e2 , . . . , Hl−1 = el−1 − el , Hl = el−1 + el .
λi = ω1 + ω2 + · · · + ωi for 1 ≤ i ≤ l − 2,
λl−1 = 1/2(ω1 + ω2 + · · · + ωl−1 − ωl ), λl = 1/2(ω1 + ω2 + · · · + ωl−1 + ωl ).
δ = (l − 1)ω1 + (l − 2)ω2 + · · · + ωl−1 .
V2 Vl−2
ϕ1 = o(2l, C) = Λ1 , ϕ2 = ϕ1 = Λ2 , . . . , ϕl−2 = ϕ1 = Λl−2 .
In addition there are two non-obvious irreps, called the negative and pos-
itive half-spin representations, ϕl−1 = ∆− +
l and ϕl = ∆l ; both are of di-
l−1
mension 2 , as we shall see in the next section. (Again the proper context
is Clifford algebras.)
T : The H with integral ai and even Σai .
Z : The H with all ai integral or all ai half-integral.
Z/T = Z/4 for odd l, Z/2 ⊕ Z/2 for even l.
The point P = (1/2, 1/2, . . . , 1/2) is a representative for a generator for
odd l; P and Q = (1/2, 1/2, . . . , 1/2, −1/2) are representatives for the gen-
erators of the two Z/2Z’s for even l.
I d consists of the Σfi ωi with the fi all integral or all half-integral and
f1 ≥ f2 ≥ · · · ≥ fl−1 ≥ |fl |. (Note the absolutevalue.)
5) G2 .
H1 = (1, −1, 0), H2 = (−1, 2, −1).
λ1 = ω1 − ω3 , λ2 = ω1 + ω2 . (Recall ω1 + ω2 + ω3 = 0.)
δ = 3ω1 + 2ω2 .
ϕ1 has dimension 14; it is the adjoint representation. ϕ2 has dimension 7; it
identifies G2 with the Lie algebra of derivations of the (eight-dimensional
algebra of) Cayley numbers, or rather with its complexification (see [12]).
T : The H = (a1 , a2 , a3 ) with integral ai and a1 + a2 + a3 = 0.
Z=T
Z/T = 0.
3.6 T HE SIMPLE L IE ALGEBRAS 111
I d : The Σfi ωi with the differences between the fi integral and with f1 ≥
f2 , 2f2 ≥ f1 + f3 . (Or, making use of ω1 + ω2 + ω3 = 0, the f1 ω1 + f2 ω2
with f1 and f2 integral and 2f2 ≥ f1 ≥ f2 .)
6) F4 .
H1 = e1 − e2 − e3 − e4 , H2 = 2e4 , H3 = e3 − e4 , H4 = e2 − e3 .
λ1 = ω1 , λ2 = 1/2(3ω1 + ω2 + ω3 + ω4 ), λ3 = 2ω1 + ω2 + ω3 , λ4 = ω1 + ω2 .
δ = 1/2(11ω1 + 5ω2 + 3ω3 + ω4 ).
Center lattice Z : The H with integral ai and even Σai .
T = Z.
Z/T trivial.
I d : The Σfi ωi with the fi all integral or all half-integral, and with f2 ≥
f3 ≥ f4 ≥ 0 and f1 ≥ f2 + f3 + f4 .
7) E6 .
(h as described in §2.14.)
H1 = e1 − e2 , . . . , H5 = e5 − e6 , H6 = 1/3(−e1 − e2 − e3 + 2e4 + 2e5 + 2e6 ).
λ1 = 1/3(4ω1 + ω2 + · · · + ω6 ), λ2 = 1/3(5ω1 + 5ω2 + 2ω3 + · · · + 2ω6 ),
λ3 = 2(ω1 + ω2 + ω3 ) + ω4 + ω5 + ω6 , λ4 = 4/3(ω1 + · · · + ω4 ) + 1/3(ω5 + ω6 ),
λ5 = 2/3(ω1 + · · · + ω5 ) − 1/3ω6 , λ6 = ω1 + · · · + ω6 .
δ = 8ω1 + 7ω2 + 6ω3 + 5ω4 + 4ω5 + 3ω6 .
Center lattice Z : The H with ai , i > 0, all integral or all ≡ 1/3 mod 1 or
all ≡ 2/3 mod 1.
Coroot lattice T : The sublattice of Z with 4a1 + a2 + · · · + a6 ≡ 0 mod 3.
Z/T = Z/3. A representative for a generator is e1 .
I d : The Σ61 fi ωi with 3fi integral, all differences fi − fj integral, f1 + f2 +
f3 − 2(f4 + f5 + f6 ) integral and divisible by 3, f1 ≥ f2 ≥ · · · ≥ f6 and
f1 + f2 + f3 ≤ 2(f4 + f5 + f6 ).
8) E7 .
(h as described in §2.14.)
H1 = e1 − e2 , . . . , H6 = e6 − e7 , H7 = 1/3(−e1 − · · · − e4 + 2e5 + 2e6 + 2e7 ).
λ1 = 1/2(3ω1 + ω2 + · · · + ω7 ), λ2 = 2(ω1 + ω2 ) + ω3 + · · · + ω7 , λ3 =
5/2(ω1 +ω2 +ω3 )+3/2(ω4 +· · ·+ω7 ), λ4 = 3(ω1 +· · ·+ω4 )+2(ω5 +ω6 +ω7 ),
λ5 = 2(ω1 + · · · + ω5 ) + ω6 + ω7 , λ6 = ω1 + · · · + ω6 , λ7 = 3/2(ω1 + · · · + ω7 ).
δ = 1/2(27ω1 + 25ω2 + 23ω3 + 21ω4 + 19ω5 + 17ω6 + 15ω7 ).
Center lattice Z : The H with ai , all integral or all ≡ 1/3 mod 1 or all
≡ 2/3 mod 1.
Coroot lattice T : The sublattice of Z with 3a1 + a2 + · · · + a7 ≡ 0 mod 2.
Z/T = Z/2. A representative for the generator is e1 .
112 3 R EPRESENTATIONS
I d : The Σ71 fi ωi with the fi all integral or all half-integral, 2Σ71 fi divisible
by 3, f1 ≥ f2 ≥ · · · ≥ f7 and f1 + f2 + f3 + f4 ≤ 2(f5 + f6 + f7 ).
9) E8 .
P9
(Subspace 1 ωi = 0 of C9 as in §2.14.)
H1 = e1 −e2 , . . . , H7 = e7 −e8 , H8 = 1/3(−e1 −· · ·−e5 +2e6 +2e7 +2e8 −e9 )
λi = ω1 + · · · + ωi − iω9 for 1 ≤ i ≤ 5. λ6 = 2/3(ω1 + · · · + ω6 ) − 1/3(ω7 +
ω8 ) − 10/3ω9 , λ7 = 1/3(ω1 + · · · + ω7 ) − 2/3ω8 − 5/3ω9 , λ8 = 1/3(ω1 + · · · +
ω8 ) − 8/3ω9 .
δ = 1/3(19ω1 + 16ω2 + 13ω3 + 10ω4 + 7ω5 + 4ω6 + ω7 − 2ω8 − 68ω9 ).
Center lattice Z : The H with the ai all integral or all ≡ 1/3 mod 1 or all
≡ 2/3 mod 1, and ai = 0.
Coroot lattice T = Z .
Z/T trivial.
I d : The Σ91 fi ωi with the fi all integral or all ≡ 1/3 mod 1 or all ≡ 2/3 mod
1, Σfi = 0, f1 ≥ f2 ≥ · · · ≥ f8 and f6 + f7 + f8 ≥ 0.
(In the second
P picture for E8 , with h = C8 , we have
H1 = 1/2 ei , H2 = −e1 − e2 , H3 = e2 − e3 , H4 = e1 − e2 , H5 = e3 −
e4 , H6 = e4 − e5 , H7 = e5 − e6 , H8 = e6 − e7 . λ1 = 2ω8 , λ2 = 1/2(−ω1 −
ω2 − · · · − ω7 + 7ω8 ), λ3 = −ω3 − · · · − ω7 + 5ω8 , λ4 = 1/2(ω1 − ω2 − ω3 −
· · · − ω7 + 5ω8 ), λ5 = −ω4 − · · · − ω7 + 4ω8 , λ6 = −ω5 − ω6 − ω7 + 3ω8 , λ7 =
P7
−ω6 − ω7 + 2ω8 , λ8 = −ω7 + ω8 . δ = − 1 (i − 1)ωi + 23ω8 .
Center lattice Z , = coroot lattice T : The Σai ei with the ai all ≡ 0 or all
8
≡ 1/2 mod
P 1 and the sum Σ1 ai an even integer.
d
P
I : The fi ωi with the fi all integral or all ≡ 1/2 mod 1 and fi even.)
For h>0 the points marked form the lattice R, and the points marked
form the lattice I ; the vectors marked α and β form a fundamental system
of roots.
For h0 , the points marked form T , the points marked
form Z ; the
vectors marked α and β are the coroots Hβ and Hα (in that order!; a long
root corresponds to a short coroot).
The fundamental Weyl chamber is shaded. The fundamental weights (in
h>
0 ) are the two points nearest the origin on the edges of the fundamental
Weyl chamber. Their sum is the element δ .
Note that for G2 one has R = I and T = Z .
3.6 T HE SIMPLE L IE ALGEBRAS 113
A2
Figure 3
There exists a quite different path to the representations of the classical
Lie algebras (see H.Weyl, [25]): For Al , e.g., one starts with the “lowest”
representation Λ1 , sl(l + 1, C) itself, forms tensor powers (Λ1 )n with ar-
bitrary n, and decomposes them into irreducible subspaces by symmetry
operators; this yields all the irreps.
114 3 R EPRESENTATIONS
B2
Figure 4
(NB: There are of course the two subspaces of the symmetric tensors
and of the skew symmetric tensors; but there are many others.) For the
other Lie algebras, Bl , Cl , Dl , one also has to put certain traces (wr to the
inner or exterior product) equal to 0. (However the spin reps and the other
reps of o(n, C) with half-integral fi do not arise this way.)
3.6 T HE SIMPLE L IE ALGEBRAS 115
G2
Figure 5
116 3 R EPRESENTATIONS
The rep ϕ then has its weights ρ1 , ρ2 , . . . , with the associated weight vec-
tors v1 , v2 , . . . in V . For each H in h the operator exp(ϕ(H)) is now diago-
nal, with diagonal entries exp(ρr (H)). The character, i.e. the trace, is then
of the form Σmρ exp(ρ(H)), where the sum goes over the weights of ϕ and
the mρ are the multiplicities. We make one more modification by intro-
ducing a factor 2πi, and define the character χϕ or just χ of ϕ as the trace
of exp(2πiϕ(H)), as function of H . [It makes sense to restrict oneself to h,
since any representation is determined - up to equivalence - by its weights,
which are functions on h. It is of course implicit that all the results below
do not depend on the choice of the Cartan sub Lie algebra h.]
To repeat, the character of ϕ is the C-valued function on h given by
H → Σmρ exp(2πiρ(H)), the sum going over I . As a matter of fact, we
will consider only the H in h0 (in part the reason for this is that we can
write exp(2πiϕ(H) as exp(2πϕ(iH)), and that ih0 is the Cartan sub Lie
algebra of the compact form of g, cf. §2.10 ).
The main reason for the factor 2πi is that then the character, in fact
every term exp(2πiρ(H)) in it, takes the same value at any two H ’s whose
difference lies in the coroot lattice T , since the ρ’s are integral forms. In
other words, χ is a periodic function on h0 , with the elements of T as
periods. As usual, when dealing with functions that are periodic wr to a
lattice such as T , one considers Fourier series, with terms cρ exp(2πiρ(H)),
where the ρ run over the dual lattice in the dual space - which here is of
course just the lattice I of weights in h> 0 . We see that χ is in fact a finite
Fourier series. We describe this a bit differently: We form the quotient
group h0 /T and denote it by T. [It is isomorphic to the l-dimensional torus,
i.e. Rl modulo the lattice of integral vectors, direct sum of l copies of R/Z.
We note without proof or even explanation that T represents a maximal
torus of the compact simply-connected Lie group associated to g.]
Each function exp ◦2πiρ on h0 , with ρ in I , is a (continuous) homomor-
phism of h0 into the unit circle U = {z : |z| = 1} in C. It has the lattice
T in its kernel, and so induces a homomorphism of T into U ; in the usual
language for Abelian groups this is also called a character of T (a slightly
different use of the word character). We take it as well known that we get
all characters of T that way.
We write eρ for exp ◦2πiρ, as function on h0 (which makes sense for all
ρ in h>0 ) or on T. The confusion with the earlier abstract symbols eρ is
intentional: The functions eρ satisfy the law eρ · eσ = eρ+σ , with point-
wise multiplication on the left, and the assignment “symbol eρ → function
eρ ” sets up an isomorphism of I with the character group (or Pontrya-
gin dual) of T, and also an isomorphism of the integral group ring ZI of
I with the ring G of (C-valued continuous) functions on T generated by
the characters eρ (the character ring or representation ring of T). [One
needs to know the - easily proved - fact that the eρ are linearly indepen-
dent as functions on T.] The algebraic structure of G ≈ ZI is described
118 3 R EPRESENTATIONS
by the formula Z[eλ1 , (eλ1 )−1 , eλ2 , (eλ2 )−2 , . . . , eλl , (eλl )−l ]. It is fairly ob-
vious, either from this structure or from the interpretation as functions on
T that G is an integral domain (has no zero-divisors).
The two definitions for χ above, as element of ZI or as element of G ,
agree of course under the isomorphism of the two rings. In both cases we
have χ = Σmρ eρ . As noted in the beginning, our aim is Weyl’s formula for
χ, and its consequences.
To begin with, the Weyl group W acts on h> 0 and on I , and thus also
(as ring automorphisms) on ZI ; the formula is Seρ = eSρ . [In the function
picture, i.e. for G, this means Seρ (H) = eρ (S −1 H).] An element a = Σaρ eρ
of G is called symmetric if Sa equals a for all S in W , and antisymmetric or
skew if Sa equals det S ·a for all S in W . (Note that det S is 1 (resp −1) if S
preserves (resp reverses) orientation of h0 .) The symmetric elements form
a subring of G ; the product of a symmetric and a skew element is skew. It
is important that the character of any rep is symmetric, by Theorem B (d)
of §3.2.
For any ρ in I the sum of the elements of the orbit W · eρ is a symmet-
ric element. Just as easy and more important is the construction of skew
elements: for ρ in I we put Aρ = ΣW det S · Seρ = ΣW det S · eSρ . (The ex-
pression ΣW det S · S , an element of the integral group ring of W , is called
the alternation operator.) The element Aρ is skew: For any T in W we
have T Aρ = Σ det S · eT Sρ = det T · Σ det T S · eT Sρ = det T · Σ det S · eSρ =
det T · Aρ (we used the standard fact that T S runs once over W if S does).
Note also T ·Aρ = AT ρ by T ·Aρ = Σ det S ·T Seρ = Σ det S ·T ST −1 ·T eρ =
Σ det S · SeT ρ = AT ρ (we used det S = det T ST −1 and the fact that T ST −1
also runs once over W if S does so).
P ROPOSITION A.
(a) The element Aρ is 0 if ρ is singular, i.e., lies on the infinitesimal
Cartan-Stiefel diagram D0 (of h> 0 );
(b) For the other ρ there is exactly one eσ from each Weyl chamber in
Aρ , with coefficient ±1.
Part (b) is immediate from the definition of Aρ . For (a) suppose we have
hρ, αi √
= 0 for some root α. Then Sα ρ equals ρ, and so Aρ = ASρ = Sα ·Aρ =
−Aρ .
The third product has to be understood properly. The terms eα/2 and
e−α/2 do not make sense as elements of G (i.e., as functions on T = h0 /T ),
but they do make sense as functions (exponentials) on h0 (or, if one wants,
on the torus h0 /2T ; equivalently one could consider the integral group ring
of the lattice 1/2I or adjoin suitable square roots algebraically).
That the three products are equal comes from the fact that δ is one half
the sum of all positive roots (Proposition B, §3.1); notice eα/2 − e−α/2 =
eα/2 (1 − e−α ) = e−α/2 (eα − 1). We must show that they equal Aδ . The
third product is antisymmetric, as follows from the formula det S = (−1)r ,
where r = rS is the number of positive roots sent to negative ones by S
(§2.11, Corollary F); it is thus an integral linear combination of terms Aρ
with ρ in I 0 . Multiplying out the first product and collecting terms we
see that eδ appears with coefficient 1, since all other terms correspond to
weights of the form δ − Σα with positive α’s, which are lower than and
different from δ . It is also clear that there is no other term than eδ itself
that comes from I 0 , since δ is already the lowest element of I 0 . But a sum
0
of A√ρ ’s that has exactly the term eδ coming form I must of course be just
Aδ .
Let now λ be a dominant weight and let ϕλ or just ϕ be the irrep (unique
up to equivalence) with λ as extreme weight, operating on the vector space
V ; denote its character by χλ . We can now finally state Weyl’s character
formula, an important formula with many consequences [22].
Note that the right-hand side is easy to write down (if one knows the
Weyl group and δ ), that it is fairly simple (except for being a quotient), and
that one needs to know only the extreme weight λ, not the representation
ϕλ .
The formula holds in the group ring G . It says that Aλ+δ is divisible in
G by Aδ and that the result is χλ . Another way to say this is that the re-
lation χλ · Aδ = Aλ+δ holds in G ; it determines χλ uniquely, in terms of
Aλ+δ and Aδ , since G has no zero-divisors. One can also interpret the three
terms of the formula as functions on T or h0 . There is some difficulty of
course, since the denominator Aδ has lots of zeros. One can either rewrite
the formula again as χλ · Aδ = Aλ+δ , or take the point of view that the
function given by the quotient on the set where Aδ is not 0 extends, be-
cause of some miraculous cancelation of zeros, to the whole space, and
the extended function is χλ .
Before we enter into the fairly long proof, we describe a simple example,
namely the representations Ds of A1 (cf.§1.11). Here a Cartan sub Lie
120 3 R EPRESENTATIONS
and
Aδ = exp(2πi · r) − exp(2πi · −r) = a − a−1 .
We see that Weyl’s formula reduces to the usual formula for the geometric
series.
All these operators commute, and one verifies dH0 eρ = ρ(H0 )eρ for any ρ
in h>0 . Let A1 , A2 , . . . , Al and B1 , B2 , . . . , Bl be any two dual bases of h0
(and h) wr to the Killing form (so that hAi , Bj i = δij ). We define the
Laplace operator L as the sum ΣdAi ◦ dBi (this is independent of the
choice of dual bases), and construct the bilinear operator ∇ by the rela-
tion L(f g) = Lf · g + 2∇(f, g) + f · Lg . Explicitly we have ∇(f, g) =
ΣdAi f · dBi g + dBi f · dAi g . We note that ∇ is symmetric, vanishes if f or
g is constant, and that it has the derivation property
Finally we have Leρ = hρ, ρieρ and ∇(eρ , eσ ) = hρ, σieρ+σ (this uses
Σi ρ(Ai ) · ρ(Bi ) = hρ, ρi, which in turn comes from the duality of the bases
{Ai } and {Bi }).
We recall the
√ root elements Xα , for α in ∆ (§§2.4,2.5). We modify them
to xα = |α|/ 2Xα ; the factors are chosen to have hxα , x−α i = 1. Then
{Ai , xα } and {Bi , x−α } are dual bases for g wr to the Killing form. We
define the Casimir operator Γ of ϕ as Σϕ(Ai ) ◦ ϕ(Bi ) + Σ∆ ϕ(xα ) ◦ ϕ(x−α ).
(Again this is independent of any choices involved.)
3.7 T HE W EYL CHARACTER FORMULA 121
This is not quite the Casimir operator of ϕ as defined in §3.4 (we are now
using κ on g and not tϕ on a); nevertheless the same computation shows
that the new Γ commutes also with all ϕ(X) for X in g and is therefore,
by Schur’s lemma, a scalar operator γ id. (We show below that γ equals
hλ, λi + 2hλ, δi.)
In V we have the weight spaces Vρ ; we know the basic fact that ϕ(xα )
maps Vρ into Vρ+α . Then ϕ(xα ) ◦ ϕ(x−α ) and ϕ(x−α ) ◦ ϕ(xα ) both map Vρ
into itself; we write tα,ρ and t0α,ρ for the corresponding traces. There are
two relations that are important for the proof of Weyl’s formula.
L EMMA D.
(a) mρ · hα, ρi = tα,ρ − ta,ρ+α for all weights ρ of ϕ and all roots α.
(b) Σα tα,ρ + mρ · hρ, ρi = mρ · γ for each weight ρ.
Proof: (a) The symmetry relation tr AB = tr BA holds for any two linear
transformations A and B that go in opposite directions between two vector
spaces. Applied to ϕ(xα ) and ϕ(x−α) on Vρ and Vρ+α this yields t0α,ρ =
tα,ρ+α . The relation [Xα X−α ] = Hα gives [ϕ(xα ), ϕ(x−α )] = hα, αi/2 ·
ϕ(Hα ); on Vρ this operator is scalar with eigenvalue hα, αi/2 · ρ(Hα ) =
hα, ρi. Taking the trace on Vρ gives the result.
(b) On Vρ the eigenvalue of ϕ(Ai ) ◦ ϕ(Bi ) is ρ(Ai ) · ρ(Bi ); the√sum of these
values is hρ, ρi. Taking the trace of Γ on Vρ gives the result.
Proof: We have L(Aδ ·χλ ) = LAδ ·χλ +2∇(Aδ , χλ )+Aδ ·Lχλ . The proper-
ties of L listed above and the invariance of h, i under the Weyl group imply
the relation LAδ = hδ, δiAδ . From χλ = Σmρ eρ we get Lχλ = Σmρ hρ, ρieρ .
Substituting for mρ · hρ, ρi from Lemma D,(b), we obtain:
the equation Aδ ·χλ = Aλ+δ . Using the factorization Aδ = e−δ ·Πα>0 (eα −1)
and differentiating out (Leibnitz’s rule) one sees that for H = 0 the relation
d(Aδ · χλ )(0) = dAδ (0) · χλ (0) holds. Thus dλ is the quotient of dAλ+δ (0)
and dAδ (0). From dhα eρ = ρ(hα )eρ = hρ, αieρ we find deδ (0) = Πα>0 hδ, αi.
Similarly we get deSδ (0) = Πα>0 hSδ, αi = Πα>0 hδ, S −1 αi. Now some of
the S −1 α are negative roots; from §2.11, Corollary F we see that the last
product is exactly det S · Πα>0 hδ, αi. Thus all terms in Aδ = Σ det S · eSδ
contribute the same amount, and so dAδ (0) equals |W| √ · Πα>0 hα, δi. The
corresponding result for Aλ+δ finishes the argument.
Our next topic is Kostant’s formula for the multiplicities of the weights
[17]. One defines the partition function P on the set I (lattice of weights)
by:
P(ρ) is the number of (unordered) partitions of ρ into positive roots;
in detail this is the number of systems (pα )α>0 of non-negative integers
pα satisfying ρ = Σ∆+ pα α. Note that P(ρ) is 0 for many ρ, in particular
for every non-positive weight except 0 and for any weight not in the root
lattice R.
We continue with the earlier notation; λ a dominant weight, ϕ or ϕλ the
irrep with extreme weight λ, and χλ = Σmρ eρ the character of ϕλ .
P ROPOSITION B ( KOSTANT ’ S FORMULA ). The multiplicity mρ of
ρ in ϕλ is ΣSW det S · P(S(λ + δ) − δ − ρ).
This rests on the formal relation (Πα>0 (1 − e−α ))−1 = ΣP(ρ)e−ρ , ob-
tained by multiplying together the expansions 1/(1 − e−α ) = 1 + e−α +
e−2α + · · · . To make sense of these formal infinite series, we let E stand
for the cone in h> 0 spanned by the positive roots with non-positive coef-
ficients (the backward cone); for any µ in h> 0 we set Eµ = µ + E . Now
we extend the group ring G (finite integral combinations of the eρ ) to the
ring G ∞ consisting of those formal infinite series Σcρ eρ (with integral cρ ),
whose support (the set of ρ’s with non-zero cρ ) is contained in some Eµ ; the
restriction on the support is analogous to considering power series with a
finite number of negative exponents and makes it possible to not only add,
but also multiply these elements in the obvious way (using some simple
facts about the cones Eµ ). E.g., the series ΣP(ρ)e−ρ above has its support
in E0 = E .
With the help of Proposition B in §3.6 we write Weyl’s formula in the
form χλ = Aλ+δ e−δ /Πα>0 (1 − e−α ), which with our expansion of the de-
nominator becomes Σmρ eρ = (Σ det S · eS(λ+δ)−δ ) · (ΣP(σ)e−σ ). Multiply-
ing out, we see that we get mρ , for a given ρ, by using those σ for which
S(λ + δ) − δ − √σ equals ρ for some S in W . That is just what Kostant’s
formula says.
While the formula is very explicit, it is also very non-computable, to a
minor extent because of the summation over the Weyl group, but mainly
124 3 R EPRESENTATIONS
because of the difficulty of evaluating the partition function (cf. the case
of partitions of the natural numbers!). We present two more practical al-
gorithms for the computation of the multiplicities of the weights of ϕλ .
The first one is Klimyk’s formula [15].
For any integral linear form ρ we put ρ = det T , if there exists T in the
Weyl group with ρ = T (λ + δ) − δ , and = 0 otherwise. (The operations
λ → T (λ + δ) − δ constitute the shifted action of W on h> 0 , with −δ as
origin.)
L EMMA E.
(a) In any irrep Ds of A1 the sum of the eigenvalues of H on all the vj
(the trace of H ) is 0;
(b) Each vector vi is eigenvector of the operator X+ X− ; the eigenvalue
equals the sum of the eigenvalues of H on the vectors v0 , v1 , . . . , vi .
Proof: For a given weight ρ we form its α-string, the direct sum of the
weight spaces Vρ+tα with t ∈ Z. By the basic lemma A of §2 it is g(α) -
invariant. Any decomposition into irreducible subspaces clearly has√the
property described in Lemma F. And V is direct sum of such strings.
Note that the eigenvalues of Hα in any Wu are of the form (ρ + tα)(Hα )
for some ρ and some t-interval√ a ≤ t ≤ b; also recall α(Hα ) = 2, consistent
with the nature of the Ds ’s.
L EMMA G.
(a) For any integral form ρ the sum Σ∞
−∞ mρ+tα hρ + tα, αi is 0.
(b) For any such ρ the trace of the operator xα x−α on the weightspace
Vρ is Σ∞
0 mρ+tα hρ + tα, αi.
126 3 R EPRESENTATIONS
Our last topic is the generalization of the Clebsch-Gordan series, i.e. the
problem of decomposing the tensor product of two irreps. Let λ0 and λ00 be
two dominant weights, with the corresponding irreps ϕ0 and ϕ00 . By com-
plete reducibility the tensor product ϕ0 ⊗ ϕ00 splits as Σnλ ϕλ (the sum goes
over I d , the dominant weights, and is finite of course) with multiplicities
nλ . The problem is to determine the nλ . (We know already from the dis-
cussion of the Cartan product that λ0 + λ00 is the highest of the λ occurring
here, and that nλ0 +λ00 is 1.) We put nλ = 0 for any non-dominant λ.
3.8 S OME CONSEQUENCES OF THE CHARACTER FORMULA 127
We see that the problem amounts to expressing the skew element on the
left in terms of the standard skew elements Aλ+δ with dominant λ.
128 3 R EPRESENTATIONS
3.9 Examples
We start with some examples for the degree formula, §3.8, Theorem F.
We shall work out the degrees of the spin representations ∆ and ∆+ , ∆−
of Bl and Dl . With the conventions of §2.13, the Killing form agrees with
the Pythagorean inner product up to a factor; by homogeneity of the degree
formula we can suppress this factor. For Bl the positive roots are the ωi and
the ωi ± ωj with i < j ; the lowest weight δ is (l − 1/2)ω1 + (l − 3/2)ω2 + · · · ;
the extreme weight for the spin representation is λl = 1/2(ω1 +ω2 +· · ·+ωl ).
With hωi , δi = l − i + 1/2 and hωi , λl + δi = l − i + 1 the formula evaluates
to
3.9 E XAMPLES 129
Q Q
(l−i+1)· (j−i)(2l+2−i−j)
Q i Qi<j
(l−i+1/2)· (j−i)(2l+1−i−j)
i i<j
Q (2i+2 Q i+j+2
= 0≤i≤l−1 2i+1) · 0≤i<j≤l−1 i+j+1
Q
i+j+2
l i+1
Q
= 2 · 0≤i≤l−1 2i+1 · Q1≤i<j≤l−1 i+j+1
0≤i<j≤l−1
Q
2i+1
i+1
= 2l ·
Q
0≤i≤l−1 2i+1 · Q1≤i≤l−1 j+1
0<j≤l−1
= 2l
For Dl the positive roots are the ωi ± ωj with i < j ; the lowest form δ
is (l − 1)ω1 + (l − 2)ω2 + · · · ; the extreme weights for the two spin rep-
resentations are λl−1 , λl = 1/2(ω1 + ω2 + · · · ∓ ωl ). For ϕl the formula
gives
Q
(j−i)(2l−i−j+1)
i<j
degree ϕl = Q
(j−i)(2l−i−j)
i<j
Q i+j+1
= 0≤i<j≤l−1 i+j
Q
i+j
= Q1≤i≤j≤l−1
i+j
0≤i<j≤l−1
Q
2i
= Q1≤i≤l−1
j
0<j≤l−1
= 2l−1
Making the appropriate modification for ϕl−1 we get for its degree the
value
Y (l − i + 1) (l − i)
degree ϕl−1 = degree ϕl · · = 2l−1
(l − i) (l − i + 1)
i<l
A consequence of this computation is the following: The weights of
∆ are exactly the 1/2(±ω1 ± ω2 ± · · · ± ωl ) since all these must occur
by invariance under the Weyl group and they are already 2l in number.
Similarly for ∆+ and ∆− the weights are exactly the 1/2(±ω1 ±ω2 ±· · ·±ωl )
with an even, respectively odd, number of minus signs.
In the same vein the weights of any Λr are the ωi1 + · · · + ωip − (ωj1 +
· · · + ωjq ) with i1 < · · · < ip , j1 < · · · < jq , and p + q = r − 1 or r for Bl
and = r for Dl . (The difference comes from the fact that 0 is a weight of
Λ1 for Bl , but not for Dl .)
130 3 R EPRESENTATIONS
The weights of ϕ2λ1 are 2λ1 = 2ω1 (the extreme weight), 2ω1 − (ω1 −
ω2 ) = ω1 + ω2 = −ω3 , −ω3 − (ω1 − ω2 ) = 2ω2 (these three weights form the
(ω1 − ω2 )-string of 2λ1 ) and −ω1 , 2ω3 , −ω2 (e.g. by invariance under the
Weyl group = all permutations of the ωi ). The tensor product Λ1 ⊗ Λ1 has
as weights all ωi + ωj with 1 ≤ i, j ≤ 3. The maximal weight is 2ω1 = 2λ1 ;
thus ϕ2λ1 splits off, as the Cartan product of Λ1 and Λ1 . The weights of
Λ1 ⊗ Λ1 are those of ϕ2λ1 and −ω1 , −ω2 , −ω3 . The latter are the weights of
Λ2 . Thus we have the splitting Λ1 ⊗ Λ1 = ϕ2λ1 + Λ2 .
Similarly Λ1 ⊗Λ2 has as weights all ωi −ωj , i 6= j , and 0 with multiplicity
3. These are the weights of ϕλ1 +λ2 = ad, with one weight 0 left over. This
means Λ1 ⊗ Λ2 = ad +ϕ0 .
For our A2 a more explicit description of the irreps is of value (cf.[7]).
We abbreviate C3 to V . Our Lie algebra being sl(V ), we can identify V ∧ V
V3
with V > equivariantly. Namely we identify V with C by sending e1 ∧
V3
e2 ∧ e3 to 1; then the ∧-pairing of V and V ∧ V to V becomes identified
with the duality pairing of V and V > to C. The natural rep of A2 in V
is the fundamental rep to the fundamental weight λ1 . The induced rep in
V ∧ V is the one for λ2 ; we see now that it equals the dual rep ϕ4 >
1 in V .
To describe the irrep ϕλ with λ = n1 λ1 + n2 λ2 we first form the tensor
product S n1 V ⊗ S n2 V > (with the induced rep of course) (here S m means
the symmetric tensors in the m-fold tensor product), and then (assuming
both n1 and n2 positive) take the trace (i.e., the map V ⊗ V > → C by
v ⊗ µ → µ(v)) for any one of the V -factors and any one of the V > -factors.
This sends the above space onto S n1 −1 V ⊗ S n2 −1 V > . The induced rep
on the kernel of the map is precisely ϕλ ; note that (a) the highest weight
occurring is n1 λ1 + n2 λ2 , which does not occur in the image space), and
that (b) it is easily verified that the dimension of the kernel agrees with that
given for ϕλ by the Weyl dimension formula developed above. We denote
this space and irrep also by [n1 , n2 ].
Let µ, = m1 λ1 + m2 λ2 , be a second weight. There is a fairly efficient
algorithm for decomposing the tensor product [n1 , n2 ] ⊗ [m1 , m2 ] into its
irreducible constituents. It is a two-stage process.
We introduce intermediate spaces (and reps) [a1 , a2 , b1 , b2 ], defined as
the subspace of S a1 V ⊗ S a2 V > ⊗ S b1 V ⊗ S b2 V > on which all possible
traces are 0. (A trace pairs some factor V with some factor V > to C, and
sends the whole space to the tensor product of all the other factors.)
The first stage is a decomposition of [n1 , n2 ] ⊗ [m1 , m2 ] into intermediate
spaces.
P ROPOSITION A. The rep [n1 , n2 ] ⊗ [m1 , m2 ] is equivalent to the
direct sum of the [n1 − i, n2 − j, m1 − j, m2 − i] for 0 ≤ i ≤ min(n1 , m2 )
and 0 ≤ j ≤ min(n2 , m1 ).
The source for this is the distinguished element Σei ⊗ ωi of V ⊗ V > ,
where {ei } and {ωj } are dual bases of V and V > . It does not depend on the
132 3 R EPRESENTATIONS
Now to Proposition B. We consider two V ’s, not from the same symmet-
ric product, and apply the map α to them. The kernel of this is clearly the
space [n1 + m1 , n2 , 0, m2 ] (since the kernel of α is the symmetric subspace
S 2 V , which combines the two symmetric products of V ’s into one long
one). The image on the other hand is [n1 − 1, n2 + m2 + 1, m1 − 1, 0], since
by the lemma the two symmetric products of V > ’s become one long one
(in fact longer by one factor). (In the case n2 = m2 = 0 it is not quite obvi-
ous, but still true, that the traces are 0 here.) Iteration of this process yields
Proposition
√
B. Note [a, b, 0, 0] = [0, 0, a, b] = [a, 0, 0, b] = [0, b, a, 0] = [a, b].
As an example we take [1, 1]⊗[1, 1]. ([1, 1] is the adjoint rep, of dimension
8.) By Proposition A we have
By Proposition B we have
So finally
[0, 0] is of course the trivial rep. One sees easily from the algorithm that
√ 1 , n2 ] ⊗ [m1 , m2 ] contains [0, 0] in its splitting iff n1 = m2 and n2 = m1 .
[n
G W (and then also Rg) is called the character ring of g. (We recall that
Rg is a polynomial ring; see §3.5, Proposition A.)
We consider a slight generalization of Rg:
The character χ = χ∼ (ϕ) of a rep ϕ can be considered as a function on
h0 . At each t in the co-root lattice T it takes the value dϕ = degree of ϕ,
since then exp(2πiλ(t)) = 1 for all weights λ. Now it may happen for some
ϕ that there are other t in h0 where the character takes this value dϕ (i.e.,
where all the weights in χ take integral values). All these points clearly
form a lattice L (depending on ϕ) in h0 ; here we assume ϕ faithful, i.e., no
simple constituent of g goes to 0 under ϕ. The lattice is of course invariant
under the Weyl group. Furthermore it contains T (of course), and is con-
tained in the center lattice Z because every root appears as the difference
of two weights of ϕ, as one can see from Theorem B(c) of §3.2 (note that
by Proposition D, §2.6 no root α can be orthogonal to all the weights of ϕ).
[The significance of all this is the following: With g is associated a simply
connected compact Lie group G, whose Lie algebra is the compact form
u of g. The torus ih0 /2πiT becomes identified with a subgroup (the torus
T) of G; the finite group 2πiZ/2πiT becomes the center of G. The rep ϕ
of g generates a rep ϕG of G, which to the element represented by 2πiH
assigns the operator exp(2πiϕ(H)). The elements with H in T , which cor-
respond to 1 in G, go to id under ϕG . The kernel N of ϕ∼ is a subgroup of
the center of G; its inverse image in ih0 is precisely the lattice 2πiL. Thus
a rep ϕ whose character χλ takes the value dλ on L corresponds to a rep of
G that factors through the quotient G/N .]
3.10 T HE CHARACTER RING 135
Example 1: Bl .
Here we take as L the only possibility (outside of T ), namely Z itself (cf.
§2.5). [This amounts to considering reps of the orthogonal group SO(2l +
1) rather then reps of the corresponding simply connected group, the so-
called spin group Spin(2l + 1).] The crucial element at which we have to
evaluate the characters is the vector e1 . In order for all the exponentials in
χλ to have value 1 at e1 , the coefficient f1 of λ = Σfi ωi must be integral
(and not half-integral). Writing λ = Σni λi , in terms of fundamental reps,
this means that nl must be even, i.e., λ must be a non-negative-integral
linear combination of λ1 , . . . , λl−1 and 2λl , and that RgL is the subring of
Rg generated by Λ1 , Λ2 , . . . , Λl−1 and ϕ2λl . [ϕ2λl is in fact Λl o(2l + 1, C);
we also write Λl for it.]
Now all the exponentials in the character of the spin rep ∆ = ϕl take
value −1 at e1 . Therefore ∆ ⊗ ∆ is in our subset, and we have an equation
∆ ⊗ ∆ = ϕ2λl + · · · , where the dots represent a sum of terms Λ1 , . . . , Λl−1 .
(Details below.) This means that RgL is the subring of Rg generated by
Λ1 , Λ2 , . . . , Λl−1 and ∆ ⊗ ∆, and therefore it is a polynomial ring (with
these elements - or with Λ1 , Λ2 , . . . , Λl - as generators).
Example 2: Dl .
Here there are several possibilities for L. We choose the lattice generated
by T and the vector e1 [this again corresponds to reps of SO(2l) rather then
of the simply connected group Spin(2l)].
Again the λ in question must have the form Σfi ωi with f1 integral or,
in the form Σni λi , with nl−1 + nl even. Introducing λ0 = λl−1 + λl =
ω1 + ω2 + · · · + ωl−1 , λ+ = 2λl = ω1 + ω2 + · · · + ωl , and λ− = 2λl−1 = ω1 +
ω2 +· · ·+ωl−1 −ωl (and denoting the corresponding reps by Λ0 , Λ+ and Λ− ),
we can describe these λ as the non-negative-integral linear combinations
of λ1 , . . . , λl−2 , λ0 , λ+ , and λ− . The ring RgL is then the subring of Ro(2l)
generated by Λ1 , . . . , Λl−1 , Λ+ , Λ− .
Now the tensor products of the spin reps ∆+ and ∆− split according to
∆ ⊗ ∆+ = Λ+ + · · · , ∆− ⊗ ∆− = Λ− + · · · , ∆+ ⊗ ∆− = Λl−1 + · · · , where
+
the dots in all three cases represent a sum of terms Λ1 , . . . , Λl−2 , as one can
see from the weights (details below). This means that the subring RgL of
Rg is also generated by Λ1 , . . . , Λl−2 , ∆+ ⊗ ∆+ , ∆− ⊗ ∆− and ∆+ ⊗ ∆− .
136 3 R EPRESENTATIONS
The proof of this, using equivariant maps from V to V > and natural
identifications such as dual of exterior power = exterior power of the dual,
is straightforward. E.g. for (a): If ϕ is orthogonal, there is a ϕ-equivariant
isomorphism from V to V > equal to its dual; the inverse of this √ map is
then an equivariant map from V > to V >> = V , equal to its dual.
We return now to our semisimple Lie algebra g, with all its machinery
(§2.2 ff.). We are given a dominant weight λ and the associated irrep ϕλ
with λ as extreme weight. There is a simple criterion for self-duality in
terms of weights.
There are other ways to look at this. By considering the reversed order
in h>
0 one sees easily that the minimal weight of ϕλ is that element of the
140 3 R EPRESENTATIONS
Weyl group orbit of λ that lies in the negative of the closed fundamental
Weyl chamber. It is therefore the image of λ under the opposition element
op of W (see §2.15 ). Thus Proposition D can be restated as
T HEOREM E.
(a) Al : ϕλ is self-dual iff f1 = f2 + fl = f3 + fl−1 = · · · (equivalently
n1 = nl , n2 = nl−1 , . . . ) [and thus for all λ in the case l = 1]. It is then
symplectic if l ≡ 1 mod 4 and f1 odd (n(l+1)/2 , the middle ni , odd), and
orthogonal otherwise;
(b) Bl : ϕλ is always self-dual. It is symplectic if l ≡ 1 or 2 mod 4 and
the fi are half-integral (nl is odd), and orthogonal otherwise;
(c) Cl : ϕλ is always self-dual. It is symplectic if Σfi is odd (n1 + n3 +
n5 + · · · is odd), and orthogonal otherwise;
(d) Dl : ϕλ is self-dual iff either l is even or l is odd and fl = 0(nl−1 =
nl ). It is then symplectic if l ≡ 2 mod 4 and the fi are half-integral (nl−1 +
nl is odd), and orthogonal otherwise;
(e) G2 : ϕλ is self-dual and orthogonal for every λ;
(f) F4 : ϕλ is self-dual and orthogonal for every λ;
(g) E6 : ϕλ is self-dual iff Σfi /3 = f1 + f6 = f2 + f4 = f3 + f4 (n1 = n5
and n2 = n4 ). It is then orthogonal (and the fi are integers);
(h) E7 : ϕλ is always self-dual. It is orthogonal if the fi are integral
(n1 + n3 + n7 is even), and symplectic otherwise;
(i) E8 : ϕλ is always self-dual and orthogonal .
Now comes the question orthogonal vs. symplectic. We settle this first
for A1 , whose representations we know from §1.11. Here the representa-
tion D1/2 is symplectic (the determinant x1 y2 − x2 y1 of two vectors x, y
in C2 is the relevant invariant skew form; or one notes that for a 2 × 2
matrix M the condition M > J + JM = 0 is identical with tr M = 0). It fol-
lows now easily from Proposition B, Lemma C and the Clebsch-Gordan
series (§1.12) that Ds is orthogonal for integral s (i.e., odd dimension) and
symplectic for half-integral s (i.e., even dimension) (and also for s = 0).
The other simple Lie algebras will be handled with the help of a general
result, which involves the notion of principal three-dimensional sub Lie
algebra (abbreviated to P T D). Let g be a semisimple Lie algebra, as be-
fore; we use the concepts listed at the beginning of this chapter. Since the
fundamental roots α1 , . . . , αl are a basis of h>
0 , there exists a unique ele-
ment Hp in h0 (in fact in the fundamental Weyl chamber) with αi (Hp ) = 2
for 1 ≤ i ≤ l. We write Hp as Σpi Hi , choose constants ci , c−i so that
ci · c−i = pi , and introduce Xp = Σci Hi and X−p = Σci Hi . Using the rela-
tions [HXi ] = αi (H)X−i , [Xi X−i ] = Hi , [Xi X−j ] = 0 for i 6= j one verifies
[Hp Xp ] = 2Xp , [Hp X−p ] = −2X−p , and [Xp X−p ] = Hp . The sub Lie alge-
bra gp of g spanned by Hp , Xp , X−p , visibly of type A1 , is by definition a
P T D of g. It has CHp as Cartan sub Lie algebra (with the obvious order,
which agrees with the order in h0 : Hp is > 0); its root system consists of
±αp , defined by αp (Hp ) = 2.
A representation ϕ of g restricts to a representation ϕ∼ of gp ; since Hp
lies in h, any weight ρ of ϕ restricts to a weight ρ∼ of ϕ∼ , and all weights
of ϕ∼ arise in this way. (Such a ρ∼ amounts of course simply to the eigen-
value ρ(Hp ) of Hp .)
In general ϕ∼ will not be irreducible, and will split into a sum of the
irreps of gp , i.e., into Ds ’s. We come to the property of ϕ∼ that we utilize
for our problem.
d1 · l d1 · 2l d1 · (2l − 1) d 1 · (2l − 2)
6 10 16 30 42 22
d d
H d
dH d d
d22 d 49
58
d 114
d 168
d 220
d 270
d 182
d 92
d
d136
From our earlier results we deduce with the help of Theorem H that
all representations of Spin(n) for n ≡ ±1 or 0 mod 8, of SO(n) for n ≡
2 mod 4, and of the compact groups G2 , F4 , E8 can be transformed into
real-orthogonal form.
We also note: The spin representation ∆l of Bl is orthogonal for l ≡ 0 or
3 mod 4 and symplectic for l ≡ 1 or 2 mod 4; the half-spin representations
∆±l of Dl are orthogonal for l ≡ 0 mod 4, symplectic for l ≡ 2 mod 4, and
not self-contragredient for odd l.
146 3 R EPRESENTATIONS
Appendix
Linear Algebra
The purpose of this appendix is to list some facts, conventions and nota-
tions of linear algebra in the form in which we like to use them. We follow
pretty much the book by P. R. Halmos [9]. We use R (the real numbers)
and C (the complex numbers) as scalars. Also, N stands for the natural
numbers {1, 2, 3, . . . } and Z stands for the integers; finally Z/n or Z/nZ
stands for the cyclic group of order n, the integers mod the natural number
n. We write Fn for the standard n-dimensional vector space over the field
F (with F = R or = C for us). Its elements are written as (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn )
with xi in F and are considered as column vectors (occasionally the in-
dices begin with 0). We denote by ei the i-th standard coordinate vector
(0, . . . , 0, 1, 0, . . . , 0) with a 1 at the i-th place, and by ωi the i-th coordinate
function which assigns to each vector its i-th coordinate.
Vector spaces (V, W, . . . ) are of finite dimension unless explicitly stated
not to be so. For a subset M of a vector space V , we denote by ((M )) the
linear span of M in V. For a complex vector space V we write VR for the
real vector space obtained from V by restriction of scalars from C to R; for
a real vector space W we write WC for the complex vector space obtained
from W by extension of scalars from R to C, i.e. the tensor product W ⊗R C
(or, simpler, the space of all formal combinations u + iv with u, v in W and
the obvious linear operations).
An operator is a linear transformation of a vector space to itself. Trace
and determinant of an operator A are written tr A and det A. The identity
operator is denoted by 1 or by id. Wr to a basis of the vector space an
operator is represented by a matrix; similarly for linear transformations
from one space to another. We write I for the identity matrix.
diag(λ1 , λ2 , . . . , λn ) stands for the n × n diagonal matrix with the λi on
the diagonal; the λi could be (square) matrices.
The dual or transposed of a vector space V , the space of linear functions
on V , is denoted by V > (this deviates from the usual notation 0 or ∗ ; “dual”
being a functor, we like to indicate its effect on objects and morphisms by
the same symbol). We note that {ei } and {ωi } are dual bases of Fn and its
dual.
148 A PPENDIX
Index
Symbol Index
[ ], 1 D0 , 27
[XY ], 1 D1 , 27
h·, ·i, 14, 35, 148 Dn , 3
hu, viL , 4 Ds , 26
[AB], 7 D1/2 , 27
≈, 8 det, 147
⊥, 35 det[X, Y ], 4
4, 13, 148 diag(λ1 , λ2 , . . . , λn ), 147
>, 148 esX , 6
≤, 49, 59 F , 59
>, 49, 59 GL(n, F), 5
(α, 0), 61 G2 , 45
Vr n), 90
(α, H, 4
Vr A, 150 im, 148
Vr V , 150 hα , 37
ϕ, 107 Hα , 38
[−q, p], 39 hλ , 37
⊕, 10, 13 i, j, k, 4
⊗, 13, 150 I3,1 , 4
Ip,q , 52
ad, 14 Jz , 28
ad g, 14 ker, 148
A, 53 Lx , 28
Af f (1), 6 Ly , 28
A1 ⊕ A1 , 45 Lz , 28
A2 , 45 mλ , 94
An , 3 mρ , 118
A> , 148 M 0 (0), 6
A4 , 148 M ∗ , 2, 148
aαα , 39 ns , 30
aβα , 39 nλ , 127
b(·, ·), 147 Nαβ , 46
B2 , 45 Nλµ , 46
Bn , 3 O(n), 5
CSA, 33 O(n, C), 5
ckij , 5 O(n, R), 5
C ∨ , 52 P T D, 141
Cn , 3 p (= p(α, β)), 39
cα , 48 q (= q(α, β)), 39
D0 (R), 61 R, 41
S YMBOL I NDEX 161
R0 , 42 ḡ, 11
R+ , 59 g0 , 17
R− , 59 gl(n, C), 2
Rg, 105 gl(n, R), 2
RgcalL , 135 gl(V ), 2
Rx , 3 g1 , 17
Ry , 3 g2 , 17
Rz , 3 gr , 17
SL(n, F), 6 g⊥ , 24
SO(n, C), 6 g∧ , 106
SO(n, R), 6 g0 , 17
Sp(n), 6 g00 , 17
Sp(n, F), 6 g(r) , 17
SU (2), 8 g(α) , 38
SU (n), 6 g0 , 35
Sx , 3 g0 (X), 34
Sy , 3 g1 ⊕ g2 , 11
Sz , 3 gα , 35
Sα , 41 gC , 11
Sµ , 41 gR , 11
tr, 147 gαβ, 37
TR , 132 gλ , 35
tϕ , 15 gλ (X), 33
U (n), 6 h, 33
uα , 48 h> , 35
Uα , 52 h>0, 41
Vα , 52 h0 , 40
V λ , 100 k, 53
VC , 11 l3,1 , 4
VR , 11 n, 18
Wρ , 64 o(3), 3
X+ , 4 o(3, 1; R), 4
X− , 4 o(n, F), 2
X±i , 61 o(p, q), 52
X±α , 38 o(V, b), 2
exp(sX), 6 o∗ (2n), 52
V , 11 p, 53
tr M > N , 52 r, 17
s(n), 56
a, 1 sl(n, R), 2
aff(1), 4 sp(n), 3
a ⊕ϕ b, 19 sp(n, C), 3
a⊥ , 24 sp(n, R), 3
b, 1 sp(V ), 3
g, 1 sp(V, Ω), 2
162 S YMBOL I NDEX
su(n), 2 ∆l , 109
su(V ), 2 ∆+ l , 110
u, 52 ∆− l , 110
u(V ), 2 ρ , 124
u(V, c), 2 ητ , 128
θ, 43
F, 1, 147 Θ, 89
R, 1, 147 κ, 14
C, 1, 147 λ, 21, 33, 35
FL , 2 Λ, 91
H, 4 Λ0 , 135
N, 147 Λ± , 135
Z, 147 Λi , 108, 109, 110, 135
Z/n, Z/nZ, 147 µ, 65
Hn/2 , 144 µi = i(r + 1 − i), 26
ZI , 116 π , 54
ρ, 91
D, 105 σ , 54
D3 , 45 Σ, 67
D4 , 45 τ , 54
D6 , 45 ϕ, 9
G , 117 ϕ ∧ ϕ, 107
G W , 134 ϕ∨ , 13
I , 90 ϕ∼ , 141
I 0 , 91 ϕ1 ⊕ ϕ2 , 13
I d , 91 ϕ1 ⊗ ϕ2 , 13
L, 134 ϕC , 14
P , 123 ϕR , 14
R, 90 Φ, 89
S3 , 88 χ, 116
T , 90 χ∼ , 134
W , 42 χϕ , 116
Wa , 90 χA (x), 149
W 0 , 64 Ω, 2
Wρ , 64 ωi , 147
Z , 90
{α0 }, 42
α, β, γ , 35
α-string, 37, 96
β(Hα ), 39
Γϕ , 102
∆, 27, 35
δ , 91
∆0 , 35