Slides Morton

Knots
Braids
Invariants from braids
Knots, braids and invariants

H.R.Morton
University of Liverpool
Barcelona October 2010
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Knots
Braids
Knot theory spans some 150 years, going back to Maxwell, and
even Gauss.
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Braids
even Gauss.
The most basic idea: Take a piece of rope and tie a knot in it.
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Braids
even Gauss.
A trefoil (overhand) knot,
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even Gauss.
A trefoil (overhand) knot,
A figure eight knot.
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Braids
Join the two ends of the rope to make a closed curve.
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Trefoil
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Trefoil
Figure eight
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Trefoil
Figure eight
Unknotted (trivial) curve.
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A knot K means a simple closed curve in Euclidean space R3 .
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Think of two knots as essentially the same if we can manipulate
one as a piece of elastic rope to become the other.
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Braids

A classic combinatorial result of Reidemeister shows that all
manipulations can be realised by combinations of just 3 basic
moves on diagrams:
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Knots
Braids

A classic combinatorial result of Reidemeister shows that all
manipulations can be realised by combinations of just 3 basic
moves on diagrams:
RI :
RII :
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RIII :
Knots
Braids
We can similarly use several closed curves - termed a link - such as
the Hopf link
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the Hopf link
the Borromean rings.
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the Hopf link
the Borromean rings.

While these cant be separated, if any one ring is removed the
result is
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Basic problem.
Given knots K , K decide if it is possible to manipulate K to K .
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Knots
Braids
Basic problem.
An invariant of K is some algebraic object I (K ) (maybe a number
or function) which, typically, can be calculated from a diagram of
K , in such a way that different pictures of K give the same object
I (K ).
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Braids
Basic problem.
I (K ).
Compare K , K by calculating I (K ) and I (K ).
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Knots
Braids
Basic problem.
I (K ).
Compare K , K by calculating I (K ) and I (K ).
If I (K ) 6= I (K ) then K , K really are different knots.
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Knots
Braids
One powerful invariant is the fundamental group

1 (R3 K ) = GK .
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Braids

1 (R3 K ) = GK .
Equivalent knots have isomorphic groups.
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Braids

1 (R3 K ) = GK .
So
GK
6 GK = K 6= K .
=
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Knots
Braids

1 (R3 K ) = GK .
So
GK
6 GK = K 6= K .
=
If K has the same group as the trivial knot then K itself is trivial.
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Knots
Braids

1 (R3 K ) = GK .
So
GK
6 GK = K 6= K .
=
GK
= GK + conditions on special subgroup = K = K .
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Knots
Braids

1 (R3 K ) = GK .
So
GK
6 GK = K 6= K .
=
GK
It is easy to find a presentation for GK from any diagram of K .
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Knots
Braids

1 (R3 K ) = GK .
So
GK
6 GK = K 6= K .
=
GK
It is easy to find a presentation for GK from any diagram of K .
The problem with this invariant comes in deciding when the two
groups are isomorphic.
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Braids
The Alexander polynomial K (t) Z[t 1 ] is a classical invariant

(1920) which can be derived from the knot or directly from GK .
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Braids

It is easy to check when two Laurent polynomials are equal.
Trefoil = t 1 1 + t
Figure eight = t 1 + 3 t
Trivial = 1
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Trefoil = t 1 1 + t
Trivial = 1
But there are lots of knots with the same and even with trivial
.
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Braids

Trefoil = t 1 1 + t
Trivial = 1
But there are lots of knots with the same and even with trivial
.
Hence there is quite limited discrimination.
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There has been a long involvement of algebra in geometry and

topology.
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topology.
To show that two things are similar you need geometry.
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topology.
To show they are different you need algebra.
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topology.
This is generally the case for knots.
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topology.
This is generally the case for knots.
In rare instances algebra is enough to establish similarity.
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Braids
Knot groups are residually finite. (Any non-trivial element can be

detected by a homomorphism to some finite group.)
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Braids

There is a key element (the longitude of K ) in GK which is e if
and only if K is trivial.
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A non-trivial knot K then always has a homomorphism from GK to
some permutation group Sn with non-abelian image.
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Analysing representations of GK to quite small permutation groups
gives a surprising amount of information.
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Knots
Braids

Analysing representations of GK to quite small permutation groups
gives a surprising amount of information.
Thistlethwaite used this technique systematically to ensure that
there were no duplicates in his extensive tables of knots with up to
16 crossings.
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Knots
Braids
Knots from braids

Finding braid presentations for knots
Braids provide an important interface between knots and algebra,

dating back to work of Artin in 1925.
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Braids
Knots from braids

From the geometric viewpoint an n-string braid is a union of n

disjoint strings running monotonically from one plane to another
parallel plane.
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Braids
Knots from braids


parallel plane.
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Knots from braids


parallel plane.
Braids are studied up to ambient isotopy keeping the ends fixedstrings may move around between the planes, but may not pass
through each other.
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Knots from braids

With a fixed choice of endpoints on the plane they can be

composed by placing one above another.
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Knots from braids


They form a group Bn , generated by the elementary braids i with
a single crossing between strings i and i + 1
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Knots from braids


i =
i i +1
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Knots from braids


i =
i i +1
Artin gave the classic presentation for Bn with these generators

and the relations
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Knots from braids


i =
i i +1
Artin gave the classic presentation for Bn with these generators

and the relations
i j
i i +1 i
= j i ,
|i j| > 1,
= i +1 i i +1 ,
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Knots from braids

The braid shown earlier can be written in Artins notation as
= 2 31 42 21 3 11 51 2 4
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Knots from braids

Knots
Braids
Knots from braids

The coloured Burau representation
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Knots from braids

A braid can be used to determine a knot in two classical ways.

One is by making a plat.
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Braids
Knots from braids


Take a braid with 2k strings and join up the strings with k local
maxima at the top and k local minima at the bottom.
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Knots from braids


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Knots from braids

The second way is to make a closed braid.
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Knots from braids


Join the top points to the corresponding bottom points without
further crossings.
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Knots from braids


further crossings.
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Knots from braids


further crossings.
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Knots from braids

Both of these methods come with theorems to say that every knot
has such a presentation,
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Knots from braids

has such a presentation, along with simple moves on braids relating
any two braids which result in the same knot.
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Braids
Knots from braids

Algebraic constructions starting from a braid which are invariant
under these moves then depend only on the resulting knot.
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Knots from braids

Algebraic constructions starting from a braid which are invariant
under these moves then depend only on the resulting knot.
These give a useful source of knot invariants. The Jones
polynomial was originally defined in this way using closed braid
presentations.
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Knots
Braids
Knots from braids

Braids give a convenient way of presenting the group of a knot,

and of handling its representations to other groups.
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Knots from braids

Braids give a convenient way of presenting the group of a knot,

and of handling its representations to other groups.
At the heart of this is the action of the braid group Bn on the free
group Fn of rank n.
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Knots from braids

Look at a braid from the front.
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Knots from braids


With the eye as base point we can draw loops once round each
string at the bottom of the braid, representing elements x1 , . . . , xn .
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Knots from braids


x1
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xn
Knots
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Knots from braids


x1
xn
These generate the fundamental group of the complement of the

braid strings in R2 I , which is free of rank n.
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Knots from braids

The elements y1 , . . . , yn represented by loops round the strings at

the top of the braid are determined by in terms of x1 , . . . , xn .
yn
y1
x1
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xn
Knots
Braids
Knots from braids


yn
y1
x1
xn
Write (y1 , . . . , yn ) = (x1 , . . . , xn ).
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Braids
Knots from braids


yn
y1
x1
xn
Write (y1 , . . . , yn ) = (x1 , . . . , xn ).

The resulting automorphism of the free group can be found
readily by composing the automorphisms for the elementary braids
i1 which make up the braid .
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Braids
Knots from braids

In this way the braid group can be viewed as an explicit subgroup

of the automorphism group of the free group Fn .
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Knots from braids


The essential part of the automorphism is the action of the
elementary braid i , determining i (x1 , . . . , xn ) = (y1 , . . . , yn ).
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Knots from braids


This is given by yi +1 = xi , yi = xi1 xi +1 xi , with yj = xj otherwise.
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Knots from braids


The effect at each crossing comes from the simple Wirtinger
relations shown.
a1 ba
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Knots from braids


The effect at each crossing comes from the simple Wirtinger
relations shown.
a1 ba
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bab 1
Knots
Braids
Knots from braids

The presentation for the group of the closure of a braid is

< x1 , . . . , xn | (x1 , . . . , xn ) = (x1 , . . . , xn ) >
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Knots from braids


< x1 , . . . , xn | (x1 , . . . , xn ) = (x1 , . . . , xn ) >
For the plat closure of an n = 2k braid we have
< x1 , . . . , xn | (x1 , . . . , xn ) = (y1 , . . . , yn ),
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< x1 , . . . , xn | (x1 , . . . , xn ) = (x1 , . . . , xn ) >
< x1 , . . . , xn | (x1 , . . . , xn ) = (y1 , . . . , yn ),
x1 x2 = x3 x4 = . . . x2k1 x2k = e,
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< x1 , . . . , xn | (x1 , . . . , xn ) = (x1 , . . . , xn ) >
< x1 , . . . , xn | (x1 , . . . , xn ) = (y1 , . . . , yn ),
x1 x2 = x3 x4 = . . . x2k1 x2k = e,
y1 y2 = . . . y2k1 y2k = e >
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Knots from braids

It is then possible to test out representations of the knot group to

a finite group G by going through all sequences of elements
(g1 , . . . , gn )
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Knots from braids


(g1 , . . . , gn ) and counting (for a closed braid) those for which
(g1 , . . . , gn ) = (g1 , . . . , gn ).
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Knots from braids


(g1 , . . . , gn ) and counting (for a closed braid) those for which
(g1 , . . . , gn ) = (g1 , . . . , gn ).
The count can be refined by fixing the conjugacy class of all the
elements gi , and by fixing the subgroup of G that they generate.
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Knots from braids

A similar count can be made for a plat.
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Knots from braids

A similar count can be made for a plat.

For example, the figure eight knot is the plat closure of the 4-braid
22 11 2 =
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Knots from braids

A non-trivial representation of its group using products of two

disjoint 2-cycles in S5 is given by the starting sequence
(g1 , g2 , g3 , g4 ) = ((25)(34), (25)(34), (13)(45), (13)(45))
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(25)(34)
(25)(34)
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(13)(45)
(13)(45)
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Knots from braids

(13)(45)
(14)(23)
(25)(34)
(25)(34)
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(13)(45)
(13)(45)
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Knots from braids

(14)(23)
(13)(45)
(12)(35)
(25)(34)
(25)(34)
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(13)(45)
(13)(45)
Knots
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Knots from braids

(14)(23)
(13)(45)
(13)(45)
(25)(34)
(25)(34)
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(12)(35)
(13)(45)
(13)(45)
Knots
Braids
(14)(23)
(14)(23)
Knots from braids

(13)(45)
(13)(45)
(12)(35)
(25)(34)
(25)(34)
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(13)(45)
(13)(45)
Knots
Braids
Knots from braids

(14)(23)
(14)(23)
(13)(45)
(13)(45)
(25)(34)
(25)(34)
(13)(45)
(13)(45)
The final sequence is

(g1 , g2 , g3 , g4 ) = ((14)(23), (14)(23), (13)(45), (13)(45)), which
satisfies the relations.
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Knots from braids

(14)(23)
(14)(23)
(13)(45)
(13)(45)
(25)(34)
(25)(34)
(13)(45)
(13)(45)
The final sequence is

(g1 , g2 , g3 , g4 ) = ((14)(23), (14)(23), (13)(45), (13)(45)), which
satisfies the relations.
The image of the knot group in this case is the group D(5) of
symmetries of a pentagon.
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Knots from braids

Taking G = S3 and using transpositions counts the classical

3-colourings of a knot.
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Knots from braids

Taking G = S3 and using transpositions counts the classical

3-colourings of a knot. A quick check shows that the figure eight
knot only admits trivial 3-colourings - those with the same
transposition in G used throughout.
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Braids
Knots from braids

Knots
Braids
Knots from braids

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Knots from braids

It is very easy to find a plat presentation from a diagram of a knot

K.
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Knots from braids


K.
Choose a direction in the plane.
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Knots from braids


K.
Choose a direction in the plane.
Move the local maxima and minima of the diagram to take all the
local maxima to the top and all the local minima to the bottom.
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Knots from braids

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Knots from braids

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The result is a plat presentation of K .
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Knots from braids

In a closed braid diagram the curves run monotonically around a

point.
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Knots from braids

In a closed braid diagram the curves run monotonically around a

point.
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Knots from braids

In R3 this corresponds to an axis around which the curves run.
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Knots from braids

Compactifying to work in S 3 the axis becomes an unknotted curve

A S 3 K with K running monotonically around the complement
S3 A
= S 1 R2 .
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Knots from braids

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The closure of a braid determines a link K A made up of the

closed braid K and axis A.
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Knots from braids

Conjugate braids determine isotopic links.
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Knots from braids

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Knots from braids

Conversely, any two braids determining isotopic links K A are

conjugate.
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Knots from braids

Conversely, any two braids determining isotopic links K A are

conjugate.
So closed braid + axis is a nice geometric counterpart of a
conjugacy class in Bn .
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Knots from braids

A closed braid presentation for K corresponds to finding a suitable

axis A S 3 K .
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axis A S 3 K .
The essential part is to ensure that K runs monotonically around A.
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axis A S 3 K .
The most efficient method in terms of preserving features of the
diagram of K is due to Yamada.
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Knots from braids


axis A S 3 K .
A more indirect approach of mine gives a quick existence proof,
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Knots from braids


axis A S 3 K .
along with the extra moves needed to pass between any two closed
braid presentations of the same knot.
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Knots from braids


axis A S 3 K .
along with the extra moves needed to pass between any two closed
braid presentations of the same knot.
See Threading knot diagrams 1986
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As demonstrated earlier, it is quite easy to use braids to deal with

representations of the group of a knot K , via plats or closed braids.
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Closed braids have also been used considerably in defining and
calculating polynomial invariants of K .
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There are nice recursive methods for finding the Jones polynomial,
and its extension the Homfly polynomial, given a closed braid
presentation of K .
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There are nice recursive methods for finding the Jones polynomial,
and its extension the Homfly polynomial, given a closed braid
presentation of K .
In this last case the braid is expressed as an element of the
finite-dimensional Hecke algebra, before the effect of closing it is
taken into account.
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The Homfly polynomial is also an extension of the classical

Alexander polynomial.
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The Burau representation of the braid group gives an established
way to calculate the Alexander polynomial of a closed braid.
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A less known variant of the Burau representation can be used to
deal neatly with the multivariable Alexander polynomial.
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A less known variant of the Burau representation can be used to
deal neatly with the multivariable Alexander polynomial. This
works most naturally for the link consisting of the closed braid and
its axis.
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Knots from braids

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Label the individual strings of Bn by t1 , . . . , tn , putting the

label tj on the string which starts from the point j at the bottom.
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Label the individual strings of Bn by t1 , . . . , tn , putting the

label tj on the string which starts from the point j at the bottom.
For example when = 1 21 1 21 1 21 3 we have
t1
t4
t2
t1
t4
t1
t3
t2
t2
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t3
t4
Knots
Braids
Write Ci (a) for the (n 1) (n 1) matrix which differs from the

unit matrix only in the three places shown on row i , for
1 i n 1.
1
..
.
Ci (a) =
a a 1
..
.
1
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Write Ci (a) for the (n 1) (n 1) matrix which differs from the

unit matrix only in the three places shown on row i , for
1 i n 1.
1
..
.
Ci (a) =
a a 1
..
.
1
When i = 1 or i = n 1 the matrix is truncated appropriately to

give two non-zero entries in row i .
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Now construct the coloured reduced Burau matrix B (t1 , . . . , tn )

of the general braid
l
Y
irr
=
r =1
as a product of matrices Ci (a), in which a is the label of the

current undercrossing string.
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Braids
Now construct the coloured reduced Burau matrix B (t1 , . . . , tn )

of the general braid
l
Y
irr
=
r =1
as a product of matrices Ci (a), in which a is the label of the

current undercrossing string.
Thus
B (t1 , . . . , tn ) =
l
Y
(Cir (ar ))r ,
r =1
where ar is the label of the undercrossing string at crossing r ,

counted from the top of the braid.
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In the example shown, where = 1 21 1 21 1 21 3 , the labels

a1 , . . . , a7 are t1 , t4 , t2 , t1 , t4 , t2 , t4 respectively and B is the
3 3 matrix product
C1 (t1 )C2 (t4 )1 C1 (t2 )C2 (t1 )1 C1 (t4 )C2 (t2 )1 C3 (t4 ).
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The braid determines a permutation Sn where the strings

run from position j at the bottom to position (j) at the top. In
our example above (1) = 1, (2) = 2, (3) = 4, (4) = 3.
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The braid determines a permutation Sn where the strings

run from position j at the bottom to position (j) at the top. In
our example above (1) = 1, (2) = 2, (3) = 4, (4) = 3.
Theorem The multivariable Alexander polynomial A
, where A
is given by the characteristic
is the axis of the closed n-braid ,
polynomial det(I xB (t1 , . . . , tn )) with the identifications of
variables t(j) = tj .
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The polynomial for the closed braid itself, without the axis, can be
found from the Torres-Fox formula.
H.R.Morton
Knots
Braids
In this case we must set x = 1, to suppress the axis, and divide by
1 t1 t2 . . . tn .
H.R.Morton
Knots
Braids
1 t1 t2 . . . tn .
A simple Maple procedure multiburau.maple implementing this
can be found on the Liverpool knot theory website.
H.R.Morton
Knots
Braids
1 t1 t2 . . . tn .
An older program for calculating the Homfly polynomial of a closed
braid can also be found there, as well as details of other papers.
H.R.Morton
Knots
Braids
1 t1 t2 . . . tn .
An older program for calculating the Homfly polynomial of a closed
braid can also be found there, as well as details of other papers.
(Google Hugh Morton to find them)
H.R.Morton

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Knots

Knots, braids and invariants

Barcelona October 2010

Knots, braids and invariants

Knots, braids and invariants

Knots, braids and invariants

A trefoil (overhand) knot,

Knots, braids and invariants

A trefoil (overhand) knot,

A figure eight knot.

Knots, braids and invariants

Join the two ends of the rope to make a closed curve.

Knots, braids and invariants

Join the two ends of the rope to make a closed curve.

Knots, braids and invariants

Join the two ends of the rope to make a closed curve.

Knots, braids and invariants

Join the two ends of the rope to make a closed curve.

Unknotted (trivial) curve.

Knots, braids and invariants

A knot K means a simple closed curve in Euclidean space R3 .

Knots, braids and invariants

A knot K means a simple closed curve in Euclidean space R3 .

Knots, braids and invariants

A knot K means a simple closed curve in Euclidean space R3 .

Knots, braids and invariants

A knot K means a simple closed curve in Euclidean space R3 .

Knots, braids and invariants

We can similarly use several closed curves - termed a link - such as

the Hopf link

Knots, braids and invariants

We can similarly use several closed curves - termed a link - such as

the Hopf link

the Borromean rings.

Knots, braids and invariants

We can similarly use several closed curves - termed a link - such as

the Hopf link

the Borromean rings.

Knots, braids and invariants

Knots, braids and invariants

Knots, braids and invariants

Knots, braids and invariants

Knots, braids and invariants

One powerful invariant is the fundamental group

Knots, braids and invariants

One powerful invariant is the fundamental group

Knots, braids and invariants

One powerful invariant is the fundamental group

Knots, braids and invariants

One powerful invariant is the fundamental group

Knots, braids and invariants

One powerful invariant is the fundamental group

Knots, braids and invariants

One powerful invariant is the fundamental group

Knots, braids and invariants

One powerful invariant is the fundamental group

Knots, braids and invariants

The Alexander polynomial K (t) Z[t 1 ] is a classical invariant

Knots, braids and invariants

The Alexander polynomial K (t) Z[t 1 ] is a classical invariant

Knots, braids and invariants

The Alexander polynomial K (t) Z[t 1 ] is a classical invariant

Knots, braids and invariants

The Alexander polynomial K (t) Z[t 1 ] is a classical invariant