Bilingualism

Considering bilingualism it is needed to give a definition of that notion as well as to

explain who a bilingual really is. As said by Uriel Weinreich, one of the pioneers in the study
of bilingualism, the practice of alternately using two languages is called Bilingualism and
the individuals involved Bilinguals1. Nevertheless, his theory is argued since it is a result of
Weinreich’s ignoring of factors such as the age at which each of the languages was acquired,
their context, the order of acquisition and the level of mastery achieved in each of
the aptitudes. Regarding bilingualism as interpreting competence, the interpreter must achieve
mastery of his working languages. The age at which the languages were acquired or
the context of this acquisition is the outcome of the learning process. One of the aspects of
such outcome are the skills commanded by the bilingual interpreter in both languages 2. As far
as language skills are concerned, the notion of bilingual is generally associated with
somebody who is capable of expressing himself in two different languages.

When attempt to determine the linguistic skills of the translator we can approach
the question with prescriptive criteria; we must ask what is the most desirable combination
of skills in which a translator must be specialized. There are three factors in play here:
(1) directionality (i.e., direct translation [L2>L1] versus inverse translation [L1>L2]);
(2) the modality (oral or written translation); (3) the specific language combination. In
the following Figure I have outlined the languages and skills in which the translator and
interpreter must be competent for the respective tasks of translating and interpreting3.

Oral reception Oral production Written reception Written

production
Direct translation L2 L1
Inverse translation L1 L2
Direct interpreting L2 L1
Inverse L2 L1
interpreting
Fig.3. Specialized skills in the translator and interpreter4

Bilingualism is generally divided into the social and the individual. In natural
conditions both types of bilingualism are correlative since communication existing and
1
E. Lipińska: Język ojczysty, język obcy, język drugi. Kraków: Uniwersytet Jagielloński 2003, p. 100.
2
Ch. Schäffner, B. Adab: Developing Translation Competence. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins,
Benjamins Translation Library 2000, pp. 20 – 21.
3
Ibidem.
4
Ibidem, p. 22.
functioning of bilingual society results from individual bilingualism of its members which is
indispensible for an individual who wants to effectively participate in a communication
activity among such society5.
The social bilingualism concerns two groups relatively separate which stay in touch on
the common territory. In this case a very important role play i.e. the amount of people,
economic, social, religious, and cultural conditions as well as language policy which leads to
balance6.
Among the variety of definitions of bilingualism concerning social bilingualism it can
be given a few such as:

Bilingualism occurs when in a particular country operate two languages at a time, which are
used by one national group comprising the majority of society7.

Bilingualism means everyday speaking two different languages by a particular social group.
Bilingualism is produced in the premises ethnically mixed up. The necessity of living
together makes the representatives of one social group use the native language of
the second one8.

The individual bilingualism is regarded and analyzed more often. When defining
the individual there must be regarded four criteria such as: origin, competence, usage and
attitude.
The most important and most applied are competence (proficiency) and usage (function).
For the classic and important definitions are regarded:

In the extreme case of foreign language learning, the speaker becomes so proficient as to be
indistinguishable from the native speakers round him (…). In the cases where this perfect
foreign – language learning is not accompanied by loss of the native language, it results in
bilingualism, [the] native – like control of two languages9.

Bilingualism is complete mastery of two different languages without interference between

the two linguistic processes10.

5
E. Lipińska: Język ojczysty…, p. 100.
6
Ibidem
7
Ibidem.
8
K. Polański: Encyklopedia językoznawstwa ogólnego. Wrocław: Ossolineum 1999, p. 130.
9
F. Grosjean: Life with Two Languages: An Introduction to Bilingualism. Cambridge: Harvard University Press
1982, p. 231.
10
T. Skutnabb – Kangas: Bilingualism or not: The Education of Minorities. London: Multilingual Matters 1981,
p. 82.
 A true bilingual is someone who is taken to be one of themselves by the members of two
different linguistic communities, at roughly the same social and cultural level11.

Among definitions of bilingualism which are based on usage criterion presents

William Mackey who says: “bilingualism is the alternate use of two or more languages by
the same individual”. He adds that: “bilingualism is not a phenomenon of language; it is
a characteristic of its use. It is not a feature of the code but of the message”12.
The best definition to sum up the aspect of bilingualism presents Guadalupe Valdés –
Fallis:

The word bilingual, as used by linguists, is a general term that includes varying degrees of
proficiency in two languages. Bilingual, from this perspective, does not mean that speakers
are perfectly balanced in their use or strengths in both their languages, but rather that they
can function, to whatever degree, in more than one language. Bilingual individuals, then,
may have in common only the fact, that they are not monolingual13.

11
F. Grosjean: Life with Two Languages…, p.231.
12
E. Lipińska: Język ojczysty…, p. 104.
13
G. Valdés – Fallis: Theory and Practice: Code – switching and the Classroom Teacher. Virginia: Center for
Applied Linguistics 1978, pp. 3 – 4.