Lecture

2: Transmission Fundamentals
& Communica6ons Networks
Dr. Shaolei Ren
sren@cs.u.edu

TCN6270 - Mobile and Wireless Networks

Recap
Classify signals
Digital versus analog
Periodic versus aperiodic

Uncertainty carries informa6on

The more random, the more informa6on

Channel capacity
Dened in terms of mutual informa6on
AWGN channel

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Mul6plexing
Capacity of transmission medium usually
exceeds capacity required for transmission of
a single signal
Mul6plexing
carrying mul6ple signals on a single medium
More ecient use of transmission medium
Share an expensive channel resource

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Mul6plexing

Mul6plexing Techniques
Frequency-division mul6plexing (FDM)
Takes advantage of the fact that the useful
bandwidth of the medium exceeds the required
bandwidth of a given signal

Time-division mul6plexing (TDM)

Takes advantage of the fact that the achievable bit
rate of the medium exceeds the required data
rate of a digital signal

TDM

TDMA
GSM network
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FDM

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Orthogonal Frequency-Division
Mul6plexing
Example applica6ons
Digital television and audio broadcas6ng
DSL broadband internet access
Wireless LAN (IEEE 802.11a, g, n), LTE

Orthogonality
cross-talk between the sub-channels is eliminated
and inter-carrier guard bands are not required
separate lter for each sub-channel is not
required
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CDM and SDM

Code-division mul6plexing
Space-division mul6plexing
Mul6ple-Input Mul6ple-Output (MIMO)
What is the advantage of having 2 antennas on a
wireless router?
Mul6plexing versus diversity

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Communica6on Networks

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Network Coverage
Wide Area Networks (WANS)
Span large areas (countries, con6nents, world)
Use leased phone lines (expensive!)
2000s: 2.5 Gbps
User access rates: 56Kbps 155 Mbps

Local Area Networks (LANS)

Span oce or building
Single hop (shared channel) (cheap!)
User rates: 10 Mbps 1 Gbps
e.g., Ethernet, Wireless LAN

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WAN versus LAN

Scope of a LAN is smaller
LAN interconnects devices within a single building
or cluster of buildings
LAN usually owned by organiza6on that owns the
aaached devices

For WANs, most of network assets are not

owned by same organiza6on
Internal data rate of LAN is much greater
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Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

Need for high capacity and low costs over large area
MAN provides
Service to customers in metropolitan areas
Required capacity
Lower cost and greater eciency than equivalent service
from telephone company

Func6onality
Interconnect a number of local area networks (LANs) using
a high-capacity backbone technology, such as ber-op6cal
links, and provides up-link services to wide area networks
(or WAN) and the Internet.
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Switching Techniques
What is a switch?
A switch is a telecommunica6on device which receives a
message from any device connected to it and then
transmits the message only to the device for which the
message was meant.
Like a hub!

Circuit Switching
Dedicated resources
Packet Switching
Shared resources
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Switch Network

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Circuit Switching
Each session is allocated a xed frac6on of the capacity on
each link along its path
Dedicated resources
Fixed path. If capacity is used, calls are blocked
Example: telephone network

Advantages of circuit switching

Fixed delays
Guaranteed con6nuous delivery

Disadvantages
Circuits are not used when session is idle
Inecient for bursty trac
Circuit switching usually done using a xed rate stream (e.g., 64
Kbps), and hence dicult to support variable data rates
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Phase of Circuit Switching

Circuit establishment
An end to end circuit is established through switching nodes

Informa6on Transfer
Informa6on transmiaed through the network
Data may be analog voice, digi6zed voice, or binary data

Circuit disconnect
Circuit is terminated
Each node deallocates dedicated resources

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Circuit Switching
Many data sessions are low duty factor (bursty)
(message transmission 6me)/(message interarrival 6me) << 1

The rate allocated to the session must be large enough to

meet the delay requirement. This allocated capacity is idle
when the session has nothing to send
If communica6on is expensive, then circuit switching is
uneconomic to meet the delay requirements of bursty trac
Also, circuit switching requires a call set-up during which
resources are not u6lized
If messages are much shorter than the call set-up 6me then
circuit switching is not economical (or even prac6cal)
More of a problem in high-speed networks
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Circuit Switching Example

Parameters

L = message lengths
= arrival rate of messages
R = channel rate in bits per second
X = message transmission delay = L/R
R must be large enough to keep X small
Bursty trac => x << 1 => low u6liza6on

Example

L = 1000 bytes (8000 bits)

= 1 message per second
X < 0.1 seconds (delay requirement)
=> R > 8000/0.1 = 80,000 bps
U6liza6on = 8000/80000 = 10%

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Packet Sw6ching

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Packet Sw6ching
Data is transmiaed in blocks, called packets
Before sending, the message is broken into a series of
packets
Packet length can be in the order of 1000 bytes
Packets consists of a por6on of data plus a packet header that
includes control informa6on

At each node en route, packet is received, stored briey

and passed to the next node

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Packet Switching

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Packet Switching--Datagram
Each packet treated independently, without reference to
previous packets
Each node chooses next node on packets path
Packets dont necessarily follow same route and may
arrive out of sequence
Packets may arrive out of order at the des6na6on
Exit node restores packets to original order
Responsibility of exit node or des6na6on to detect loss
of packet and how to recover
Call setup is not needed!
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Packet SwitchingVirtual Circuit

All packets associated with a session follow the same path
Route is chosen at start of session
Packets are labeled with a VC# designa6ng the route
The VC number must be unique on a given link but can change
from link to link
Imagine having to set up connec6ons between 1000 nodes in a
mesh
Unique VC numbers imply 1 Million VC numbers that must
be represented and stored at each node

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Packet SwitchingVirtual Circuit

For datagrams, addressing informa6on must uniquely
dis6nguish each network node and session
Need unique source and des6na6on addresses

For virtual circuits, only the virtual circuits on a link need be

dis6nguished by addressing
Global address needed to set-up virtual circuit
Once established, local virtual circuit numbers can then be used to
represent the virtual circuits on a given link

Advantage
Packets arrive in original order
Save on route computa6on
Need only be done once at start of session
Save on header size
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Circuit versus Packet Switching

Advantages of packet switching
Ecient for bursty data
Easy to provide bandwidth on demand with
variable rates

Disadvantages of packet switching

Variable delays
Dicult to provide QoS assurances (Best-eort
service)
Packets can arrive out-of-order
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Circuit versus Packet Switching

Can packet switched network be used for connec6on
oriented trac (e.g., voice)?
Need for Quality of service (QoS) mechanisms in packet
networks
Guaranteed bandwidth

Guaranteed delays
Guaranteed delay varia6ons
Packet loss rate

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OSI Model
OSI Model
Data unit

Layer

Func6on

7. Applica6on

Network process to applica6on

6. Presenta6on

Data representa6on, encryp6on and decryp6on, convert

machine dependent data to machine independent data

5. Session

Interhost communica6on, managing sessions between

applica6ons

Segments

4. Transport

End-to-end connec6ons, reliability and ow control

Packet/Datagram

3. Network

Path determina6on and logical addressing

Frame

2. Data link

Physical addressing

Bit

1. Physical

Modula6on, signal transmission

Data
Host
layers

Media
layers

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Layers
Presenta6on layer
Provides character code conversion, data encryp6on, data
compression, etc.

Session layer
Obtains virtual end to end message service from transport layer
Provides directory assistance, access rights, billing func6ons,
etc.

Standardiza6on has not proceeded well here, since transport

to applica6on are all in the opera6ng system and don't really
need standard interfaces

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Transport Layer
The network layer provides a virtual end to end packet pipe
to the transport layer.
The transport layer provides a virtual end to end message
service to the higher layers.
The func6ons of the transport layer are
1) Break messages into packets and reassemble packets of size
suitable to network layer
2) Mul6plex sessions with same source/des6na6on nodes
3) Re-sequence packets at des6na6on
4) Recover from residual errors and failures
5) Provide end-to-end ow control
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Network Layer
The network layer module accepts incoming packets from the
transport layer and transit packets from the data link layer
It routes each packet to the proper outgoing data link layer or
(if at the des6na6on) to the transport layer
Typically, the network layer adds its own header to the
packets received from the transport layer. This header
provides the informa6on needed for rou6ng (e.g., des6na6on
address)

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Network Layer
Each node contains one network layer module
plus one link layer module per link

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Data Link Layer

Responsible for error-free transmission of packets across a
single link
Framing
Determine the start and end of packets
Error detec6on
Determine which packets contain transmission errors
Error correc6on
Retransmission schemes (Automa6c Repeat Request (ARQ))

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Mul6ple Access
Mul6plexing techniques can be extended to
mul6ple access method
TDM -> TDMA
FDM -> FDMA
Sta6s6cal mul6plexing -> CSMA

Mul6plexing versus mul6ple access

Mul6plexing: physical layer
Mul6ple access: MAC layer (part of data link layer,
the other is Logic Link Control)
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Random Access MAC Protocols

Users aaempt to access the channel in an uncoordinated
manner
Collisions detected at des6na6on
Des6na6on sends ACKs

Vulnerable period (Vp)

6me interval during which packets are suscep6ble to collisions with
transmissions from other users

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Some Random Access Approaches

ALOHA
Pure ALOHA
Sloaed-ALOHA

CSMA: carrier sense mul6ple access

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ALOHA
Pure ALOHA
Nodes transmit whenever have informa6on to send
No channel occupancy sensing
Nodes transmit packets at arbitrary 6mes
Collisions occur if packet transmissions overlap by any amount of 6me
If no ACK received, packet assumed lost in collision and retransmiaed later

Sloaed ALOHA
Can increase eciency of ALOHA using sloaed system
Transmission 6me divided into 6me slots, each slot equal to packet Tx 6me
All users synchronized to these 6me slots
Packets held un6l next 6me slot for transmission if generated in-between
transmission slots
Synchroniza6on achieved by transmiung periodic synch pulses from one
designated sta6on in the network

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Pure ALOHA
Basis of Ethernet and Wi-Fi

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Sloaed ALOHA
Used in low-data-rate satellite communica6ons networks by
military forces, in subscriber-based satellite communica6ons
networks, mobile telephony call setup, and in the contactless RFID
technologies.

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Throughput of Pure ALOHA

Assump6on
All frames have the same length
Nodes cannot generate a frame while transmiung or trying to
transmit.
The popula6on of sta6ons aaempts to transmit (both new frames and
old frames that collided) according to a Poisson distribu6on.

Channel throughput S
average number of successful transmissions per 6me interval Tp

Total trac load G

Average number of transmissions aaempted per packet 6me Tp,
including new packets as well as retransmissions of old packets
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Throughput of Pure ALOHA

Vulnerable period: 2Tp
Probability of k aaempted packet transmissions in 2Tp

Throughput:

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Throughput of Pure ALOHA

Maximum throughput 18.4%
When G=0.5
Sloaed ALOHA increases the throughput to 36.8% (when G=1)

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Carrier Sense Mul6ple Access

Probabilis6c MAC protocol
A transmiaer veries the absence of other trac before
occupying a shared transmission medium

CSMA with collision detec6on

Termina6ng transmission as soon as a collision is detected,
and reducing the probability of a second collision on retry.

CSMA with collision avoidance

If the channel is sensed busy before transmission then the
transmission is deferred for a "random" interval

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CSMA
1-persistent
Sense the medium con6nually un6l it becomes idle. In case of a
collision, the sender waits for a random period of 6me and aaempts
to transmit again (e.g., Ethernet)

p-persistent
Sense the medium con6nually un6l it becomes idle. When idle,
transmit with a probability of p (e.g., Wi-Fi)

Non-persistent
If channel idle, node transmits data. If channel busy, node waits a
randomly selected interval of 6me before sensing again
Good at high trac loads, but poor performance at low trac loads
due to wai6ng
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Physical Layer
Responsible for transmission of bits over a link
Propaga6on delays
Time it takes the signal to travel from the source to the des6na6on
Signal travel approximately at the speed of light, c = 3x10^8 m/s
e.g.,
LEO satellite: d = 1000 km => 3.3 ms prop. Delay
GEO satellite: d = 40,000 km => 1/8 sec prop. Delay
Ethernet cable: d = 1 km => 3 s prop. delay

Transmission errors
Signals experience power loss due to aaenua6on
Transmission is impaired by noise
In reality channel errors are oyen bursty
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Encapsula6on

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