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IMPERFECTIONS IN SOLIDS
Why study imperfections?
Crystalline defects drive most material
behaviors, both good and bad.
Diffusion/alloying (Ch. 5)
Deformation/strengthening (Ch. 6, 7, 8)
Corrosion (Ch. 17)
Semiconductors (Ch. 18)
Optical properties (Ch. 21)
Control defects control properties!
K. M. Flores
Materials Science & Engineering
4-1
TYPES OF IMPERFECTIONS
Vacancy atoms
Interstitial atoms
Substitutional atoms
Dislocations
Grain Boundaries
Surfaces
K. M. Flores
Materials Science & Engineering
4-2
Vacancies:
POINT DEFECTS
Vacancy
distortion
of planes
Self-Interstitials:
selfinterstitial
distortion
of planes
K. M. Flores
Materials Science & Engineering
4-3
EQUILIBRIUM CONCENTRATION:
POINT DEFECTS
Equilibrium concentration varies with temperature!
-QD
ND
= exp kT
N
Boltzmann's constant
(1.38 x 10-23 J/atom K)
(8.62 x 10-5 eV/atom K)
Each lattice site is a
potential vacancy
site
K. M. Flores
Materials Science & Engineering
4-4
-Q
ND
= exp D
kT
N
Measure this...
Replot it...
ND
ln
ND
slope
exponential
dependence!
-QD/k
1/T
K. M. Flores
Materials Science & Engineering
4-5
ESTIMATING DEFECT
CONCENTRATION
Find the equil. # of vacancies in 1 m3 of Cu at 1000C (1273 K)
Given:
= 8.4 g/cm3
QV = QD = 0.9 eV/atom
-QD
ND =
exp
kT
1273K
8.62 x 10-5 eV/atom-K
Answer: ND =
K. M. Flores
Materials Science & Engineering
4-6
Reprinted with permission from Nature (K.F. McCarty, J.A. Nobel, and N.C. Bartelt, "Vacancies in
Solids and the Stability of Surface Morphology",
Nature, Vol. 412, pp. 622-625 (2001). Image is
5.75 m by 5.75 m.) Copyright (2001) Macmillan Publishers, Ltd.
K. M. Flores
Materials Science & Engineering
4-7
OR
4-8
ALLOYING AT A SURFACE
Low energy electron
microscope view of a single
crystal Cu surface in vacuum at
17C.
As Sn islands move along the
Cu surface, Sn dissolves into
Cu to make bronze, a
substitutional solid solution alloy
of Sn in Cu.
The Sn islands continually
move onto "unalloyed" regions
and leave tiny bronze particles
in their wake.
Eventually, the islands
disappear.
Reprinted with permission from: A.K. Schmid, N.C. Bartelt, and R.Q. Hwang, "Alloying at Surfaces by
the Migration of Reactive Two-Dimensional Islands", Science, Vol. 290, No. 5496, pp. 1561-64 (2000).
Field of view is 1.5 m and the temperature is 290K.
K. M. Flores
Materials Science & Engineering
4-9
COMPOSITION
Definition: Amount of impurity (B) and host (A) in the system.
Two descriptions:
Weight %
Atom %
CB =
CB =
CBAB
CAAA + CBAB
x 100
CB =
CB/AB
CA/AA + CB/AB
x 100
K. M. Flores
Materials Science & Engineering
Crystal planes
aligned
slip steps
at surface
K. M. Flores
Materials Science & Engineering
4-11
Dislocation line
slip plane
4-12
K. M. Flores
Materials Science & Engineering
4-13
close-packed directions
close-packed plane (top)
Mg (HCP)
tensile direction
Al (FCC)
K. M. Flores
Materials Science & Engineering
4-14
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
ion cores
electron
cloud
K. M. Flores
Materials Science & Engineering
4-15
Schematic
Metal Ingot
~ 8 cm
grain
boundaries
heat
flow
K. M. Flores
Materials Science & Engineering
Adapted from Fig. 4.10, Callister 6e. (Fig. 4.10 is from Metals
Handbook, Vol. 9, 9th edition, Metallography and Microstructures, Am.
Society for Metals, Metals Park, OH, 1985.)
4-16
OBSERVATION OF GRAINS
Optical microscopy (up to 2000x) can be used to see grains
Sample surface first polished to mirror finish
Acid etch attacks grain boundaries and gives surface reflectance that
varies with crystal orientation.
microscope
microscope
polished surface
close-packed
planes
surface groove
grain boundary
micrograph of
Brass (Cu and Zn)
Fe-Cr alloy
0.75mm
K. M. Flores
Materials Science & Engineering
4-17
OBSERVATION OF GRAINS
Focused Ion Beam (FIB) and Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM)
can combine to produce 3D images of grains/defects
ion beam
(e.g. Ga+)
e- beam
Images courtesy R. Williams, OSU.
to e- detector
atoms removed
from specimen
Cantilever beams
for sectioning
Polycrystalline
Ni-superalloy
35 m
K. M. Flores
Materials Science & Engineering
4-18
SUMMARY
Point, Line, and Area defects arise in solids.
The number and type of defects can be varied
and controlled (e.g., T controls vacancy conc.)
Defects affect material properties (e.g., grain
boundaries affect crystal slip).
Defects may be desirable or undesirable
(e.g., dislocations may be good or bad, depending
on whether plastic deformation is desirable or not.)
K. M. Flores
Materials Science & Engineering
4-19
10