Tyler Dhaliwal

Science Study Guide

Mon/June/2nd/14

Unit 1: Biology
Plant and Animal Cells
All of biology is based upon the three simple concepts described by the Cell Theory:

All living things are made up of one or more cells and their products
The cell is the simplest unit capable of carrying out life processes
All cells come from pre-existing cells

Cells are categorized into two main groups:

Prokaryotic Cells Simple cells such as yeast and E-coli which do not contain a nucleus or organelles.
Eukaryotic Cells Complex unicellular of multicellular organisms which do contain a nucleus and
membrane-bound organelles such as amoeba or plant and animal cells.

Cell Structure
Scientists have used fluorescent aided confocal microscopy, multiphoton microscopy, and digital holographic
microscopy to enhance our understanding of cell composition. Eukaryotic cells contain membrane-bound organelles,
which perform a specific function for the cell to keep it alive. These organelles include:
Organelle
Cytoplasm

Cell
Membrane

Nucleus

Mitochondria

Endoplasmic
Reticulum

Golgi Bodies

Vacuole(s)

Cell Wall

1 | Page

Function
- All of the organelles are suspended in the cytoplasm
- Comprised mostly of water, but also contains other stored substances for later use
- Chemical reactions occur in the cytoplasm, altering its composition (gelatinous to liquid)
which allows the organelles to move around
- A flexible, double-layered, semi-permeable membrane which controls the transport of
substances to and from the cell
- Eukaryotic cells have similar membranes surrounding its organelles
- Roughly spherical structure which contains genetic information that controls the cells
activities
- Genetic information (DNA) is stored in chromosomes
- Called the power-plants of the cell as they make energy available to the cell
- Active cells where cellular respiration occurs quickly, such as muscle cells, contain more
mitochondria than less active cells such as fat storage cells
- Contain enzymes that convert stored glucose into energy (cellular respiration)
- 3-D network of branching, fluid-filled tubes and pockets found throughout the cytoplasm
responsible for transporting materials, such as proteins, throughout the cell
- Fulfils: Muscle contraction in muscles and hormone production and release in the brain
- Collect and process materials to be removed from the cell
- Make and secrete mucus: Cells that secrete a lot of mucus, such as those that line the
intestines, have many golgi bodies
- A single layer of membrane enclosing fluid in a sac which contains/removes substances
- Mature plant cells contain one large central vacuole which takes up most of its space and
regulates its turgor pressure to keep the cells plump and the stems and leaves firm
- Animal cells can contain multiple, smaller vacuoles
- Engulfing process - a portion of the cell membrane turns inside out and forms a vacuole
inside the cell until the engulfed object is digested. Once the vacuole joins up with the cell
membrane, waste material is ejected. Specific to animal cells, this is exemplified by amoeba
to obtain food.
- Found just outside the cell membrane, it is a rigid and porous membrane made of cellulose
which may hold together after the plant dies (paper)
- Provides support for the cell and protects it from injury

Cell
Both

Both

Both

Both

Both

Both

Both

Plant

Tyler Dhaliwal

Chloroplasts

Science Study Guide

Mon/June/2nd/14

- Contain chlorophyll (which gives leaves their colour) which absorbs light energy for
photosynthesis
- Only plant cells exposed to light contain chloroplasts (i.e. leaves vs. onion cells)

Plant

The following diagrams depict the location and type of organelles present in plant and animal cells.

A Typical Compound Microscope

- A compound light microscope has its own light source and at
least two lenses an ocular lens and an objective lens
- To find the magnification of a compound microscope, utilise
the following formula:
Microscope = Ocular Lens X Objective Lens
Magnification
Magnification
Magnification
- When estimating the size of a specimen, there are three
possible fields of view:
Low power magnification (40x) 4200 m
Medium power magnification (100x) 1680 m
High power magnification (400x) 420 m
In order to estimate a specimens size, you must divide the
diameter of the field of view by the number of times the
specimen can fit across the field of view:
Specimen =
Field of View Diameter
Size
# of times specimen can fit across the FoV

Lab Drawings and Slide Preparation

Preparing a Wet Mount Slide
1. Place a drop of water on a clean slide
2. Place the material to be mounted on the water drop
3. Hold the coverslip touching the slide at a 45 angle
4. Slide the coverslip along the slide until it touches the
water
5. Let the surface tension pull the coverslip in place
6. Remove excess water from outside the coverslip
Tip(s): No air bubbles

2 | Page

Guidelines for Lab Drawings

1. Must be drawn on the provided diagram paper
2. Must be drawn in pencil (preferably HB)
3. Labels printed in an even column on the right side
4. Label lines are parallel, drawn with a ruler, and do
not have arrows
5. Title must be specific and appropriate
6. View is usually Whole Mount
Tip(s): Largest possible drawing, draw distinct lines

Tyler Dhaliwal

Science Study Guide

Mon/June/2nd/14

The Cell Cycle

- The cell cycle is important simply because it allows organisms to grow, reproduce, and repair damage.
Reproduction Occurs asexually or sexually in which the later requires the division of two parent cells
while the prior requires the interaction of gametes (sex cells) produced through meiosis to produce a
genetically different child.
Growth Cells cannot simply grow larger because transporting chemicals and water would take too long
and impede cellular function, so in order to grow, organisms make more cells.
Repair Cells that are broken, damaged, or shed need to be replaced.
- Cells divide when the nucleus receives signals from proteins in the cell which instruct it to divide. However, the
cell will remain in interphase if; it does not have enough nutrients, the DNA has not been duplicated, or if the DNA
is damaged.
- Plant and animal cells require energy, nutrients, water, and gases for proper function, all of which are transported
across the cell membrane by the following processes:
Osmosis The diffusion of only water. The water moves from an area of low solute concentration to an
area of high solute concentration to dilute the chemicals.
Diffusion The movement of chemicals from an area of high concentration to an area of low
concentration.

Cell Division
- Cell division is comprised of 3 stages (highlighted) and 4 phases (underlined) known by the acronym IPMATC:
- Note that the stage mitosis is comprised of the 4 phases, hence its exclusion from the acronym.
Interphase

Mitosis

Cytokinesis

Prophase Metaphase Anaphase Telophase

Interphase: The nucleolus and nuclear envelope are distinct and the chromosomes are in the form of chromatin.
The cell carries out all life activities except division such as growth and respiration
DNA is in long thin strands called chromatin
The chromatin are duplicated so that there are 2 identical strands
More organelles are also formed
Longest stage of a cells life, it may even comprise the majority of its life
In animal cells, the centrosomes (microtubule organization centre) divide to create centrioles in a
9+3 ring formation
Prophase: The chromosomes appear condensed and the nuclear envelope disintegrates into vesicles (not apparent).
After duplication, the chromatin condense into daughter chromosomes
Each chromosome consists of two sister chromatids joined at the centre by a centromere
The nuclear envelope disappears so that the chromosomes can leave the nucleus
Centrioles begin moving to opposite sides of the cell (poles)
Metaphase: The daughter chromosomes are aligned in the center of the cell by spindle fibres
Thick, coiled chromosomes line up in the center of the cell (equatorial plane)
Centrioles (now called mitotic spindles) are positioned at the poles of the cell
Spindle fibres attach to the kinetochores (protein complexes in the centromeres) and arms of
chromosomes. Note that there are two types of spindle fibre; Kinetochore microtubules (the ones
previously mentioned) and polar microtubules which attach to the poles of the cell.
Anaphase: The daughter chromosomes have separated and begin moving towards the poles.
The centromere splits and the chromosomes split into two sister chromatids

3 | Page

Tyler Dhaliwal

Science Study Guide

Mon/June/2nd/14

The cell also elongates due to the polar microtubules

The sister chromatids are pulled apart by the kinetochore microtubules towards the poles of the
cell
The kinetochore microtubules degrade after this phase
Telophase: The chromosomes become more diffuse at the poles as a new nuclear envelope forms around them.
The cell continues to elongate as the polar microtubules lengthen
The sister chromatids de-condense into chromatin in the new nuclear envelope that forms around
them from stored vesicles from prophase
There now appears to be two nuclei as the cytoplasm begins to divide
Cytokinesis: The full division of the cell.
The cytoplasm fully divides, and two new identical cells known as daughter cells are formed
In animal cells, the cell membrane pinches off
In plant cells, a plate between the two new cells forms a new cell wall
The Cell Cycle in Diagrams

Interphase

Prophase

Metaphase

Centrioles

Anaphase

Telophase

Cytokinesis

Cancer
Cancer is a broad group of diseases that result from uncontrolled cell division, despite messages from the nucleus or
surrounding cells to stop growing or dividing. The following important terms are defined below:
Tumour A mass of cells that continue to grow and divide without any obvious function in the body.
Benign Tumour A tumour that does not affect surrounding tissues other than by physically crowding
them.
Malignant Tumour A tumour that interferes with the functioning of surrounding cells; a cancerous cell.
Metastasis The process of cancer cells breaking away from the original (primary) tumour and
establishing another (secondary) tumour
- Cancer is caused by three factors: Gene mutations, carcinogens, or hereditary.
- Cancer screening (endoscopy, MRI, CT scan, X-rays) does not prevent cancer, but allows for early detection.
- Mole analysis can also detect cancer in which benign moles are symmetric, have a thin border, are brown, and
small while malignant moles are asymmetric, have thick borders, are reddish-brown/black, and large.
- Cancer is treated by surgery, chemotherapy, radiation, and biophotonics.
- Additional terms: Cancer genes are called oncogenes, angiogenesis is the process in which a tumour forces the
body to provide it with nutrients (a blood supply), and cellular suicide (an ability cancer cells have lost) is referred to
as apoptosis.

4 | Page

Tyler Dhaliwal

Science Study Guide

Mon/June/2nd/14

Unit 2: Chemistry
General Tips
- Always place units at the end of each number
- Always place state symbols at the end of each chemical formula (i.e. CO2 (g))
- Acids and bases are always aqueous (aq)
- If a question ever states . A gas that turns limewater cloudy., it is referring to CO 2
- If a question ever states . A liquid that turns cobalt chloride paper from blue to pink., it is referring to H 2O
- If a question ever states . Burnt or heated., it is referring to the presence of oxygen, and therefore an oxide
Also note that the question could also say, . And a gas that ignites a glowing splint.
- If a question ever states . A gas which makes a burning splint pop., it is referring to hydrogen gas
Also note that when an acid reacts with a metal, it usually produces hydrogen gas

Mass Changes in a Chemical Reaction

Developed by Antoine Lavoisier, the law of conservation of mass states that in any given chemical reaction, the total
mass of the reactants is equivalent to the total mass of the products.
This proves true simply because atoms cannot be created nor destroyed, but rearranged, thus forming different
products. This also explains the need to balance chemical equations.
Note that the term products refers to anything created by the interaction between the reactants, including the
formation of precipitates and other solutions. However, gases may also be produced, which when not properly
contained, lead the observer to believe that the reaction has defied the law of conservation of mass. But by simply
containing the gas or accounting for the gas in the following equation, this law remains true.
For example, the burning of 1000 kg of coal forming 27 kg of ash seems to defy the law of conservation of mass.
However, a gas (carbon dioxide) is also a product of this reaction, which if contained would account for the other
973 kg of missing mass.
Using the example above, an equation for calculating an unknown mass should look something like the following:
G: 1000 kg of coal (carbon) as a reactant
27 kg of carbon as a product
U: Mass of the gas =?
E: Solution A + Heat -----> Solution B + gas
S: Carbon + Heat -----> Carbon + CO2
1000kg
=
27kg + x
1000kg 27kg = x
973kg= x
S: Therefore, 973kg of carbon dioxide was also produced

Types of Chemical Reactions

In chemistry, there exists five types of chemical reactions: synthesis, decomposition, single displacement, double
displacement, and combustion.
Synthesis Reaction A reaction in which two (or more) reactants combine to make a larger or more complex
product; general pattern - A + B = AB. Example: Zn(s) + S(s) = ZnS(s)

5 | Page

Tyler Dhaliwal

Science Study Guide

Mon/June/2nd/14

Decomposition Reaction A reaction in which a large or complex molecule breaks down to form two (or more)
simpler products; general pattern - AB -----> A + B. Example: Energy + 2H2O(l) -----> 2H2(g) + O2(g).
Single Displacement Reaction A reaction in which an element displaces another element in a compound,
producing a new compound and a new element. General pattern: A +BC -----> AC + B. Example: C (s) + NiO(s) --->
Ni(s) + CO(g)
Double Displacement Reaction A reaction that occurs when elements in different compounds displace each other,
producing two new compounds. General pattern: AB + CD ---> AC + BD.
Ex. AgNo3(aq) + NaCl(aq) ---> AgCl(s) + NaNo3(aq)
Combustion The rapid reaction of a substance with OXYGEN to produce oxides and energy. Two types,
complete and incomplete. In the prior, which occurs in an oxygen-rich environment, the products are carbon dioxide
and water. Example: CH4(g) + 2O2(g) ---> CO2(g) + 2H2O(g) + energy. While in the latter, which occurs in an oxygendeficient environment, the products are carbon, carbon dioxide, water, and carbon monoxide. Example:
C4H10 + 5O2 ---> 2CO2 + 5H2O + CO + C + energy
Tips:

Synthesis reactions are the reverse of decomposition reactions and vice versa
In both displacement reactions, metals can only displace metals and non-metals can only displace nonmetals
When trying to figure out which one of the two displacement reactions apply for a certain reaction, look for
either an isolated element (single displacement) or just lots compounds (double displacement)
Combustion reactions occur with not only hydrocarbons, but with some elements, such as magnesium, as
well. Hence their similarity to synthesis reactions.

Acids & Bases

Acid A compound that dissolves in water to produce hydrogen ions in the solution. Sour in taste, reacts with some
metals to produce hydrogen gas, good conductor of electricity in solution (electrolytes), and reacts with bases to
produce a salt and water.
Base - A compound that dissolves in water to produce hydroxide ions in the solution. Bitter in taste, slippery and
soapy to the touch, good conductor of electricity in solution (electrolytes), and reacts with an acid to produce a salt
and water.
Indicator
Litmus Paper
Methyl Orange
Phenolphthalein
Neutral Bromothymol Blue

Colour in Acid
Red
Red
Colourless
Yellow

Colour in Base
Blue
Yellow/Orange
Pink
Blue

The following are binary acids that you must have memorised:
Hydrofluoric acid HF
Hydrobromic acid - HBr
Hydrochloric acid- HCl
Hydrosulphuric acid H2S
The following are oxyacids that you must have memorised:
Acetic acid HC2H3O2
Carbonic acid H2CO3
Phosphoric acid H3PO4
Nitric acid HNO3
Sulphuric acid H2SO4
The following are bases that you must have memorised:
Sodium hydroxide NaOH
Magnesium hydroxide Mg(OH)2
Calcium hydroxide Ca(OH)2
Aluminum hydroxide Al(OH)3
Ammonium hydroxide NH4OH
Baking soda NaHCO3

The Ph Scale
Ph stands for the power of hydrogen or the concentration of hydrogen in a solution. The more acidic a solution is,
the lower its Ph value, while the more basic a solution is, the greater its Ph value.

6 | Page

Tyler Dhaliwal

Science Study Guide

Mon/June/2nd/14

The scale range from 0-14 in which 0 is the most acidic, 7 is neutral, and 14 is the most basic.
To find out how much more acidic/basic one substance is than the other, count the number of steps from their
respective Ph values and use that number as the power of 10. For example, if you wanted to know how much more
basic borax is than tomatoes, you would first count the number of steps separating their Ph values. In this case, from
a Ph of 4 to a Ph of 8 is a total of 4 steps. Then use this number as the power of 10 to determine the answer to this
question. In this case 104 = 10 000, therefore borax is 10 000x more basic than tomatoes.
When describing the Ph value of a substance, it is slightly acidic/basic when it is closer to neutral and highly
acidic/basic when it is closer to 0 or 14.

Neutralization Reaction
All acid-base neutralizations are double displacement reactions.
They occur between an acid and a base which are not at an even strength, but are more effective when they are
equally strong.
All acid-base neutralization reactions produce a salt (ionic compound) and water.
When an acid-base neutralization reaction occurs, pink phenolphthalein turns transparent.

7 | Page