Fundamentals of Harmonics

With the exception of the incandescent light bulb, every load today creates harmonics.
Unfortunately, these loads vary with respect to their amount of harmonic content and response to
problems caused by harmonics.
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Harmonics: It surfaced as a buzzword in the early 1980s, making many people reconsider the
effectiveness of their building's wiring system. Yet, many still view the concept as a relatively
new phenomenon. However, harmonics have been around since well before the early '80s: The
associated problems existed in the electrical world way back when transistor tubes were first
used in the 1930s. Aside from grounding, many deem harmonics as one of the greatest concerns
for the power quality industry today. In this issue, we'll discuss the fundamentals of harmonics
and the problems it can cause within the premises wiring system.

What is harmonics?
We define harmonics as voltages or currents at frequencies that are a multiple of the fundamental
frequency. In most systems, the fundamental frequency is 60 Hz. Therefore, harmonic order is
120 Hz, 180 Hz, 240 Hz and so on. (For European countries with 50 Hz systems, the harmonic
order is 100 Hz, 150 Hz, 200 Hz, etc.)
We usually specify these orders by their harmonic number or multiple of the fundamental
frequency. For example, a harmonic with a frequency of 180 Hz is known as the third harmonic
(60x3 = 180). In this case, for every cycle of the fundamental waveform, there are three complete
cycles of the harmonic waveforms. The even multiples of the fundamental frequency are known
as even-order harmonics while the odd multiples are known as the odd-order harmonics.

How do we create harmonics?

Up until 1980, all loads were known as linear. This means if the voltage input to a piece of
equipment is a sine wave, the resultant current waveform generated by the load is also a sine
wave, as seen in Fig. 1 (in the original text).
In 1981, manufacturers of electronic hardware converted to an efficient type of internal power
supply known as a switch-mode power supply (SMPS). The SMPS converts the applied voltage
sine wave to a distorted current waveform that resembles alternating current pulses, as seen in
Fig. 2 (in the original text). Obviously, the load doesn't exhibit a constant impedance throughout
the applied AC voltage waveform.
Most utilization equipment today creates harmonics. In all likelihood, if a device converts AC
power to DC power (or vice versa) as part of its steady-state operation, it's considered a

harmonic current-generating device. These include uninterruptible power supplies, copiers, PCs,
etc.

What are the effects of harmonics?

The biggest problem with harmonics is voltage waveform distortion. You can calculate a
relationship between the fundamental and distorted waveforms by finding the square root of the
sum of the squares of all harmonics generated by a single load, and then dividing this number by
the nominal 60 Hz waveform value. You do this by a mathematical calculation known as a Fast
Fourier Transform (FFT) theorem. (FFT is beyond the scope of this article. IEEE's Standard
Dictionary of Electrical and Electronic Terms gives a definition of Fourier series.) This
calculation method determines the total harmonic distortion (THD) contained within a nonlinear
current or voltage waveform.

Triplen harmonics
Electronic equipment generates more than one harmonic frequency. For example, computers
generate 3rd, 9th, and 15th harmonics. These are known as triplen harmonics. They are of a
greater concern to engineers and building designers because they do more than distort voltage
waveforms. They can overheat the building wiring, cause nuisance tripping, overheat transformer
units, and cause random end-user equipment failure.

Circuit overloading
Harmonics can cause overloading of conductors and transformers and overheating of utilization
equipment, such as motors. Triplen harmonics can especially caus e overheating of neutral
conductors on 3-phase, 4-wire systems. While the fundamental frequency and even harmonics
cancel out in the neutral conductor, odd-order harmonics are additive. Even in a balanced load
condition, neutral currents can reach magnitudes as high as 1.73 times the average phase current.
This additional loading creates more heat, which breaks down the insulation of the neutral
conductor. In some cases, it can break down the insulation between windings of a transformer. In
both cases, the result is a fire hazard. But, you can diminish this potential damage by using sound
wiring practices.
When most electrical engineers design the building's wiring, they usually leave the sizing of the
neutral conductor to the dictates of NEC. In most cases, the installed neutral is the same size as
the phase conductors. However, the Notes to the Ampacity Tables (in NEC Art. 310) instruct you
to consider the neutral conductor as a current-carrying conductor if electronic equipment or
electronic ballasts are used at the site. This correlates into the neutral conductors being sized
larger than they would be with conventional wiring means.
To be on the safe side, more engineers are doubling the size of the neutral conductor for feeder
circuits to panelboards and branch circuit partition wiring to handle the additive harmonic
currents.

Origin of harmonics
General rules of electrical installation design
Connection to the MV utility distribution network
Connection to the LV utility distribution network
MV and LV architecture selection guide for buildings
LV Distribution
Protection against electric shocks and electric fires
Sizing and protection of conductors
LV switchgear: functions and selection
Overvoltage protection
Energy Efficiency in electrical distribution
Power Factor Correction
Power harmonics management

Detect and eliminate harmonics: why?

Definition and origin of harmonics

Definition of harmonics

Origin of harmonics

Essential indicators of harmonic distortion and measurement principles

o

Power factor

Crest factor

Harmonic spectrum

r.m.s. values

Usefulness of the various indicators of Harmonic distortion

Harmonic measurement in electrical networks

Main effects of harmonics in electrical installations

o

Resonance

Increased losses

Overload of equipment

Disturbances affecting sensitive loads

Economic impact

Harmonics standards

Solutions to mitigate harmonics

o

Basic solutions to mitigate harmonics

Harmonic filtering

o The method to optimize harmonics mitigation

Characteristics of particular sources and loads
PhotoVoltaic (PV) installation
Residential and other special locations
ElectroMagnetic Compatibility (EMC)

Contents

1- Harmonic currents

2- Harmonic voltages

3- Flow of harmonic currents in distribution networks

Harmonic currents
Equipment comprising power electronics circuits are typical non-linear loads and generate
harmonic currents. Such loads are increasingly frequent in all industrial, commercial and

residential installations and their percentage in overall electrical consumption is growing

steadily.
Examples include:

Industrial equipment (welding machines, arc and induction furnaces, battery

chargers),

Variable Speed Drives for AC or DC motors,

Uninterruptible Power Supplies,

Office equipment (PCs, printers, servers, etc.),

Household appliances (TV sets, microwave ovens, fluorescent lighting, light

dimmers).

Harmonic voltages
In order to understand the origin of harmonic voltages, let's consider the simplified diagram on
Fig. M3.

Fig. M3 : Single-line diagram showing the impedance of the supply circuit for a non-linear load
The reactance of a conductor increases as a function of the frequency of the current flowing
through the conductor. For each harmonic current (order h), there is therefore an impedance Zh in
the supply circuit.
The total system can be split into different circuits:

One circuit representing the flow of current at the fundamental frequency,

One circuit representing the flow of harmonic currents.

Fig. M4 : Split of circuit into fundamental and harmonic circuits

When the harmonic current of order h flows through impedance Zh, it creates a harmonic voltage
Uh, where Uh = Zh x Ih (by Ohm's law).
The voltage at point B is therefore distorted. All devices supplied via point B receive a distorted
voltage.
For a given harmonic current, the voltage distortion is proportional to the impedance in the
distribution network.

Flow of harmonic currents in distribution networks

The non-linear loads can be considered to inject the harmonic currents upstream into the
distribution network, towards the source. The harmonic currents generated by the different loads
sum up at the busbar level creating the harmonic distortion.
Because of the different technologies of loads, harmonic currents of the same order are generally
not in phase. This diversity effect results in a partial summation.

Fig. M5 : Flow of harmonic currents in a distribution network

Harmonics (electrical power)

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Harmonic voltages and currents in an electric power system are a result of non-linear electric
loads. Harmonic frequencies in the power grid are a frequent cause of power quality problems.
Harmonics in power systems result in increased heating in the equipment and conductors,
misfiring in variable speed drives, and torque pulsations in motors. Reduction of harmonics is
considered desirable.

Contents

1 Current harmonics

2 Voltage harmonics

3 Harmonics fundamentals

4 Total harmonic distortion

5 Effects
o

5.1 Motors

5.2 Telephones

6 Sources

7 See also

8 Further reading

9 References

Current harmonics
In a normal alternating current power system, the current varies sinusoidally at a specific
frequency, usually 50 or 60 hertz. When a linear electrical load is connected to the system, it
draws a sinusoidal current at the same frequency as the voltage (though usually not in phase with
the voltage).
Current harmonics are caused by non-linear loads. When a non-linear load, such as a rectifier, is
connected to the system, it draws a current that is not necessarily sinusoidal. The current
waveform can become quite complex, depending on the type of load and its interaction with
other components of the system. Regardless of how complex the current waveform becomes, as
described through Fourier series analysis, it is possible to decompose it into a series of simple
sinusoids, which start at the power system fundamental frequency and occur at integer multiples
of the fundamental frequency.
Further examples of non-linear loads include common office equipment such as computers and
printers, Fluorescent lighting, battery chargers and also variable-speed drives.

A compact fluorescent lamp is one example of an electrical load with a non-linear

characteristic, due to the rectifier circuit it uses. The current waveform, blue, is
highly distorted. In this example the voltage waveform is also distorted from a sine
wave, due to many such non-linear loads on this power system.

Voltage harmonics
Voltage harmonics are mostly caused by current harmonics. The voltage provided by the voltage
source will be distorted by current harmonics due to source impedance. If the source impedance
of the voltage source is small, current harmonics will cause only small voltage harmonics.

Harmonics fundamentals
Harmonics provides a mathematical analysis of distortions to a current or voltage waveform.
Based on Fourier series, harmonics can describe any periodic wave as summation of simple
sinusoidal waves which are integer multiples of the fundamental frequency.
Harmonics are steady-state distortions to current and voltage waves and repeat every cycle. They
are different from transient distortions to power systems such as spikes, dips and impulses.[1]

Total harmonic distortion

Total harmonic distortion, or THD is a common measurement of the level of harmonic distortion
present in power systems. THD is defined as the ratio of total harmonics to the value at
fundamental frequency.

where Vn is the RMS voltage of nth harmonic and n = 1 is the fundamental frequency.

Effects
One of the major effects of power system harmonics is to increase the current in the system. This
is particularly the case for the third harmonic, which causes a sharp increase in the zero sequence
current, and therefore increases the current in the neutral conductor. This effect can require
special consideration in the design of an electric system to serve non-linear loads.[2]
In addition to the increased line current, different pieces of electrical equipment can suffer effects
from harmonics on the power system.
Motors

Electric motors experience losses due to hysteresis and losses due to eddy currents set up in the
iron core of the motor. These are proportional to the frequency of the current. Since the
harmonics are at higher frequencies, they produce higher core losses in a motor than the power
frequency would. This results in increased heating of the motor core, which (if excessive) can
shorten the life of the motor. The 5th harmonic causes a CEMF (counter electromotive force) in
large motors which acts in the opposite direction of rotation. The CEMF is not large enough to

counteract the rotation, however it does play a small role in the resulting rotating speed of the
motor.
Telephones

In the United States, common telephone lines are designed to transmit frequencies between 300
and 3400 Hz. Since electric power in the United States is distributed at 60 Hz, it normally does
not interfere with telephone communications because its frequency is too low.

Sources
A pure sinusoidal voltage is a conceptual quantity produced by an ideal AC generator built with
finely distributed stator and field windings that operate in a uniform magnetic field. Since neither
the winding distribution nor the magnetic field are uniform in a working AC machine, voltage
waveform distortions are created, and the voltage-time relationship deviates from the pure sine
function. The distortion at the point of generation is very small (about 1% to 2%), but
nonetheless it exists. Because this is a deviation from a pure sine wave, the deviation is in the
form of a periodic function, and by definition, the voltage distortion contains harmonics.
When a sinusoidal voltage is applied to a certain type of load, the current drawn by the load is
determined by the voltage and impedance and follows the voltage waveform. These loads are
referred to as linear loads; examples of linear loads are resistive heaters, incandescent lamps, and
constant speed induction and synchronous motors.
In contrast, some loads cause the current to vary disproportionately with the voltage during each
cyclic period. These are classified as nonlinear loads, and the current taken by them has a
nonsinusoidal waveform.
When there is significant impedance in the path from the power source to a nonlinear load, these
current distortions will also produce distortions in the voltage waveform at the load. However, in
most cases where the power delivery system is functioning correctly under normal conditions,
the voltage distortions will be quite small and can usually be ignored.
Waveform distortion can be mathematically analysed to show that it is equivalent to
superimposing additional frequency components onto a pure sinewave. These frequencies are
harmonics (integer multiples) of the fundamental frequency, and can sometimes propagate
outwards from nonlinear loads, causing problems elsewhere on the power system.
The classic example of a non-linear load is a rectifier with a capacitor input filter, where the
rectifier diode only allows current to pass to the load during the time that the applied voltage
exceeds the voltage stored in the capacitor, which might be a relatively small portion of the
incoming voltage cycle.

Other examples of nonlinear loads are battery chargers, electronic ballasts, variable frequency
drives, and switching mode power supplies.
Effects of Harmonics on Power Systems
Oct 1, 1999 Sankaran, C. | Electrical Construction and Maintenance

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Comments 4
What is in this article?:

Effects of Harmonics on Power Systems

SIDEBAR: Terms to Know

If not properly designed or rated, electrical equipment will often malfunction when harmonics
are present in an electrical system.
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Most people don't realize that harmonics have been around a long time. Since the first AC
generator went online more than 100 years ago, electrical systems have experienced harmonics.
The harmonics at that time were minor and had no detrimental effects.
Basic Concept

A pure sinusoidal voltage is a conceptual quantity produced by an ideal AC generator built with
finely distributed stator and field windings that operate in a uniform magnetic field. Since neither
the winding distribution nor the magnetic field are uniform in a working AC machine, voltage
waveform distortions are created, and the voltage-time relationship deviates from the pure sine
function. The distortion at the point of generation is very small (about 1% to 2%), but
nonetheless it exists. Because this is a deviation from a pure sine wave, the deviation is in the
form of a periodic function, and by definition, the voltage distortion contains harmonics.

When a sinusoidal voltage is applied to a certain type of load, the current drawn by the load is
proportional to the voltage and impedance and follows the envelope of the voltage waveform.
These loads are referred to as linearloads (loads where the voltage and current follow one
another without any distortion to their pure sine waves). Examples of linear loads are resistive
heaters, incandescent lamps, and constant speed induction and synchronous motors.
In contrast, some loads cause the current to vary disproportionately with the voltage during each
half cycle. These loads are classified as nonlinear loads, and the current and voltage have
waveforms that are nonsinusoidal, containing distortions, whereby the 60-Hz waveform has
numerous additional waveforms superimposed upon it, creating multiple frequencies within the
normal 60-Hz sine wave. The multiple frequencies are harmonics of the fundamental frequency.
Normally, current distortions produce voltage distortions. However, when there is a stiff
sinusoidal voltage source (when there is a low impedance path from the power source, which has
sufficient capacity so that loads placed upon it will not effect the voltage), one need not be
concerned about current distortions producing voltage distortions.
Examples of nonlinear loads are battery chargers, electronic ballasts, variable frequency drives,
and switching mode power supplies. As nonlinear currents flow through a facility's electrical
system and the distribution-transmission lines, additional voltage distortions are produced due to
the impedance associated with the electrical network. Thus, as electrical power is generated,
distributed, and utilized, voltage and current waveform distortions are produced.
Power systems designed to function at the fundamental frequency, which is 60-Hz in the United
States, are prone to unsatisfactory operation and, at times, failure when subjected to voltages and
currents that contain substantial harmonic frequency elements. Very often, the operation of
electrical equipment may seem normal, but under a certain combination of conditions, the impact
of harmonics is enhanced, with damaging results.
Motors

There is an increasing use of variable frequency drives (VFDs) that power electric motors. The
voltages and currents emanating from a VFD that go to a motor are rich in harmonic frequency
components. Voltage supplied to a motor sets up magnetic fields in the core, which create iron
losses in the magnetic frame of the motor. Hysteresis and eddy current losses are part of iron
losses that are produced in the core due to the alternating magnetic field. Hysteresis losses are
proportional to frequency, and eddy current losses vary as the square of the frequency. Therefore,
higher frequency voltage components produce additional losses in the core of AC motors, which
in turn, increase the operating temperature of the core and the windings surrounding in the core.
Application of non-sinusoidal voltages to motors results in harmonic current circulation in the
windings of motors. The net rms current is

Irms = [(I1)2 + (I2)2 + (I3)2 + ], where the subscripts 1, 2, 3, etc. represent the different
harmonic currents. The I2R losses in the motor windings vary as the square of the rms current.
Due to skin effect, actual losses would be slightly higher than calculated values. Stray motor
losses, which include winding eddy current losses, high frequency rotor and stator surface losses,
and tooth pulsation losses, also increase due to harmonic voltages and currents.
The phenomenon of torsional oscillation of the motor shaft due to harmonics is not clearly
understood, and this condition is often disregarded by plant personnel. Torque in AC motors is
produced by the interaction between the air gap magnetic field and the rotor-induced currents.
When a motor is supplied non-sinusoidal voltages and currents, the air gap magnetic fields and
the rotor currents contain harmonic frequency components.
The harmonics are grouped into positive (+), negative (-) and zero (0) sequence components.
Positive sequence harmonics (harmonic numbers 1, 4, 7, 10, 13, etc.) produce magnetic fields
and currents rotating in the same direction as the fundamental frequency harmonic. Negative
sequence harmonics (harmonic numbers 2, 5, 8, 11, 14, etc.) develop magnetic fields and
currents that rotate in a direction opposite to the positive frequency set. Zero sequence harmonics
(harmonic numbers 3, 9, 15, 21, etc.) do not develop usable torque, but produce additional losses
in the machine. The interaction between the positive and negative sequence magnetic fields and
currents produces torsional oscillations of the motor shaft. These oscillations result in shaft
vibrations. If the frequency of oscillations coincides with the natural mechanical frequency of the
shaft, the vibrations are amplified and severe damage to the motor shaft may occur. It is
important that for large VFD motor installations, harmonic analyses be performed to determine
the levels of harmonic distortions and assess their impact on the motor.
Transformers

The harmful effects of harmonic voltages and currents on transformer performance often go
unnoticed until an actual failure occurs. In some instances, transformers that have operated
satisfactorily for long periods have failed in a relatively short time when plant loads were
changed or a facility's electrical system was reconfigured. Changes could include installation of
variable frequency drives, electronic ballasts, power factor improvement capacitors, arc furnaces,
and the addition or removal of large motors.
Application of nonsinusoidal excitation voltages to transformers increase the iron lesses in the
magnetic core of the transformer in much the same way as in a motor. A more serious effect of
harmonic loads served by transformers is due to an increase in winding eddy current losses. Eddy
currents are circulating currents in the conductors induced by the sweeping action of the leakage
magnetic field on the conductors. Eddy current concentrations are higher at the ends of the
transformer windings due to the crowding effect of the leakage magnetic fields at the coil
extremities. The eddy current losses increase as the square of the current in the conductor and the

square of its frequency. The increase in transformer eddy current loss due to harmonics has a
significant effect on the operating temperature of the transformer. Transformers that are required
to supply power to nonlinear loads must be derated based on the percentages of harmonic
components in the load current and the rated winding eddy current loss.
One method of determining the capability of transformers to handle harmonic loads is by k factor
ratings. The k factor is equal to the sum of the square of the harmonic currents multiplied by the
square of the frequencies.
k = [([I.sub.1]).sup.2]([1.sup.2]) + [([I.sub.2]).sup.2]([2.sup.2]) + [([I.sub.3]).sup.2]([3.sup.2])
+ . . . + [([I.sub.n]).sup.2]([n.sup.2]).
where [I.sub.1] = ratio of fundamental current to total rms current, [I.sub.2] = ratio of second
harmonic current to total rms current, [I.sub.3] = ratio of third harmonic current to total rms
current, etc., and 1,2,3, ... n are harmonic frequency numbers. The total rms current is the square
root of the sum of square of the individual currents.
By providing additional capacity (larger-size or multiple winding conductors), k factor rated
transformers are capable of safely withstanding additional winding eddy current losses equal to k
times the rated eddy current loss. Also, due to the additive nature of triplen harmonic (3, 9, 15,
etc.) currents flowing in the neutral conductor, k rated transformers are provided with a neutral
terminal that is sized at least twice as large as the phase terminals.
Example: A transformer is required to supply a nonlinear load comprised of 200A of fundamental
(60 Hz), 30A of 3rd harmonic, 48A of 5th harmonic and 79A of 7th harmonic. Find the required
k factor rating of the transformer:
Total rms current, I = [square root of [([I.sub.1]).sup.2] + [([I.sub.3]).sup.2] + [([I.sub.5]).sup.2]
+ [([I.sub.7]).sup.2]]
Total rms current, I = [square root of [(200).sup.2] + [(30).sup.2] + [(48).sup.2] + [(79).sup.2]] =
222.4A
[I.sub.1] = 200 / 222.4 = 0.899
[I.sub.3] = 30 / 222.4 = 0.135
[I.sub.5] = 48 / 222.4 = 0.216
[I.sub.7] = 79 / 222.4 = 0.355

k = [(0.899).sup.2][(1).sup.2] + [(0.135).sup.2] [(3).sup.2] + [(0.216).sup.2]([5).sup.2] +

[(0.355).sup.2][(7).sup.2] = 8.31
To address the harmonic loading in this example, you should specify a transformer capable of
supplying a minimum of 222.4A with a k rating of 9. Of course, it would be best to consider
possible load growth and adjust the minimum capacity accordingly.
The photo (on page 33) shows one of the things that can happen when large nonlinear loads are
present in a transformer. In this case, the nonlinear loads caused a substantial temperature rise.
The unit had been installed to serve an online UPS source that produced high harmonic currents
in the lines coming from the transformer. The darkened areas of the coils are due to the effect of
heat caused by excess eddy current losses in the transformer's windings. Very often, the damage
to the coils in a transformer is not known until a failure occurs.
Capacitor Banks

Many industrial and commercial electrical systems have capacitors installed to offset the effect
of low power factor. Most capacitors are designed to operate at a maximum of 110% of rated
voltage and at 135% of their kVAR ratings. In a power system characterized by large voltage or
current harmonics, these limitations are frequently exceeded, resulting in capacitor bank failures.
Since capacitive reactance is inversely proportional to frequency, unfiltered harmonic currents in
the power system find their way into capacitor banks, These banks act like a sink, attracting
harmonic currents, thereby becoming overloaded.
A more serious condition, with potential for substantial damage, occurs as a result of harmonic
resonance. Resonant conditions are created when the inductive and capacitive reactances become
equal in an electrical system. Resonance in a power system may be classified as series or parallel
resonance, depending on the configuration of the resonance circuit. Series resonance produces
voltage amplification and parallel resonance causes current multiplication within an electrical
system. In a harmonic rich environment, both types of resonance are present. During resonant
conditions, if the amplitude of the offending frequency is large, considerable damage to capacitor
banks would result. And, there is a high probability that other electrical equipment on the system
would also be damaged.
Fig. 1 (on page 36) shows a typical power system incorporating a distribution transformer
([T.sub.1]) and two variable frequency drives, each serving a 500hp induction motor. Assume
that transformer [T.sub.1] is rated 3 MVA, 13.8kV/480V, 7.0% leakage reactance. With a
1,000kVAR capacitor bank installed on the 480V bus, the following calculations examine the
power system for resonance. Where the secondary current of the 3MVA transformer is based at a
potential of 480V, and neglecting utility source impedance, the transformer reactance at 7%
results in an inductive reactance ([X.sub.L]) of 0.0161 ohms as determined from the following

calculations, based upon a delta electrical configuration [ILLUSTRATION FOR FIGURE 2

AND 3 OMITTED]:
Transformer line current ([I.sub.L]) = [VA transformer rating] / [([square root of 3])([V.sub.L])]
([I.sub.L]) = [(3)[(10).sup.6]] / [([square root of 3])(480)] = 3608A
Note: impedance values are calculated using the actual winding current ([I.sub.w]) and winding
voltage ([V.sub.w]).
[I.sub.w] = [I.sub.L] / [square root of 3 ] = 3608 / [square root of 3] = 2083A
Winding voltage ([V.sub.w]) = line voltage ([V.sub.L]) = 480V
Percent reactance (7%) = ([I.sub.w])([X.sub.L]) / ([V.sub.w])
Inductive reactance ([X.sub.L]) = (.07)([V.sub.w]) / ([I.sub.w]) = (.07)(480) / (2083) [X.sub.L]
= 0.0161 ohms
Inductance (L) = [X.sub.L] / 2[Pi]f = 0.0161 / (2)(3.14)(60) = (0.428)[(10).sup.-4] henry
For a delta connected capacitor, the following calculations are applicable:
Line current to capacitor bank ([I.sub.L]) = (capacity in var) / ([square root of 3])([V.sub.L])
[I.sub.L] = (1000)[(10).sup.3] / ([square root of 3])(480) = 1203A
Capacitor current ([I.sub.c]) = [I.sub.L] / [square root of 3] = 1203 / 1.732 = 694.6A
Capacitive reactance ([X.sub.c]) = [V.sub.L] / [I.sub.c] = 480 / 694.4 = 0.691 ohm Capacitance
(C) = 1 / 2[Pi]f[X.sub.c] = 1 / (2)(3.14)(60)(0.691)= (38.4)[(10).sup.-4] farad
Resonance frequency ([f.sub.R]) = 1 / 2[Pi][square root of (L)(C)]
([f.sub.R])= 1 / (2)(3.14) [[square root of (0.428)[(10).sup.-4] (38.4)[(10.)sup. -4]]]
([f.sub.R]) = 1 / (6.28) [[square root of (0.428)(38.4)[(10).sup.-8]]] = 393 Hz
A different derivation must be carried out when using a wye-connected transformer and a wyeconnected capacitor bank. The wye-connected arrangement is the one normally used when a
secondary neutral is required. The following equations are applicable for wye configurations
([ILLUSTRATION FOR FIGURE 4 AND 5 OMITTED], on page 40):

For the transformer:

Transformer winding voltage ([V.sub.w]) = line voltage ([V.sub.L]) / [square root of 3] = 480 /
[square root of 3] = 277V
Winding current ([I.sub.w]) = transformer capacity (VA) / ([V.sub.L])([square root of 3])
[I.sub.w] = (3)[(10).sup.6] / (480)([square root of 3])= 3608A
Inductive reactance ([X.sub.L]) = (.07)([V.sub.w]) / ([I.sub.w]) = (.07)(277) / (3608)
[X.sub.L] = 0.00537 ohms
Inductance (L) = [X.sub.L] / 2[Pi]f = 0.00537 / (2)(3.14)(60) = (14.3)[(10).sup.-6] henry
For the capacitor bank:
Capacitor bank current flow ([I.sub.c]) = (capacity in var) / ([square root of 3])([V.sub.L])
[I.sub.c] = (1000)[(10).sup.3] / ([square root of 3])(480) = 1203A
Capacitor voltage ([V.sub.c]) = line voltage ([V.sub.L]) / [square root of 3] = 480 / [square root
of 3] = 277V
Capacitive reactance ([X.sub.c]) = [V.sub.c] / [I.sub.c] = 277 / 1203 = 0.23 ohm
Capacitance (C) = 1 / 2[Pi]f[X.sub.c] = 1 / (2)(3.14)(60)(0.23) = 0.0115 farad
Resonance frequency ([f.sub.R]) = 1 / 2[Pi][square root of (L)(C)]
([f.sub.R]) = 1 / (2)(3.14)[[square root of (14.3)[(10).sup.-6]] (0.0115)]
([f.sub.R]) = 1 / (6.28)[[square root of (0.16445)[(10).sup.-6]]] = 393 Hz
Note that the resonance frequency remains the same, whether for a delta-type circuit or for a
wye-type circuit. However, this situation would change should the transformer be one type
circuit and the capacitor another type circuit.
The system would therefore be in resonance at a frequency corresponding to the 6.6th harmonic
(393/60 = 6.55). This is dangerously close to the 7th harmonic voltage and current produced in
variable frequency drives.

The two 500-hp drives draw a combined line current of 1100A (a typical value assuming motor
efficiency of 90% and a .9PF). If the current of the 7th harmonic component is assumed to be 1/7
of the fundamental current (typical in drive applications), then [I.sub.7] = 1100 / 7 = 157A. If the
source resistance (R) for the transformer and the conductors causes a 1.2% voltage drop based on
a 3MVA load flow, then R = (0.92)([10.sup.-3]) ohms. This is because the determination of the
inductive reactance ([X.sub.L]) for the wye-connected transformer was 0.00537 ohms. Thus, R =
(0.00537)(1.2%) / 7% (transformer leakage reactance) = (0.92)([10.sup.-3]) ohms.
The "Q" or "quality factor" of an electrical system is a measure of the energy stored in the
capacitors and inductors in the system. The current amplification factor (CAF) in a parallel
resonant circuit (such as where a transformer and a capacitor are in a parallel configuration) is
approximately equal to Q. Actually, Q= (2)([Pi]) (maximum energy storage) / (energy
dissipation/cycle) as follows:
Q = [(2)([Pi])][(1/2)(L)[([I.sub.M]).sup.2] / [(I).sup.2] (R/f)]
where [I.sub.M] (maximum current) = ([square root of 2])(I), thus,
Q = (2)([Pi])(f)(L) / R = [X.sub.L] / R
where CAF can be considerd Q or [X.sub.L] / R.
For the example, with the two 500-hp drives, CAF equals (7)([X.sub.L]) / R, where 7 is a
multiplication factor representing the 7th harmonic (or 7 times the fundamental 60Hz); [X.sub.L]
is the reactive impedance at 0.00537; and R = (0.92)([10.sup.-3]) ohms. Thus:
CAF = (7)(.00537) / (0.92)([10.sup.-3]) = 40.86
The resonant current ([I.sub.R]) equals (CAF)([I.sub.7]) = (40.86)(157A)= 6415A. This current
circulates between the source and the capacitor bank. The net current in the capacitor bank
([I.sub.Q] is equal to 6527A, which is derived as follows:
([I.sub.Q]) = [square root of [([I.sub.R]).sup.2] + [([I.sub.C]).sup.2]] = [square root of
[(6415).sup.2] + [(1203).sup.2]] = 6527A
The value of [I.sub.Q] will seriously overload the capacitors. If the protective device does not
operate to protect the capacitor bank, serious damage will occur.
The transformer and the capacitor bank may also form a series resonance circuit and cause large
voltage distortions and overvoltage conditions at the 480V bus. Prior to installation of a power
factor improvement capacitor bank, a harmonic analysis must be performed to ensure that

resonance frequencies do not coincide with prominent harmonic components contained in the
voltages and currents.
Cables

The flow of normal 60-Hz current in a cable produces [I.sup.2]R losses and current distortion
introduces additional losses in the conductor. Also, the effective resistance of the cable increases
with frequency due to skin effect, where unequal flux linkages across the cross section of the
cable causes the AC current to flow on the outer periphery of the conductor. The higher the
frequency of the AC current, the greater this tendency. Because of both the fundamental and the
harmonic currents that can flow in a conductor, it is important to make sure a cable is rated for
the proper current flow.
A set of calculations should be carried out to determine a cable's ampacity level. To do so, the
first thing is to evaluate the skin effect. Skin depth relates to the penetration of the current in a
conductor and varies inversely as the square root of the frequency, as follows:
Skin depth ([Delta]) = S / [square root of f]
where "S" is a proportionality constant based on the physical characteristics of the conductor and
its magnetic permeability and "f" is the frequency.
If [R.sub.dc] is the DC resistance of a conductor, the AC resistance ([R.sub.f]) at frequency "f" is
given by the expression,
[R.sub.f] = (K)([R.sub.dc])
The value of K is determined from the table shown on page 42. Its value corresponds to the
calculated value of the skin effect resistance parameter (X), where X can be calculated as
follows:
X = 0.0636 [square root of f[Mu] / [R.sub.dc]]
For this calculation, 0.0636 is a constant for copper conductors, "f" is the frequency, [R.sub.dc] is
the DC resistance per mile of the conductor, and [Mu] is the permeability of the conducting
material. The permeability for nonmagnetic materials, such as copper, is approximately equal to
1 and this is the value used. Tables or graphs that contain values of X and K are normally
available from conductor manufacturers. The value of K is a multiplying factor that is to be
multiplied by the normal cable resistance.
Example: Find the 60-Hz and 300-Hz AC resistances of a 4/0 copper conductor that has a DC
resistance ([R.sub.dc]) of 0.276 ohm per mile. Using the following equation

X = 0.0636[square root of f[Mu] /[R.sub.DC]] We find that [X.sub.60] = (.0636)[[square root of

(60)(1) / .276]] = 0.938. And, the value of K from the table, when [X.sub.60] = 0.938, is
approximately 1.004. Thus, the conductor resistance per mile at 60 Hz = (1.004)(0.276) = 0.277
ohm.
For 300 Hz, [X.sub.300] = (.0636) [[square root of (300)(1) / .276]] = 2.097. For this condition,
the value of K, based on [X.sub.300] = 2.097 from the table, is approximately 1.092. And, the
conductor resistance per mile at 300 Hz = (1.092)(0.276) = 0.301 ohm.
The ratio of resistance, which is also called the skin effect ratio (E), based on the 300 Hz
resistance to the 60 Hz resistance = .301 / .277 = 1.09. As can be seen; E = [X.sub.n] / [X.sub.60]
A conservative expression for the current rating factor (q) for cables that carry harmonic currents
is derived by adding the [I.sup.2]R losses produced by each harmonic frequency current
component at the equivalent 60 Hz level, as follows:
q = [[I.sub.[1.sup.2]][E.sub.1] + [I.sub.[2.sup.2]][E.sub.2] + [I.sub.[3.sup.2]][E.sub.3] + ... [I.sub.
[n.sup.2][E.sub.N] where [I.sub.1], [I.sub.2], [I.sub.3] ... [I.sub.n] are the ratios of the harmonic
currents to the fundamental frequency current and [E.sub.1], [E.sub.2], [E.sub.3], ... [E.sub.E] are
skin effect ratios. (ratio of the effective resistance of the cable at the harmonic frequency to the
resistance at the fundamental frequency).
Example: Determine the current rating factor (q) for a 60-Hz cable required to carry a nonlinear
load with the following harmonic characteristics: fundamental current = 190A, 5th harmonic
current = 50A, 7th harmonic current = 40A, 11th harmonic current = 15A and the 13th harmonic
current = 10A.
The skin effect ratios are as follows:
[E.sub.1] = 1.0; [E.sub.5] = 1.09; [E.sub.7] = 1.17; [E.sub.11] = 1.35; [E.sub.13] = 1.44.
As previously mentioned, the skin effect ratio (E), also called the ratio of resistance, equals
[X.sub.n] / [X.sub.60]. As an example, the skin effect ratio for E5 is based on the ratio of the 300
Hz resistance to the 60Hz resistance, which is 0.301 / 0.277 = 1.09.
The harmonic current ratios are as follows:
[I.sub.1] = 190/190 = 1.0 [I.sub.5] = 50/190 = 0.263 [I.sub.7] = 40/190 = 0.210 [I.sub.11] =
15/190 = 0.079 [I.sub.13] = 10/190 = 0.053 q = [(1.0).sup.2](1.0) + [(0.263).sup.2](1.09) +
[(0.210).sup.2](1.17) + [(0.079).sup.2](1.35) + [(0.053).sup.2](1.44)
q = 1.14

Because the cable must be able to handle both the fundamental and the harmonic loads, based
upon the q factor, the cable must be rated for a minimum current of (1.14)(190) = 217A at 60 Hz.
C. Sankaran is a senior engineer with Electro-Test, Inc., in Renton, Wash.
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