BIOLOGY MIDYEARS REVIEW- By Madiha Alam {Please give me credits if you share this }

ECOLOGY

Animals- consumers (primary, secondary, tertiary)

Plants-producers (creates own food from photosynthesis with the use of sunlight as a source of energy.)
Decomposers- return nutrients (For ex. fungi, worms, bacteria)
Biotic factors-living
Abiotic factors-non living
Animals+humans= heterotrophs/consumers (do not produce own food)
Plants= autotrophs/producers
Cell
- Cell Membrane
- Mitochondria
- Nucleus

Organelles Molecules Atoms

Species:
-organisms found in the environment
-can reproduce and create fertile offspring
-cannot mate together
Species Population Community Ecosystem Biome Biosphere
Biomass- total dry mass of all organisms in each trophic level
Energy Pyramid- 10% rule
Biomass Pyramid
0.1%
Tertiary
Consumers

1%
Secondary
Consumers

10% Primary
Consumers
100%

Producers/Autotrophs

10 kg

100 kg
1000 kg

Symbiosis- a close association between living organisms

Symbiotic relationships:
-Mutualism- when organisms benefit from each other.
-Commensalism- 1 organism benefits, the other organism does not benefit/get harmed.
-Parasitism- 1 organism benefits, other organism is harmed.
Competition occurs over food, mating, territory, and shelters.

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Interspecific Competition:
-2 or more species
-Better adapted species survives
-Less successful species eliminated
Intraspecific Competition:
-Within the same species
-Survival of the fittest (in a species)
Organic- Carbon and Hydrogen
Sources of carbon:
-Respiration
-Decomposed organic matter
-Human activities
-Volcanic Eruptions
Carbon Cycle:
-Cellular respiration (releases CO2 back to environment.)
-Photosynthesis (removes CO2 from atmosphere.)
Nitrogen Cycle:
-78% in air as N2 (gas)
-broken down in soil by bacteria; plants take up usable form; animals eat plants
Ecological succession- gradual change in an ecosystem that follows a disturbance
Climax Community- stable community in its final stage of ecological succession
Ecological Succession:
Lichen Moss Grass Shrubs Trees (Climax Community) Can become forest
Limiting factors for growth in a closed ecosystem include:
-nutrients
-space
-waste
Open system
-Better chance to survive
-Challenges include: predators, temperature, competition, human activity, natural disasters, diseases, and
space.
Carrying capacity- the maximum population an environment can support

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HUMAN IMPACT ON THE ENVIRONENT

Biodiversity
-diversity of organisms
-human expansion is the biggest reason of loss of biodiversity
-necessary for genetic biodiversity
Ozone Depletion
-not related to global warming
-chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
found in aerosol cans, fridges, air conditioners
prevents formation of ozone
-ozone absorbs UV rays
-problems, effects on health, economy, environment
causes skin damage, cancer, eyesight problems
reproductive issues in animals
premature aging
sunburns
decreases food population
decreases human population
-Resolutions
dont use pesticides
take public transportation
avoid using products with CFCs
Water Pollution
-oil in ocean water
-only 3% of Earths H2O is fresh
-only 1% of Earths H2O is drinkable
Deforestation
-huge amounts of trees are cut down due to logging
-destroys habitat
-less O2 and more CO2 (less CO2 removed from atmosphere)
Pesticides
-chemicals used to repel/kill pests
-used on crops for a larger supply of food
-kills useful insects
-kills unintended targets
-contaminates water, soil, and air
Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs)
-change genetic code of food for more efficient production of crops
-can happen with genes that dont exist in an organism
-can occur through breeding
-result in tastier, bigger, more appealing crops
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Invasive Species
-creates an imbalance by leaving behind natural environment and taking over other habitats
-no competition
-disrupt food chain
-occurs through dumping of pets, accidentals
-causes biodiversity
Global Warming
-hot air trapped on Earth due to greenhouse gases
*greenhouse gases absorb heat and trap it on Earths surfaces
-rise in sea levels (melts polar ice cap leading to more water)
Nuclear Waste
-disposal of leftover waste derived from surplus amount of nuclear fuel
-highly radioactive
-produces toxins that can cause cancer
-stored in caves, underwater
-long time storage needed
-leads to pollution
Acid Rain
-rainfall is made acidic by pollution in the atmosphere
-ruins buildings, statues
-caused by release of compounds such as sulfur dioxide
-affects acidity of lakes and streams
-remove nutrients from soil
Overfishing
-disrupts food chain
-no balance
-more fish die than replaced
-may permanently remove species
Algae Blooms
-makes water toxic
-fish eventually die
-caused mainly by farms and water sewage systems
Dioxin
-through food
-weaken animals immune and reproductive systems
-mainly from meat and dairy products

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CLASSIFICATION

Taxonomy-discipline through which scientists classify organisms and give them universally accepted
names
Linnaeus system of classification uses 7 categories from largest to smallest:

(King Phillip Came Over For Grape Soda)

Kingdom
Phylum
Class
Order
Family
Genus
Species

Taxonomy-discipline through while scientists classify organisms and give them universally accepted
names
Bio-nomenclature-2 name system:
-First name-organisms genus (in italics)
-Second name-organisms species (first letter is capital)
Dichotomous Key-used to identify and specify organisms

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CYTOLOGY

Cell Theory (Biogenesis)

Cell Membrane
1. All living things are made from cells.
2. Cells are the basic unit of life.
Cytoplasm
3. All cells arise from preexisting cells.
All cells have a cell membrane and cytoplast (plural form of cytoplasm)
2 types of cells:
Prokaryotes
Eukaryotes
-no nucleus
-have nucleus
-no membrane bound organelles
-have membrane bound organelles
-have ribosomes
-Examples: plants, animals, fungi
-Examples: bacteria, archaea
Cells are small because
-big cells take longer to carry out life
-small cells can absorb nutrients and water faster
-metabolism slows down with increasing volume
Aerobic organism uses oxygen
Anaerobic organismdoes not use oxygen
Centrifugation
-lighter particles on top
-denser particles on bottom
-spinning+force separates
-balance centrifuge machine (important!)
Equilibrium-state of balance
Osmosis-the diffusion of water across a membrane from an area of high concentration to low
concentration
Tonicity-measure of dissolved particles in a solution. The higher the tonicity, the lower the
concentration of water.
Hypotonic-lower concentration of solution
Isotonic-equal concentration of solute
Hypertonic-high concentration of solute
Transport:
1. Diffusion
-passive/does not require energy
2. Facilitated Diffusion
-does not require energy
-molecules move
-proteins channels in the cell membrane
3. Active Transport
-requires energy in the form of ATP

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Cell Organelles and Functions

Organelle
Description

Cell Wall

Rigid

Cell Membrane
Cytoplasm

Thin
Jelly-like substance that contains
organelles
Has a nuclear membrane

Animal,
Plant or
Both
Protection and support of Plant
cell
Communication
Both
Supports organelles
Both
inside the cell
Controls all cell activity Both

Nuclear
Membrane
Nucleolus
Chromatin

Has nuclear pores to send signals

Protects the nucleus

Both

Small dark area in nucleus

Made of DNA and proteins

Both
Both

Endoplasmic
Reticulum
Ribosome

Protein-like

Produce ribosomes
Provides instruction for
cell activity
Transports materials
through cell
Produce protein
Produces energy and
ATP; Power place in
cell; Cellular respiration
takes place here
Storage of wastes, food
and water
Captures sunlight to
make food through
photosynthesis
Packing or using in and
outside of cell
Digestion

Both

Used during mitosis

Helps cell maintain its
shape

Animal
Both

Nucleus

Mitochondria

Vacuole
Chloroplast

Circular; Animals=Small,
Plants=Big
Green structure; Contain
chlorophyll

Golgi Body

Connected like tubes

Lysosome

Small, round structures

containing enzymes
Small cylindrical structure
Supports cell; Made of network
of protein filaments

Centriole
Cytoskeleton

Made of RNA; Exist in

cytoplasts; Thousands of them
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)

Function

Both
Both

Both
Plant

Both
Both

Cell Membrane
1. Flexible
2. Fluid Mosaic
3. Give cell shape
4. Acts as a barrier between outside+inside environment
5. Selective permeability (based on properties of the molecule)
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LIFE PROCESSES

Metabolism-chemical reactions that happen in an organism. Includes:

-Nutrition/Digestion-breakdown of complex food taken in by organism into simpler form
-Synthesis/Assimilation-chemical combining of simple substances to form complex substances
-Transport-substances move into/out of cells and are distributed within cells
-Respiration-energy is released in a complex series of chemical reactions
-Excretion-removal of waste from cell
Reproduction-not necessary for any individual but only for the species
Regulation-controlling the internal environment to maintain homeostasis (a stable internal environment)
Growth-living organism increases in size
Locomotion-movement from one point to another
Plants: use photosynthesis for nutrition and respiration
Humans: use digestion for nutrition and breathe for respiration

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BIOCHEMISTRY

Atoms- smallest particle that exists

Electron-Negative Charge

e (-)

Positive Charge (+)

Proton

Neutral Charge

Neutron

Nucleus

Element- made of pure substance that consists entirely of one type of atom
*Water is not an element because it is made up of more than one type of atom
Isotopes- atoms of an element that have a different number of neutrons
6E
6P
6N
Nonradioactive Carbon12

6E
6P
7N
Nonradioactive Carbon13 (Isotope)

Chemical Compound- a substance formed by the chemical reaction of 2 or more elements in definite
proportions
Chemical Bonds
-Ionic
-Covalent-shares electrons

Organic Compounds:
-Carbon+Hydrogen=Hydrocarbons
-May also contain:
Oxygen
Nitrogen
Phosphorus
Simple Bond-2 electrons
Double Bond-4 electrons
Triple Bond-6 electrons
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H
1
(Hydrogen has 1 bond)
O
2
(Oxygen has 2 bonds)
N
3
(Nitrogen has 3 bonds)
C
4
(Carbon has 4 bonds)
Isomers
-same number of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, etc.
-different arrangement
Glucose and fructose are isomers
Glycosidic bond-bond between C1 and C4 through dehydration synthesis
Monosaccharideone sugar; basic unit of carbohydrates
Disaccharidetwo sugars
-glucose+glucose=maltose
-glucose+fructose=sucrose
-glucose+galactose=lactose
Polysaccharidemany sugars
-starch-a large number of glucose united by glycosidic bonds; produced by most green plants as energy
storage
Dehydration synthesisMolecule of H2O is taken out to bond two molecules
HydrolysisMolecule of H2O is added to break down molecules
Monosaccharides
Glucose
Fructose
Galactose

Disaccharides
Glucose+Glucose=Maltose

Glucose+Fructose=Sucrose

Glucose+Galactose=Lactose

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Nucleic acids
-DNA-deoxyribonucleic acid
-RNA-ribonucleic acid
DNA
-Contains:
carbon
hydrogen
oxygen
nitrogen
phosphorus
-polymer made of many nucleotides
Nucleotides
-5 carbon sugar (deoxyribose)
-Nitrogenous bases:
Adenine
Thymine
Only bond with each other
Cytosine
Guanine

-arranged like spiral staircase

-phosphate+sugar group in each nucleotide
-order of pairing bases varies from species to species
-store genetic information
Proteins
-made up of chains of amino acids
-contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen
Amino acids:

Structure of proteins-4 levels

*Primary Structure
Amino acids are connected
through a peptide bond

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Catalystspeeds up a reaction
An enzyme is a catalyst
*Not all catalysts are enzymes
Activation energy-energy required for a reaction to begin
Properties of enzymes
-made of proteins/they themselves are proteins
-not changed by the reactions they speed up
-they are specific (only a particular enzyme will work with a particular substrate)
*substratethe molecule that the enzyme attaches to
-do not require energy to work
Catalase
-found in animal and plant cells
-needed to speed up breakdown of H2O2 (breaks it down to oxygen and water)
-Catalase breaks down hydrogen peroxide to water and oxygen (HPCOW)
Amylase
-Amylase breaks down starch to maltose (SAM)

StarchMaltose

Sucroseglucose+fructose

Maltoseglucose+glucose

Enzyme: Amylase

Enzyme: sucrase

Enzyme: Maltase

Substrate: Starch

Substrate: sucrose

Substrate: Maltose

Product: Maltose

Product: Glucose+fructose

Product Glucose

Active site-special shaped area that fits into an enzymes substrate

Lock and Key Mechanism
Effect of temperature:
-Optimum temperature-temperature that works best for biological enzymes is 37C (chemical enzymes
may differ)
-Speed of reaction increases until optimum temperature is reached; speed of reaction decreases until
there is no reaction; enzyme is said to be denatured, active site destroyed
Effect of pH level:
-Optimum pH level is 7
Lipids
-mostly of carbon+hydrogen (organic)
-generally hydrophobic
-main categories-fats, oils, waxes
-stores energy
-made out of fatty acids
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NUTRITION

Cells take in nutrients from food (which is a source of energy+growth)

Paramecium (protist)=unicellular
-Nutrition gets inside the cell
*Endocytosistype of active transport (requires energy)
*Simple Diffusiondoes not require energy (passive transport)
-Substances are broken by hydrolysisdigestion
-Lysosomes contain digestive enzymes to break down large molecules
-Digestion takes place inside cell (intracellular digestion)
Intracellular digestion-inside cell
Extracellular digestion-outside cell
*Advantage-animal can take in a lot of food at once and slowly digest it
Digestive Systems
Protozoa
Hydra
Earthworm
-intracellular digestion (takes
-2 way digestive system
-1 way digestive system
place inside cell)
-multicellular
-extracellular digestion
-hydrolysis
-2 cell layers-always in
contact with H2O
-intracellular and extracellular
digestion
Types of Digestion:
-Mechanical-food is broken down into smaller pieces (chemical structure is not changed)
-Chemical-food is broken down into smaller molecules (chemical structure is changed)
Complete Digestive Tract (CDT)
-digestive tube running throughout body (alimentary canal)
-organisms with CDT have both mouth+anus
Specialized Digestive Structures (SDS)
-Crop
store+moisten food
Earthworms, grasshoppers
-Gizzard
Contains sand+stones
As muscles around it move, food is ground up (mechanical digestion)
Earthworms, birds, cockroaches
-Gastric Ceca
Help with absorption
Grasshoppers
Human Digestion:
-Ingestion-mouth
-Digestion-mouth, stomach, small intestine
-Absorption-small intestine, large intestine
-Elimination-end of large intestine
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Epiglottis-moves during swallowing so food moves down the right pipe to the esophagus
Peristalsis (muscle contractions)- involuntary continue movement of the bolus through esophagus into
stomach
Stomach
-extracellular hydrolysis of proteins
-important in storage and digestion
-folds in stomach tissue allows the stomach to expand and hold more food (tissue is very elastic so that it
can stretch)
-when bolus reaches the stomach, it is semi-liquid
-mechanical digestion in stomach: breaks bolus down to small pieces (increases surface area)
-chemical digestion in stomach-gastric glands produce gastric juice from a combination of 3 cells:
1) Mucus cells secrete mucusprotects stomach lining
2) Chief cells secrete pepsinogeninactive enzyme
3) Pariental cells secrete hydrochloric acid (HCL)
-gastric juice churned with bolus to break down food+kill bacteria
-HCL converts pepsinogen into pepsin (active enzyme)
-pepsin hydrolyzes (breaks down) protein
-pepsin breaks down peptide bonds using hydrolysis
-the stomach protects itself from digesting by keeping pepsinogen stores away from HCL until pepsin is
needed and also lines stomach with mucus
Small Intestine
-participates in digestion+absorption
-peristalsis allows for movement of chime (food mixed with acid) and digestive juices down the small
intestine
Digestion is usually completed in duodenum (1st section) with the help of digestive juices
-Digestive juices come from 4 sources entering the duodenum:
Pancreas
-produces digestive enzymes
-produce basic bicarbonate solution
Lining of duodenum
-produce digestive enzymes
Liver
-produces bileemulsification of lipids
Gallbladder
-stores bile
-emulsification of lipids
Bile
-contains bile salts
Breaks up fat droplets into very small pieces called micelles
Micelles are then absorbed and taken up by the lymph vessel (lacteal)
-performs mechanical digestion (breaks it up into smaller pieces)
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Small intestine (and other adjacent organs) are protected from digestive enzymes by producing inactive
forms that are only activated in the duodenum
Human Digestive System:
MouthTongueSalivary GlandsEpiglottisEsophagusLiverStomach PancreasLarge
IntestineSmall IntestineAppendixRectumAnus

Earthworm Digestive System Parts+Functions

-mouth
-crop-storage area of food
-gizzard-muscular structurechewing: physical digestion/breaking down of food (mechanical)
-anus-elimination of undigested+unabsorped material
-intestines-enzymes absorption (chemical digestion of nutrients)
-jaws-trap food/help capture food
Absorption of Nutrients
-occurs in the jejunum (mid-small intestine) and ileum (end-small intestine)
-the surface area in these regions is large because of the villi and microvilli
*villi and microvilli are projections of the lining of the small intestine
-some nutrients are absorbed into the lymph vessel (lacteals)
White tubesfat (collect fatty acids)
-most nutrients are absorbed into the blood vessels
nutrients

-capillarieshepatic portal vesselliver

-liver converts many nutrients and regulates blood sugar and other nutrient levels
*water is also absorbed here
Large Intestine
-responsible for water recovery from digested material
-feces-waste of digestive tract
-bacteria live here (including E. Coli) that live on feces and produce vitamins B and K and stinky gases
-end of colon=rectum
-end of rectum=anus

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TRANSPORT AND CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

Circulatory System- links cells of a complex organism with its environment

Ameba (single-celled)- does not have a circulatory system; uses transport
Hydra (multi-cellular)- does not have a circulatory system; in direct contact with environment, no need
for CS
Grasshopper
-open CS
-nutrient and waste exchange
-no capillaries
-bloodclean fluid (does not have cells to carry O2)
Earthworm
-closed CS
-blood is carried in vessels (arteries, veins, and capillaries)
-blood carries oxygen
Humans- closed CS
CS is made of 3 major components:
-heart
-vessels (arteries, veins, capillaries)
-blood
2 sacs protect the heart: pericardium & myocardium
4 chambers of the heart:
-right atrium
-right ventricle
-left atrium
-left ventricle
Blood flow in the heart:
-deoxygenated blood enters right atrium through vena cava
-right atrium pumps deoxygenated blood tough tricuspid valve into right ventricle
-right ventricle pumps deoxygenated blood through pulmonary arteries into lungs
-lungs rid cells in deoxygenated blood of CO2; blood becomes oxygenated
-lungs pump oxygenated blood through pulmonary veins into left atrium
-left atrium pumps oxygenated blood through bicuspid (mitral) valve into left ventricle
-left ventricle pumps oxygenated blood out of heart and into the body through aorta
Septum- prevents oxygenated and deoxygenated blood from combining in the heart
Tricuspid valve prevents blood from flowing back into right atrium after being pumped out
Bicuspid (mitral) valve prevents blood from flowing back into left atrium after being pumped out
Left side of heart is thicker
2 types of circulation:
-pulmonary circulation- only with lungs
-systemic circulation- with different parts of body
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Vessels
-Arteries
Thick
Most elasticity
Connective tissue/expands under presence of blood
Carry oxygenated blood from heartrest of body (with the exception of pulmonary arteries)
-Veins
Thin
Less elasticity
Carry deoxygenated blood from bodyheart (with the exception of pulmonary veins)
-Capillaries
Thinnest
Smallest of blood vessels
Walls are one cell thick
Bring nutrients and oxygen to the tissue
Sinoatrial node
-pacemaker
-right before right atrium
-exist in the cardiac muscle cells
-sets pace for rest of heart
-sends impulses through the muscle fibers of the heart (through both atria)
Atrioventricular node
-lets blood flow from atriaventricles
-sends impulses to atrioventricular fibers (bundles)
-when ventricles contract, blood is pumped out of heart
Ventricular Systole
-ventricles filled with blood
-ventricles contract, blood pressure increases
-tricuspid and bicuspid valves close, producing a loud sound (lub)- prevents backflow of blood into
atria)
-aortic+semilunar valves open
-blood flows from ventricles into pulmonary artery and aorta
Ventricular Diastole
-ventricles relax, blood pressure decreases
-aortic and pulmonary valves close, producing a soft sound (dub)- prevents backflow of blood into
ventricles)
-tricuspid and bicuspid valves open
*Heart murmurs occur if valves do not close completely
*Heart sounds are caused by opening and closing of valves
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LAB REVIEW

Independent variable-changes
Dependent variable-does not change
Microscope
-Lower Objective
1 mm=1000 um
-Field of View: Finding Length of Specimen Using Diameter
Estimate how many of the specimen will go across length of diameter
Divide that number by length of diameter (given)
-Magnification
Lower objective (10x)specimen appears smaller
Higher objective (40x)specimen appears larger
-Inverted Slide
Objects are always inverted under the microscope
Regular Letter

Under Microscope

-Cells Under a Microscope

Cell wall (only in plant cells)
Nucleus
Cell membrane
*electron microscope can be used to see additional organelles
-Centrifugation
Denser on bottom, less dense on top

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-Diffusion Through a Membrane

Glucose and starch was inside dialysis tube
H2O and Iodine (Lugol Solution) in the beaker
*Wait 20 minutes for reaction
Lugol solution only reaction with the starch and not the glucose
The L.S. diffused into the dialysis tube
The glucose diffused to the liquid in the beaker; the color did not change so heated Benedicts
Reagent (glucose indicator) was added
Dialysis tube becomes dark blue after reaction
Liquid in beaker becomes brownish/yellow
-Fat Digestion
Lipasebreaks down lipids into glycerol and fatty acids
Blue=slightly basic
Red=acidic

Cream
Lipase
Bile Salts
Water
Blue Litmus Solution
Reaction

Test Tube 1
(Neg. Control)

Test Tube 2
(Experimental)

Blue

Blue

Test Tube 3
(Experimental)

Red

Test Tube 4
(Pos. Control)

Red

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