RELIGION STUDY NOTES

Nature of Religion
Nature of Religion
Supernatural Dimension: Beyond the natural, measurable world. It
acknowledges the existence of a deeper reality beyond surface appearances.
Transcendent: A spiritual presence that is not confined by time or
space. Exists in a realm outside human understanding.
Immanent: Presence of a spiritual being within the individual and in
every aspect of ones life.
Characteristics:
Beliefs and believers
Sacred texts/ writings
Ethics
Rituals/ ceremonies
Contribution:
o Individual- find true meaning/ place in life, discover
fulfilment of life, source of hope/comfort, explain key questions e.g.
suffering and evil, provides an ethical system
o Society- sense of community and belonging from joint
purpose, creation of relationships
Aboriginal Spirituality

Nature of the Dreaming

Background:
The Dreaming is the essence of Aboriginal
spirituality. It encompasses the spiritual and physical reality,
establishes a code of morals and rules, incorporates the spirit
ancestors and their creative activity in forming the world, and is
the continuing and sacred relationship with the land.
The Dreaming does not exist in the world of
ordinary space and time; instead, it completely surrounds, contains
and sustains the physical world, it is not the past, present or future,
but transcends time.
The Dreaming integrates all these aspects into
one idea; however, it is not vague or surreal as the name may
suggest, it is a reality.
o Origins:
Before time, the land was believed to be
featureless, a mass of matter like a bare plain. It was then that the
Dreaming began; the spirit ancestors rose from their eternal sleep
and assumed a variety of forms, both human and creature.
It was these spirit ancestors who created the
earth through an intense burst of creative action. They shaped the
physical features of the land, determined the design of nature and
granted life with order. They are responsible for bringing all living
things into existence and providing them with a system of law and
morality.
Once their activity was complete, the spirit
ancestors returned to their original slumber; however, they still
experience a powerful and aware existence.
o

Sacred Sites:
Sacred sites are a result of important events
which occurred during the Dreaming creation period.
o

 Dreaming tracks are the trails of the lives and

movements of ancestral spirits, they connect sacred sites and
contain the spirit children who are not yet born as plants, animals
or humans.
Undergoing a pilgrimage along these ritual
paths is called going Walkabout. It is similar to a moving
meditation where body, life and mind are completely committed to
aligning oneself with the powers of the Dreaming. Progressing
through the sacred sites in order of significance develops higher
states of consciousness and experience.
o Stories of the Dreaming:
Stories of the Dreaming are a vital tool in
education particularly to children. The stories assist in explaining
how the universe was created, how to behave and how to survive.
They recount events during the period of Dreaming creation and
compose an integral aspect of life for Aboriginals.

Diversity of the Dreaming

o Whilst all Aboriginal people have a core understanding of the
Dreaming as a source of spiritual and temporal identity, it is represented
and celebrated differently between groups and peoples. (Over 900
aboriginal nations).
o The Dreaming is manifested in songs, sacred sites,
traditional paintings and particularly rituals. The Dreaming is fully recreated in the present time and space
o Each area has a particular plant/ animal which is a totem for
that group of Aboriginal people. Because of this, the people have a
kinship with that spirit and are the spiritual 'owners' of that area of land.
The people are responsible for that area of land and, along with their
kinship with the ancestral spirit, their identity is formed.
o Therefore, diverse from geographical locations, differing
dialects, interpretations in art, song, ritual, different totems and emphasis
on different spirits or aspects of the Dreaming.
o Example: Kangal people have the barramundi as their totem
whilst the Bangariny have the brown shark.

Importance of the Dreaming

o In Aboriginal spirituality, the supernatural and the natural
are not separate but integrated in everyday existence. Therefore, the
deepest and highest reality and meaning is already fulfilled in normal life
through an affirmation of the dreaming. It is the dreaming that provides
this value and purpose in life.
o Important in accepting the wholeness of life and creation.
The Dreaming is vital to understanding creation, suffering and life and
celebrating this reality e.g. allows reverence and respect for death. Leads
to a reverence for life.
o The Dreaming is life, in all its aspects. Therefore, the
Dreaming is not separate or distinct from daily living. Its importance lies
in its nature in encompassing every part of reality. There is nothing more
or beyond the Dreaming. Yarralin people of NT use the word yimaruk to
describe this continuous interconnecting nature of life.
o Acknowledging and celebrating the Dreaming provides
morals and laws. This in turn leads to the preservation and enhancement
of life. Creates responsibility.
o Understanding of the Dreaming is vital so that the world/
universe can co-operate and work effectively together as a single unit.

Inextricable connection between Dreaming/ land/ identity

o The formation of an Aboriginal persons identity is composed

of four fundamental elements; their belief system, spirituality, family and
the land. Without any of these elements, Aboriginal life ceases to exist.
o The dreaming is the central source of all understanding, it is
believed to be the key link in forming an Aboriginal identity. The
Dreaming is present in all aspects of life, and therefore, all living things
are connected.
o The land is considered a living entity. It is the physical link
between reality and the spiritual world. As Aboriginal people believe they
form part of the land and the land forms part of them, the relationship
between humans and the environment is inextricable.
o The identity of an Aboriginal person is formed through every
aspect of the dreaming represented through the land.
o The Dreaming establishes the moral, social and
psychological bond and interdependence between humans (identity),
ancestral beings (spirituality) and the natural environment (the land).

o Example: The Kutjunka people see the land as a reflection of

humans and vice versa. The land is described as the human skin; damage
to the land is damage to the people.
o Inherent Issues:
When European settlers came to Australia, they
displaced the Aboriginal people, separating them from their land,
family, and therefore, spirituality. The effect of this was a complete
loss of identity. This situation demonstrates the inextricable
connection between the Dreaming, land and identity.

Depth Study: Christianity

Historical and cultural context of Christianity
A religion of Semitic origin. Jesus was a Jew and cannot be understood
outside this context he took part in all the Jewish traditions and practices.
However, for centuries Jewish lands were dominated by foreign powers.
During Jesus time Israel was under Roman occupation. They suffered social and
religious deprivation, there was strong contempt for the roman rule.
The Jewish religious authority was fractured into a number of sects such
as the zealots, the Pharisees and the Sadducees.
During such difficult times where the covenant was being broken, Jews
expected God to once again intervene. The prophet Isaiah referred to a
messiah meaning anointed one.
There were many interpretations as to the role of the messiah e.g. zealots
believed he would be a warrior and political liberator who would free them from
roman rule whilst the Pharisees believed he would be the perfect Jew, upholding
all 613 mitzvoh to the letter.

Jesus Christ as Model for Christian Life

Intro: Jesus acts as a role model for Christian life as he is the embodiment
of his Christian teachings. Always practiced what he taught. As the perfect
human Christians model from his attitudes towards God and others, his actions
in social justice and his admirable characteristics and personal qualities.
Servants of humanity: Treating all people equally despite race, gender or
social standing. Revolutionary for a time when sexism and discrimination was

rife within society, demonstrates its transcendent nature irrelevant of context,

also raises its significance. E.g. broke social laws of time when he approached
Samaritan woman at well, "How is it that you, a Jew, ask a drink of me, a woman
of Samaria?" (Jn 4:5).
Faith and love in God: Jesus calls for humans to respond to God with faith
and love, to treat him with reverence and respect. We see this in his teachings
and his own attitudes. His parables often send the message of repenting and
accepting Gods kingdom. E.g. In the parable of the generous vineyard owner he
questions, do you begrudge my generosity? (Mt 20:15). Jesus asks for humans
to joyfully and gratefully accept Gods love. This is also demonstrated through
Jesus own reverence for God, he is often described praying.
A strong emphasis of Jesus life was his call for social justice. Jesus
models being aware of and acting towards social justice and therefore, asks and
encourages Christians to do the same. He models the teachings of the
beatitudes which state "Blessed are those who hunger and thirst for
righteousness, for they will be filled". Example of this in practice is his
association and blessing of the poor, he eats with the tax collector Zacchaeus.
Jesus acts as model by reinforcing the Christian teachings of helping the least
of Jesus brothers and sisters.
Jesus also portrays the Christian demeanour through demonstration of his
own qualities which he encourages Christians to adopt. Jesus is often tested
throughout his life and in each situation he displays traits such as selflessness,
forgiveness, mercy, compassion and humility. The ultimate example of this is
the love and selflessness he displays when he gave up his life for the benefit of
humanity. I am the resurrection and the life, he who believes in me will live.
Christians who model from Jesus strive to live the Christian life and
experience humanity, to follow Christ, the perfect human, is to become more
humans oneself.

Development of the early Christian community

The development of Christianity can be identified in four main stages:

o Jesus death and resurrection is announced at Pentecost. It is
this core event upon which much of the Christian doctrine and theology
are based. The resurrection of Jesus was to reflect the divine nature of
Jesus. It confirmed him as the Messiah and offered the early Christian
community proof of his teachings. It also offered salvation, forgiveness of
sins and entry into the Kingdom of God. It acknowledged that Jesus was
both human and divine.
o The Church learns its first lesson about expansion, the
gospel message is not tied to Jerusalem but begins to spread. ye shall be
witnesses unto me both in Jerusalem, and in all Judea, and in Samaria,
and unto the uttermost part of the earth. (Acts 1:8)
o Complications arose as to whether it was a requirement to
be a Jew before you were a Christian. The Council of Jerusalem decided
that this was not a prerequisite, however, gentiles adopting Christianity
must be aware and respectful of Jewish traditions.
o The conversion of Paul has significant impact on the
expansion of Christianity. Not only did it lead to him becoming one of the
founding members of the Christian Church, it also confirmed Christs
demonstration of Salvation and the absolution of sin. Pauls journeys
meant Christianity was spread across the world rather than being
contained in a small, local sect of followers. Through his journeys and
writings Paul was able to establish Christianity as a separate entity from
Judaism and demonstrate Christs wish to preach to all people, not just
the Jews. Through Paul, God had opened the door of faith for all gentiles
(Acts 14:27).

Denominations

Anglicanism:
o Emerged from the context of the Roman Catholic Church in
the 16th century during the reign of King Henry VIII.
o Distinguishing features:
Authority- Declared independence from papal
control, The English monarch became the supreme governor of the
Church. However, no international, juridical authority.
Justification- salvation is attained by faith in
Jesus and through the grace of God.
Priesthood- Eliminates idea of hierarchy and
gives equal power to all people of the Church.
Eucharisto
Distinctive to Anglicanism is the book of common prayer,
put together during the reformation.

Catholicism:
o
Developed after the great schism in 1054.
o
Distinguishing features:

Authority- The Bible,

tradition/sacraments, Pope- Feed My lambs Tend My sheep
Feed My sheep. (Jn 21:15) Jesus makes Peter his representative on
Earth.

Justification- salvation from faith AND

good works- need human cooperation. Stresses a sacramental view
of human existence.

Eucharist- Jesus is literally present in the

bread and wine. By the consecration the transubstantiation of the
bread and wine into the Body and Blood of Christ is brought about
(catechism of the Catholic Church).

More emphasis on Mary and the saints.

Orthodoxy:
o

Distinguishing Features:

Heart of Orthodox
worship is the divine liturgy- celebration of the eucharist

Use of icons in
worship- highly ornamented imaged of Christ, Mary, saints etc.
Justify as God is clearly visible and accessible to humans.

Masses- long (2hrs),

incense, fully sung liturgies, rich in symbolism.

Strong emphasis on
sacraments

Pentecostalism:
o Beliefs stem from Pentecost in 30CE. Broke away from
Methodist sect in early 20th century in the USA.
o Distinguishing Features:
Seeks to restore the gifts of the holy spirit.
Sacraments- differentiate between baptism and
conversion/ reception of sacraments, signified by breaking into
tongues
Considered evangelical
Salvation- brought about by gift of the Holy
Spirit
Strong emphasis on community involvement-

involves spontaneity, singing

Protestantism:
o Reformation of 16th century- key leaders were Martin Luther
and John Calvin, formed eight religious sects
o Distinguishing features
Authority- Bible is only source of revealed truth,
do not acknowledge Pope
Justification- salvation by faith alone
More emphasis on preaching word of God and
less on sacraments
Universal priesthood of all believers

Principle Beliefs

Divinity/Humanity:
o Jesus is both fully human and fully divine- he is the second
person of the trinity, God the son who took upon himself a complete
human nature. The Word became flesh and made his dwelling amongst
us (John 1:14). The Christian belief in the incarnation leads us to a better
understanding of the nature of God.
o His humanity meant he had the same human limitationsslept, ate, had normal emotions. Helps Christians appreciate the pain and
suffering that he endured for humanity and gives greater significance to
his ultimate sacrifice
o His divinity shows us the close, unique relationship which
exists between himself and God. If you know me, you will know my
Father also (John 16:6-7).
o Jesus humanity is supported by fact, his divinity calls for
Christians to have faith. Humanity from gospels, bible and other sources
of the time. Divinity understood through the gospels.
Death, Resurrection and Ascension:
o Jesus death and resurrection confirms his divinity and
nature as the son of God. Therefore, his teachings are reinforced as
credible and true. His key message to love God and love others is given
divine significance. Love the Lord your God with all your heart (Mark
12:30)
o Belief and faith in the resurrection of Jesus is the basis of our
understanding that even after his physical death, Jesus is alive and
present with us today and continues to preach to us the same message
he did during his days on earth. If Christ has not been raised, then
empty is our preaching; empty, too, your faith (1 Corinthians 15:14).
o Resurrection and ascension provides Christians with hope
that they will achieve salvation- that each believer will one day be
completely human but transformed- body and soul- for all eternity with
God.
o Obedience, death and resurrection attains atonement for
Christians- restoring humankind to the right relationship with God. Only
Jesus death can repair the alienation from God.
o Sends the vital message that God loves humanity and will
forgive human failings. Actively demonstrates his love and care for
humans.

Nature of God and the Trinity:

o God exists as three persons, father, son and holy spirit, all
act in relationship of intimate self surrender- when one acts they all act.
Evidenced in Bible, baptising them in the name of the father and of the

Son and of the Holy Spirit (Mt 28:19)

o The trinity is a mystery in the sense it is the deepest reality
which is beyond human understanding or experience.
o Three key functions: creating (bringing Gods new life to
creation), sanctifying (blessing creation) and redeeming (turning creation
from sin and darkness)
o Concept of trinity helps understand nature of God. Father is
transcendent (not confined to the material world), son is immanent (God
is involved in the world), the spirit unites and contains these two
concepts.
o Western church emphasises full equality, Eastern church
emphasises monarchy of the father.
Revelation:
o Disclosure by God of what was previously unknown.
o Not just communication but invitation to join in a
relationship with God
o Primary source of revelation is given, interpreted and
applied in the Bible
o However, not the only source, God continues to speak
through human history, historical events, Christianity, world religions,
joys hope and frustrations, through life itself.
o The climax of revelation occurs in the words, deeds and
actions of Christ. In the past God spoke to our forefathers through the
prophets but in these late days he has spoken to us by his Son
(Hebrews 1:1-2).
o Catholics place emphasis on Bible and Papacy as key source
of revelation, Orthodoxy believes the Bible does not wholly contain
revelation.

Salvation:
o Issue of contention, all Christians believe in life after death,
that salvation is received through the grace of God. All humankind is born
with original sin and that Gods grace sent his son Jesus Christ to atone
for the sins of mankind through his crucifixion and resurrection.
Forgiveness of sin is granted, on the condition that the individual puts
their faith in Jesus Christ as the Lord and Saviour. "We have peace with
God through our Lord Jesus Christ." (Romans 5:1)
o Differ on justification, sanctification and idea of grace.
Catholic justification- faith and good works,
protestant- faith alone. You see that a man is justified by works
but not by instantaneous faith.(James 2:24) One is justified by
faith apart from works of law (Romans 3:28).
Catholic- need cooperation with God,
Protestant- cant earn your way into heaven- Jesus made up for our
sins.
Catholic grace- a gift from God received
through the sacraments, protestant grace- an attribute of God,
sacraments are a symbol of grace.
Catholic- can lose salvation but regain it
through repentance, protestant- eternal security.
o Can experience salvation in present lifetriumph over sin, but full realisation is delayed until actual presence with
God.
o Salvation cannot be achieved by yourself
o Jesus Christ provides humanity with salvation.

The Bible

Role in everyday life:

o Basic rituals and sacraments
o Prayer/ Reflection
o Domestic rituals e.g. grace before meals
Aids in the physical practice, enactment and
celebration of Christianity in life. Bible guides Christians in rituals
and procedures in order to practice their faith. E.g. Jesus prays at
decisive moments in his life- One of those days Jesus went out to
a mountainside to pray, and spent the night praying to God. (Lk
6:12).

Develops Ethical guidelines

o See ethical teachings
Helps develop guidelines on how to act in
certain situations, how to make decisions, promotes questioning of
moral boundaries and therefore, better understanding of self, goals
etc. E.g. difficult ethical teaching Love your enemies and pray for
those who persecute you (Mt 5:44)

Communicates key teachings of Christianity

o Nature of God
o Ministry and life of Christ parables
Key source of revelation- basis of understanding
of the Christian faith- explains and teaches beliefs. E.g. The Word
became flesh and made his dwelling amongst us (John 1:14).

Ethical Teachings
These teachings are founded upon and shaped by a faith in
Jesus Christ. They also centre upon the belief that human beings are made in
the image of God with intellect, free will and self determination, therefore,
enabling them to act with morality.
The Ten Commandments
o The Ten Commandments are a set of rules or guidelines that
ultimately separate order from chaos and provide boundaries for
Christians in which to live their lives. They are motivated by Gods love
for humanity and, therefore, act as a more important source than just a
list of rules or restrictions.
o They cannot be approached in this way, instead, what they
articulate is how a person acts who follows Jesus example and lives by
love. They do not attempt to seek perfection but rather seek to imitate
Christ.
o Each commandment highlights key ethical values which
should be applied in Christian life, for instance, Though shall not kill
communicates the values of honesty, trust and justice.
o Whilst the Ten Commandments explicitly state these ethical
values which underpin Christian morality, in our modern society they are
producers of discussion and debate. Their black and white nature
highlights the grey areas of morality in society such as, when does birth
and death occur? When does life become human? This particularly
pertains to issues that are recent in nature.
o This, therefore, assists Christians in questioning and
understanding their moral boundaries and helps in forming and
developing their ethical code.

 Jesus commandment of love

o The ethical paradigm which underlies Christianity is the
message of love. This is most strongly communicated in Jesus love ethic
which follows Love one another as I have loved you (Jn 13:34). This
message compels believers to follow Jesus in modelling his actions and
attitudes.
o This modelling, however, is not confined to the love ethic but
to all of Jesus actions in the Bible. The inherent values of equality,
respect and selflessness are demonstrated in Jesus actions such as when
he dined with the tax collector, Zacchaeus or women like Mary and
Martha.
o The love ethic, also known as the Golden Rule implies that
Christians are social human beings. It highlights the nature of Christian
ethical guidelines in showing how people relate to one another and that
the focus is on relationships. This social emphasis of Christianity works on
the belief that when everyone follows this principle we will live in a
society of love and peace.
o However, like with all ethical teachings, these practices
become difficult to enact in a contemporary context. In a society still
consumed by racism, sexism and discrimination, equality is not a current
reality. Even in the Catholic Church homosexual marriage is still banned
as is the ordination of women. Acceptance, tolerance and unconditional
love are goals for which adherents continue to strive.

The Beatitudes
o The Beatitudes are the declarations of praise made by Jesus
to those who exercise particular virtues such as humility, meekness,
hunger for righteousness and poverty of spirit.
o The Beatitudes guide, point and teach by demonstrating the
values that Christ cares about and, therefore, values which Christians
must be conscious of and work towards. The emphasis of the Beatitudes
is on suffering and a compulsion to act in order to stop this suffering. This
is particularly evident in statements such as Happy are those who work
for peace; God will call them his children (Mt 5:9).
o The social justice message communicated in the Beatitudes
is present in many Bible stories including the Good Samaritan which
involves helping the weak and suffering despite barriers of social class or
particular laws.
o This fundamental teaching assists in Christian life as it
provides an impetus to achieve social justice and a greater goal to work
towards in terms of reducing suffering and improving the lives of the
weak.
o This is still relevant in todays society as can be seen
through Christian organisations such as St Vincent de Paul or The
Salvation Army who deal with issues of injustice.

Personal Devotion
Prayer is a way of acknowledging a close relationship with God. It
identifies that God relates to humans with compassion. Prayer is a reflection
where communication with God occurs. Who Christians pray to depends on the
denomination. E.g. Catholics may pray to Jesus through Mary and the saints
whilst protestants pray directly to God.
Different types of prayer:
o Vocal- words that are recited, spoken or sung. May be
structured e.g. Lords Prayer, Hail Mary, liturgical texts or may be original
and spontaneous based on personal experience.

o Mental- process of reflection involving mind, imagination and

will. Asks God to still the mind and move the heart. E.g. affections and
resolutions, creative visualisation, meditation
o Contemplative- Understood as the gift of God- grace.
Focused on a perception of Gods presence, an experience of inner
simplicity and joy.
o Purposes for prayer
During suffering- personal or family/friends
gives hope
During times of decision making asking for
advice/ guidance
When grateful give thanks and appreciation
When one has sinned asks for forgiveness
Effect: Provides tangible ways in which to come into contact with the
mysteries of the Christian faith. Provides direction, sense of community or a
sense of joy. Creates ability to act in a more Christ-like way and experiences life
with the living God. Holds transformative power- alters their life.

Depth Study: Buddhism

Historical Context
Buddhism began during the life of Buddha around 6 th 5th century BCE.
Dated from approx. 6 weeks after enlightenment, at the sermon at
sarnath, deer park where there was a formal process of ordination to convert 5
monks to Buddhas path.
Buddha set up the Sangha, it developed a separate identity from
Hinduism and was distinctive through physical appearance and garment as well
as institutional support/ economic income.
Environment Economic stability and wealth
Creation of large-scale communities
Strong evidence of Hindu social class i.e. 4 classes Brahmins
were highest
Religion
Large scale offerings and rituals which focused on
acquiring wealth
Groups who focused on searching within for absolute truth
through bodily austerity e.g. shramanas ascetics, yogins
Budda originated as one of these but was able to attract a
following and institutionalise so that it flourished after his death.

Buddha
Acts as a model of Buddhist life through guiding buddhists on beliefs,
actions and attitudes. The key events in his life explain and demonstrate vital
teachings and reveal the Buddhist outlook and approach to life.
Most obvious function of Buddhas life story is the demonstration of key
beliefs. The actions and experiences of Buddha help explain through practical
examples and events the principal beliefs and therefore, lead Buddhists to a
better understanding of their faith. As the Buddhist beliefs are understood and
appreciated, adherents are able to adopt the correct attitudes and actions in
their everyday life.
o When buddha first ventured from his palace home and
experienced suffering (old, sick, dead, poverty) he came to the realisation
that nothing was permanent. This communicated the idea of instability in
the world and the human condition- part of the noble truths.
Acknowledgement of suffering is the first step in understanding the noble

truths which underpin Buddhist understanding. Furthermore, an

understanding of impermanency (dukkha) is vital in comprehending the
cycle of samsara and karma- the wheel of life where beings are in a
constantly transient state (live, die, reborn)
o This turning point in Buddhas life is central in recognising
the ignorance of the world and the necessity to seek the truth and be
awakened through enlightenment. The ignorance of Siddartha prior to his
exposure to suffering is reflective of humanitys ignorance to the true
nature of suffering. He actively sought to remove this suffering and did so
through discovering nirvana.
o His decision to leave home and forfeit his worldly pleasures
including his riches and comforts demonstrate the ability and need to
prevent attachment. Attachment and dependence on objects or things
only leads to desire and therefore, suffering. Buddhas example teaches
adherents the importance of leaving behind such attachments and effect
in creating suffering.
o After leaving home at 29, he spends 6 years leading the life
of an ascetic and undergoing self mortification, he realises this is futile
and does not lead to enlightenment. Through the juxtaposition of
Buddhas extravagant and lavish lifestyle with one of deprivation and
torment, it is demonstrated that neither path is beneficial but teaches the
importance of moderation. This underlies the principle of the middle
path.
o Buddhas enlightenment is the most significant event in
Buddhas life and underpins the Buddhist understanding and faith. Aiding
in understanding the third noble truth, Buddhas experience of
enlightenment affirms the ability to stop suffering and break free of the
cycle of samsara.
Buddha acts as role model to all Buddhists regardless of their level of
severity. The teachings he demonstrates are universal and may simply be
adopted to varying degrees. E.g. giving up attachments, whilst members of the
Sangha take this to its furthest interpretation through living in monasteries,
giving up all personal possessions and only taking food that is offered by the
community, everyday Buddhists can also adopt these values, they avoid
obsession and dependence on material objects like wealth. In this way, Buddha
acts as a model for all Buddhists.

Formation of the Sangha

Conversion of the 5 monks at Deer park, followed by conversion of
prominent lay figures e.g. Yasa.
These conversions were used as a basis for preserving and sustaining
sangha. Their role was to teach the dhamma, also had a strong converting
emphasis. Began through word of mouth
Initially only men were allowed to become monks. Budda was approached
by his aunt Mahapajapati and asked three times for the ordination of women. He
allowed on third attempt but predicted they would weaken the sangha.
Strong caste system which buddha rejected, any class were allowed to
become a monk
Sangha was in a constant state of increase that was sustained by the
increasing lay support/community.
Early Councils:
o Council at Rajgir (486/483 BCE)
Immediately after the death of Buddha
Full recitation of discources of Buddha
Importance: clarified and established teachings,
determined which teachings were authentic. This is significant as it
is often disputed between schools who has the true essence of

Buddhism
o Council at Vaishali (386 BCE)
Schisms were highly evident (come together in
common belief begin to split)
Disputed interpretation of monks normative
conduct and the laxity of adherence
Focused upon gluttony, ostentatious behaviour
and possession of wealth. E.g. carrying salt in an animal horn
would preserve food could eat later
Importance: suggested a possible divide in
Buddhism, may have lead to the Theravada and Mahayana
schools.
That which I have proclaimed and made known as the dharma and the
vinaya, that shall be your master when I am gone.

Schools of Buddhism

Theravada:
o Belief in the arhant Focuses upon individual attainment of
enlightenment. Buddha is a model for what can be achieved it is largely
done through individual effort.
o Buddha is not a god but a great teacher human who
attained enlightenment
o Sharp division between sangha and the lay person
sangha only used to describe monk/nun community
Mahayana:
o Belief in the bodhisattva Renounces individual nirvana to
return to the world and help others achieve enlightenment.
o Emphasis on selfless compassion seen in Buddha staying
on earth after enlightenment
o Buddha is an eternal transcendent being who is embodied in
the historical Buddha
o Easier for lay community to follow sangha refers to entire
Buddhist community focus on potentiality for buddhahood in all
humans.
Vajrayana:
o Mystically inclined secrets passed down orally
o Accelerated path of enlightenment- can occur in one
lifetime- spontaneously attained
o Strong emphasis on visulalisation and recitation of secret
verses e.g. mantras
o Dalai lama is the spiritual leader who stands as the
incarnation of the great bodhisattva of compassion.

Principal Beliefs
Buddhists dont agree with beliefs as it implies a dependence upon
certain principles which undermines their teachings, instead they are views.
Three Jewels: can be seen as the teacher, the teachings and the taught
the buddha, the dhamma and the sangha.
o Buddha- The historical buddha and the ideal of buddhahood
o Dhamma- the totality of buddhas teachings, mainly 4 noble
truths and middle path
o Sangha all buddhists of the world past and present
o Buddhist teachings explain the constancy of change- all
existence is movement and to escape from this one must understand
existence itself through enlightenment.
Four noble truths: the simplicity and brevity of the truths means they are

subject to many interpretations and often only accessible to intellectuals.

o First
life is suffering
dukkha is a better interpretation of suffering
impermanence or instability. Humanitys craving and dependence
on security means suffering exists in all aspects of life.
Whatever is subject to arising is all subject to
cessation- the world is impermanent. May have happiness but it
does not last.
o Second
The cause of dukkha is ignorance. I see no
other hindrance such as this hindrance of ignorance, obstructed by
which mankind for a long long time runs on, round and round in
circles
Ignorance of the first noble truth means
suffering continues. Egocentric understanding of I maintains
belief in permanency.
Since we do not have permanency we suffer.
o Third
There is a way to escape suffering through
reaching nirvana
To reach nirvana one must eradicate desire,
acknowledge and accept dukkha and eradicate ignorance. Free
from everything called form, he is deep, immeasurable,
unfathomable, just as a deep ocean.
Must realise this for ourselves cannot just be
told
o Fourth
Way to achieve enlightenment is the eight-fold
path.
Each component must be practiced
simultaneously
Wisdom: more than just knowledge of
teachings, must be instinctive and intuitive
Conduct: ethics adopting compassionate
attitude
Meditation: emptying mind- can receive
awakening, understanding of true reality
Three marks of existence
o Dukkha- existence is ultimately unsatisfying
o Annica- everything is in a constant state of flux, nothing is
permanent
o Anatta- insubstantiality of all things. There is no permanent
essence, therefore, no permanent self. Everything is interdependent,
caused by something else, therefore it has no intrinsic reality of its own
Karma/ Samsara
o Samsara is the opposite of nirvana it is the view of existence
as a bondage to a set of ongoing rebirths- based on the belief that all
things rise and fall in dependance on each other. The world is in a
constant state of motion.
o Since everything is interdependent, all intentions will ripen
into corresponding future responses. This is the belief in karma. It is
karma which fuels the cycle of samsara.
o Karma is not based on actions but intentions.
o It is not a justice system where actions are judged by a
powerful being, but works in virtue of its own nature, its own law.
o Effects of an action in one life can flow on to affect a later
life.

Nirvana
o Not a place but a state of mind in which one is awakened to
the true reality of existence.
o Have been able to relinquish the desire for permanency and
have eradicated the ignorance of the nature of suffering.
o Released from cycle of samsara and karma
o Still feels normal pains and pleasures but are not affected by
them in the same way

Ethical Teachings
Buddhist ethical teachings are not seen as a set of commandments or
rules, but rather high ideals which are difficult to meet perfectly yet are
respected and striven for. They take the form of a personal undertaking.
Believe nothing, no matter where you read it, or who said it, no matter if I have
said it, unless it agrees with your own reason and your own common sense.
Generosity/Compassion:
o dana- generates karmic fruitfulness, involves showing
respect, helping, sharing and rejoicing in other karmic fruitfulness.
Underpins the central aim in causing no harm. A generous heart, kind
speech, and a life of service and compassion are the things which renew
humanity.
o About losing the idea of the ego/ self and adopting the no
self / anatta, part of the three marks of existence and central to
understanding Buddhist worldview.
o Fosters the breaking down of possessiveness, creates an
open hearted and sensitive attitude and promotes spiritual progress
o The overarching goal of compassion is a particularly difficult
one to enact. For instance, when one is unaware of the effect of their
actions. Whilst this may be considered irrelevant due to a lack of volition,
the responsibility of the adherent to be aware and knowledgeable of the
issues around them must also be considered. This creates major areas of
uncertainty as to the adherents morality in particular situations. To what
degree are they responsible for harmful actions if they arent aware and
to what extent are they morally obliged to be aware? Whilst compassion
is central to Buddhist ethics it doesnt provide clear moral outlines.
Intention/Volition:
o Emphasis on seeing clear reality- ethics pertains to not
necessarily actions but intentions. Includes faith and trust in ones sense
of right, awareness (e.g. removing ignorance) and self respect. Buddha
questions, All wrong-doing arises because of mind. If mind is transformed
can wrong-doing remain?
o Links directly to the eight fold path of right mind. The
attempt to eradicate ignorance is central to an understanding of reality.
The emphasis of volition also links to the causes of karma which are also
centred around intention.
o Counteracts negative qualities/hindrances in ability to judge
clearly, promotes spiritual progress, beneficial in its own right but also
leads to higher level of meditation and spiritual understanding.
5 precepts:
o Avoiding injury to others, theft and cheating, sexual
misconduct, lying and maintaining sobriety. Focuses on positives of
achieving these rather than the guilt and regret of breaking them.
Reflected in central texts, he should not kill a living creature, nor cause
to kill, nor approve of others killing (sutta nipata) again links to
intention.
o Each precept individually reflects the key principal beliefs
e.g. abstain from false speech reinforces the Buddhist value of seeking

the truth, and as a whole they formulate the middle path, firstly in the
way they should be approached, by avoiding extremes of laxity or rigid
adherence, and secondly in the values they communicate about right
conduct.
o Applicable to many everyday situations e.g. to abstain from
taking what is not given- to not exploit workers. Has many benefits such
as confidence, lack of fear, good reputation etc. benefits highlighted
through the negatives of not upholding the precepts a person of poor
morality who fails in morality suffers great diminution of wealth owing to
laziness.
o Broad nature of the precepts enables them to be universal
and adaptable, however, it also means they are widely open to
interpretation e.g. abstaining from sexual misconduct- in countries such
as Thailand flirting with married women is a breach of this precept in
other countries it pertains to sexual responsibility. Due to this ambiguity
and their nature as flexible guidelines, they may not act as a decisive
ethical system in certain situations and rely upon the context and
decisions of the adherent.
Vinaya:
o Aimed at monastic community, contains 227 rules on the
proper way of life and behaviour, organisation of the sangha and nature
of monastic duties, very specific e.g. do not talk with food in the mouth.
o Vinaya is designed to guide monks and nuns to live there life
in such a way that they are able to understand the four noble truths
o Removes them from situations of desire, therefore help then
to achieve spiritual enlightenment.
o Problem is they are only applicable to a small number of
Buddhists, the monastic community and therefore, many rules are not
highly significant to the Buddhist population. Yet even these specific rules
are open to debate and interpretation as can be seen in the early
councils.

Sacred Texts
Tripitaka Theravadin Canon
o Vinaya pitaka: for monks
Monastic discipline and behaviour
Importance: strong emphasis on monastic
discipline within Thervadin Buddhism, differs from Mahayana.
Adhering to the code set out by buddha is vital to achieving
enlightenment, therefore, vinaya must be followed.
o Sutta pitaka: for lay community
Discussions between Buddha and disciples
Buddhist beliefs- noble truths etc
Stories of buddhas life
Importance: source of teachings, discussions
aid in interpreting and explaining the beliefs, events and stories act
as a guide and role model through demonstration in particular
examples.
o Abhidhamma pitaka: for intellectuals
Metaphysical writings
Argues for Buddhist worldview
Importance: of lesser importance however,
justifies Buddhist understanding over other views and gives insight
into deeper questions
Lotus of the Good Law Mahayana
o Parables and stories of Buddhas life

o Anecdotes each contain metaphors of buddha saving people

from disaster e.g. a father entices his children out of a burning house
when they do not realise the seriousness of the fire. Metaphor for the
buddhas role in helping people escape ignorance and samsara. Suppose
a fierce wind blew their ship to the land of demons. If just one of them
calls the name of Avalokitesvara they will be saved Ch 24
o Importance: Sends important message of universal potential
for buddhahood as well as explaining the role of the bodhisattva. The
lotus of the good law is also highly accessible to a popular audience due
to the colour and vivacity of the plot meaning its messages are more
effectively and widely communicated.
Tibetan Book of the Dead
o Describes experiences between death and rebirth. Read
aloud to the dying as a form of guidance in their disorientated state.
o E.g. At this time, you should bring to mind and visualise the
Lord of Great Compassion or any other embodiment of your spiritual
ideal
o Importance: the dying are in a dangerous condition where
they could easily choose the wrong way, therefore it is integral that they
have guidance at this time so they may reach nirvana or come back to
samsara in a favourable body.
o Can also be used by the living, seen as death a rebirth of the
ego rather than the body
Puja
Puja refers to a variety of ritual or ceremonial practices of worship or
devotion. The purpose of Buddhist puja is to show honour respect or devotional
observance.
This is achieved through the use of offerings such as a lit candle, burning
incense, flowers or fruit to an image of the Buddha, a bodhisattva or teacher
(guru). Each of these offerings has symbolic significance such as the lit candle
which represents the enlightenment of Buddha and the role of his teachings in
removing ignorance. Actions such as bowing show respect and humility. Specific
puja rituals include the taking of the refuge in the 3 jewels. This is a simple
ritual that reaffirms a persons commitment to the Buddhist path, it is performed
before an image of the Buddha and involves offerings and possible bodily
prostration.
However, puja also has a deeper impact on the adherent. On the basis
that puja is performed from genuine and natural emotion, it acts as an exterior
manifestation of inner sentiment and feeling. Performing puja mindfully means
thought and attention is directed away from personal concerns. Instead
concentration is completely focused on the Buddha and his noble qualities. This
honest admiration serves in bringing about anatta, a sense of no self, it occurs
when one suppresses their ego and becomes completely selfless, it is a vital
step in gaining true concentration. Due to the joy, calm and subsequent ease
generated, the ability to achieve concentration increases and therefore, puja
acts as an valuable aid in finding awareness and liberating insight. When a
noble disciple contemplates upon the enlightened one, at that time his mind is
not enwrapped in lust, nor in hatred, nor in delusion.

Depth Study: Judaism

Context
The Patriarchs

o Abraham rejected paganism instead declaring his adherence

to a single God. His God asked him to leave his country and travel to
another region with his tribe. He gathered his people and travelled from
Ur in Mesopotamia to Canaan.
o The Patriarchs were the forefathers of modern Judaism. The
very first covenant was made between Abraham and the unseen God.
Abraham had demonstrated his complete trust in God, when called upon
by God he had taken his young son Isaac and had been prepared to
sacrifice him, so strong was his love for God. The Lord on seeing this
commitment requested that a ram instead be sacrificed and a covenant
was established which illustrated the special relationship between God
and his people, which is at the heart of Jewish practices and beliefs today.
This covenant was Gods eternal promise to Abraham to make him the
ancestor of a multitude of nations (Gen17:5).
o Upon Abrahams death his son Isaac became the second
patriarch and leader of the Hebrew people. The covenant was renewed
through him and through his son Jacob, who was the third Patriarch. Jacob
was also given the name Israel meaning contender with God after
having a vision of him wrestling with the Lord (Genesis 32:22). This
epitomized the journey of struggle which the Jewish people endured.
Jacob lent his name to a nation Israel. The promises made to the
Patriarchs in the covenants continued in Jewish history and continued
with the covenant through Moses.

Significance of his actions

o His legacy of monotheism, the belief in one God over
mankind.
o His concern that people act ethically
o Abrahams life is an example of supreme faith and devotion
to God, love of fellow man. Demonstrated through his willingness to
sacrifice his only son and leave his family and home behind. Leave your
country, your relatives and your fathers home, and go to a land that I am
going to show you (Gen 12:1).
o Entering covenant with God, given their word to go on living
as a people in a special way, acknowledging there is something greater
than themselves.
o Theme of exile and return, highlights the Jewish value of
hospitality. Sirs, please do not pass my home without stopping; I am
here to serve you (Gen 18:3)
Moses and the Exodus
o A Hebrew baby is saved from the river by the daughter of
the Pharaoh, he was known as Moses. Eventually falling foul of the
Pharaoh he was exiled to the far side of the red sea, where he became a
shepherd. One day whilst minding his flock and meditating on the
suffering of enslaved people God spoke to him from a burning bush. He
commanded that Moses lead his people to the land of milk and honey.
Stirred into action Moses prepared for his journey, leading the Israelites
out of slavery in Egypt.
Themes of the Exodus
o Path to Gods love is difficult so that people do not enslave
themselves. This is not necessarily literal enslavement e.g. worship
materialism, money etc.
Moses takes the long path
They outnumber the Egyptians yet are still
enslaved
o Nature of God
Divinity seen through miracles such as the

burning bush
God is powerful- turns the stick into the snake
take this walking stick with you, for with it you will perform
miracles (Ex 4:17)
There is only one God building the gold calf
God is precious instructs the people to make
the arks
o Covenant
God responds to the needs of the people by
calling Moses fulfilling and upholding the covenant demonstrates
love for his people
The 10 commandments
o Justice
Punishment is given to those who do not uphold
the covenant for God fights for their cause, and strikes those who
strike them
Passover, 10 plagues, death of Egyptians in the
Red Sea

Variants of Judaism

Orthodox
o Traditional observances as prescribed by law, limited
interpretation of the Torah.
o Distinguished by its worship in traditional Hebrew.
o Belief in Biblical laws, with respect for the laws divine origin.
o Not administered by any central authority
o Synagogues are established by groups and individuals and
each has their own distinctive ideology and culture.

Ultra Orthodox
o Recognised by their stylized long black coats and beards.
o The best known group is perhaps the Chasidim, small
community with strict adherence to Jewish study and practice, have
considerable influence in the larger Jewish community.
o This movement began in Eastern Europe in the mid 18 th
Century. Chassidism was seen as a way of infusing joy and hope into a life
of difficulty and despair. It emphasizes joy in life, love of fellow men and
ecstasy at being in the presence of God.
o Strong focus on converting Jews from their current ways
back to the traditional style

Progressive
o Movement began in early 19th century described as reform,
liberal or progressive Judaism.
o Views the sacred heritage of the Torah as evolving and
adapting. Belief that the Torah needs to be reinterpreted to capture the
age.
o Rejected belief in a personal Messiah, resurrection of the
dead, rebuilding of the temple in Jerusalem
o In recent years has modified its original revolutionary stance
and putting more emphasis upon traditional observances. Most recent
principles as stated in 1999 calls for ongoing study of the sacred texts,
commitment to Israel, study of the Hebrew language and equality for
women and acceptance of all regardless of sexual orientation. Including
the ordination of women rabbis
o Main ideological distinction with the Orthodox is the temple

service, uses English and is adapted and shortened. Men and women sit
together and women Rabbis may officiate, use of organ music and
liturgical features.
o Since the Holocaust have been more supportive of Zionism
(national movement for return of the Jewish people to their homeland)
and greater interest in revival of ritual.

Conservative
o Fosters traditional Judaism while embracing modernity. Yet
more traditional than progressive Judaism, especially in relation to
worship.
o Study of Holy texts is embedded in belief that Judaism is
constantly evolving to meet contemporary needs.
o Belief that the laws of the torah and the Talmud are of divine
origin, and therefore requires the following of Jewish law (halacha) yet
acknowledges the human element in the sacred texts.
o Belief that Gods will is made known to man through
revelations. The revelation at Sinai the most public, but also belief in
revelations to the prophets.
o Service is in Hebrew but includes prayers in English
o Places great importance on a universal people of Israel and
the centrality of the land of Israel.

Principal Beliefs

Nature of God
o Monotheistic- one god who is creator You shall have no
other God before me, you shall not make for yourself an idol
o He is transcendent and immanent. Separate from the world
yet still involved in it through the covenant.
o Incorporeal
Do not support iconography
Yet anthropomorphic language is often used
illustrates how humans are but a shadow of God and must strive to
emulate his moral attributes
o He is a personal God, connect with in a personal relationship
love of humanity
o God is ultimately good and moral therefore, everything he
creates is good. He acts out of morality not anger or personal preference.
o God is precious and holy You shall be holy because I the
Lord your God am holy (Lev 19:2). We cannot live by morality and ethics
alone. Whilst ethics enables life, holiness ennobles it. It is about having
respect.

Divinely inspired moral law

o Moral law binds Jews to God. The 613 Mitzvot are very
specific and used to remind Jews of God in every action and aspect of
their life. It is a form of expressing their faithfulness to the covenant.
o The sacred Texts, that is the Torah and the words of the
prophets are unchanging because they are the divine word of God.

Covenant
o By entering into the covenant, God accepts a limitation to
the exercise of his omnipotence, hence, endowing humans with free will.
However, this freedom comes with moral obligation, both externally in
actions and an internal reform in attitude and beliefs. The covenant
becomes the framework for mutual obligation
o It is a path of communication with God and a forum for

discourse e.g. Moses talks to God about his obligation to the people for
forgiveness when they make the golden calf. It affirms the peoples
relationship with God and establishes order and authority. Gods
willingness to share in the perfection process with humans demonstrates
his absolute love and care for them.
o Ultimate goal of the covenant is to restore perfection to the
world. Attempt to reinstate peace and love between all people. This goal
is achieved through human participation and therefore, outlines ethical
system and provides Jews with an ethical objective and purpose, to act
justly, to love mercy and to walk humbly with God.
o The covenant provides a sense of identity and unity to the
Jewish people. Known as the people of Israel the covenant brings Jews
together, the chosen people, with common rights and responsibilities.
There is a common affection and concern for the state of Israel.
o Circumcision is a sign of accepting and ratifying the
covenant.

Sacred Texts
The commandments are the essence of the entire Torah. They are the
main principles for survival of Jewish people religiously and ethically. When seen
in the correct light it is life itself.
The moral law is set out in the first five books of the Bible, known as the
Torah. This comprises 613 commandments, which include the Ten
Commandments. These form the principle foundations of faith and are given for
all times
Things that are revealed to us belong to us and our children forever, to
keep all the words of this Torah (Deut 29:28). It is forbidden to add or subtract a
commandment or to interpret so as to add a prohibition which was not included
in tradition
The Torah provides Adherents with direction for their spiritual life and
ethics and guides their rituals. Judaism places great emphasis upon the
observance of ceremony and tradition. The rites and rituals practices are
believed to focus attention upon God. Rituals have a significant influence upon
the life of the adherents. Observance of religious law shapes the lives of Jewish
people on a daily basis. This may be seen through observances such as
Shabbat, or Sabbath, considered the most important day of the Jewish week.
A great emphasis is placed upon studying and reading the Torah, this is
part of the 613 mitvot, the exhortation to study the Torah (Deut 6: 7) as a
result, literacy and learning has become deeply ingrained in the Jewish way of
life

Ethical Teachings
The Jewish faith is a religion based upon ethical monotheism, a belief in
a single God who gives commandments which constitute the moral law and
ethical teachings for mankind.
This moral law is manifested in the halachah, the Jewish legal system
which enables Jews to practice the ethical teachings in their everyday life.
Adherents live their lives in accordance with these commandments.
Jewish ethics place demands upon adherents to act in a certain way on a wide
range of social, environmental, economic and personal issues. It guides them in
a right relationship with God and right relationship with ones families and
neighbours. Extensive laws provide stringent guidelines for ethical guidance
on all areas of life.
God wanted to benefit Israel; he therefore gave then Torah and
commandments in abundance. For a devout Jew the beauty in the abundance
of these laws is there is never any doubt as to how to act in ways to please God.

Their wide coverage of issues from business to clothing means almost aspects
of life are addressed in Jewish law. However, the stringency and specificity of
the laws makes them very difficult to enact for an everyday Jew. Further
complications arise from the question of their relevance to modern societies.
Whilst orthodox Jews affirm the commandments are unchanging, progressive
Jews are more willing to accept reform as issues change and develop throughout
the ages.
At the centre of the Torah and the commandments is the message what
you find hateful, do not do to others
Gods primary demand is ethical behaviour, he cares more about how
humans treat each other than anything else. He asks that humans act with
justice and mercy. Judaism asks people not to worry about their own spirituality
to the exclusion of others, this defeats the purpose of seeking spirituality.
The prophets remind Jews that worship and ritual is insufficient, it must
be accompanied by charity and love. A fight for social justice has a strong
presence in the books of the prophets. Amos speaks often of justice, he calls for
punishment to those who trample on the heads of the poor and deny justice to
the oppressed. (Amos 2:7). This incorporates many fundamental beliefs of
Judaism such as the theme of hospitality, that Jews should perform acts of
kindness and charity. It also reinforces Gods claim of punishment to those who
do not uphold the covenant, they will receive justice.
For Adherents the ten commandments are central to their faith and form
part of the binding covenant that they entered into with God, If you obey me
fully and keep my covenant, then out of all nations you will be my treasured
possession(Exodus 19 : 5)
Jewish family life is inextricably linked with principal ethical teachings.
The family home is considered the centre of Jewish life, above even the
synagogue. All family members have duties and responsibilities to ensure the
integrity of family. For women this includes keeping the dietary rules. The strict
ritual observance of Kosher foods and preparation and lighting of the Shabbat
candles. Children also have duties in honouring their parents Cursed be he who
dishonours his father or his mother (Deut 27:16)
The duties of parents also include the obligation to have their sons
circumcised, in keeping with the original covenant Abraham entered into with
God. They must ensure that their sons are educated in the Torah, learn a trade
and must find them a wife, preferably Jewish.