Introduction to reflection seismic

D.A. Nieuwland, NewTec International BV.

Introduction to Reflection Seismics

D.A. Nieuwland
NewTec International BV

Introduction to reflection seismic

Contents
Vertical incidence
Non-Vertical Incidence
Reflection Hyperbola
Velocity
Density
Porosity
Temperature
Pore
fill

Definitions of Geophysical Velocities

NMO velocity
Stacking velocity
Interval velocity
Average velocity
RMS velocity
Migration velocity
Geological velocities

Velocity analyses
NMO correction
Mute
Deconvolution Before Stack
Deconvolution after stacking
Static corrections

Migration
CDP gathering
Interpretation

D.A. Nieuwland, NewTec International BV.

D.A. Nieuwland, NewTec International BV.

Introduction to reflection seismic

Reflection Seismic
Artificially generated energy (acoustic- or seismic waves) are reflected at seismic interfaces and
detected by a chain of receivers. A seismic interface in the subsurface is formed by a contact of layers
with a different acoustic impedance.
The acoustic impedance Z is defined by:
Z = density . velocity = ! . V,
where
! = specific density of the rock
V = seismic velocity through that rock

Seismic moves as a wave front

The shape of the wave front is controlled by the lithologies in
the sub surface

Different lithologies result in different acoustic properties, the

most fundamental being the acoustic impedance I = V.!
(velocity times specific density)

Layers with different I result in an interface with a certain

Reflection coefficient R = (I -I )/(I +I )
A high Reflection coefficient results in the generation of multiples
2

Vertical incidence
A basic parameter in reflection seismic is the Reflection Coefficient R,
R = (amplitude reflected wave)/(amplitude incident wave) for vertical incidence
R = (Z2 Z1)/(Z2 + Z1)
T = transmitted wave
T = 1-R = 1- (Z2 Z1)/(Z2 + Z1) = 2Z1 / (Z2 + Z1)
In general R=0.1 and T=0.9

Fig. 1.

Introduction to reflection seismic

D.A. Nieuwland, NewTec International BV.

For an extra strong reflector the reflected energy (amplitude) is high, for example R1=R2=0.3, the
reflected energy (amplitude A) for A212 is about 16x as strong as for R1=R2=0.1. This is what causes
multiples: strong (hard) reflectors generate strong multiples, (Fig. 1).
For R1=R2=0.1: A212=A0 x 0.9 x 0.1 x 0.1 x 0.1 x 0.9=0.00081A0
For R1=R2=0.3: A212=A0 x 0.7 x 0.3 x 0.3 x 0.3 x 0.7=0.013A0 which is about 16x stronger.

Non-Vertical Incidence
Reflection
Transmission

- Pup
- converted Sup
- Pdown
- converted Sdown

The complete series of Reflection and Transmission coefficients is given by the Zoeppritz matrix
(1907!). This more advanced seismic theory exceeds the scope of this course and will not be treated
further.

Reflection Hyperbola
Suppose a seismic impedance contrast in horizontally layered sedimentary strata:
A horizontal reflector in a medium with velocity V and a 2D acquisition lay out.
Source at x=0
Receivers at depth z
Then: tx2=t02+x2/V2 with t0=2Z/V
For large distances the reflected wave approaches the direct wave: Deeper reflectors give less
curvature.
Curvature is given by: tx=tx-t0=tx-(tx2-x2/V2)1/2
"tx can be approximated by:
"tx= tx-t0=x2/(2V2t0)=x2/(4VZr) also called the normal move out NMO.
Fig. 2

Introduction to reflection seismic

D.A. Nieuwland, NewTec International BV.

Using this relation, the velocity V can be estimated if x, t0 and "t are known. This is called the NMO
correction and is done before stacking the data. Stacking is the process whereby a number of adjacent
traces are added-up (stacked) to increase the signal and to reduce the noise, i.e. to increase the signal to
noise ratio [signal/noise] (Dolby in music). For a dipping reflector the geometry is more complex, but
the method remains the same (Fig. 2).
"t can be approximated by: "t = tx-t0 # x2/(2V2t0) # x2/(4Vz)r also called Normal Move Out (NMO)
(For symbols see also Fig. 1). Using this relation the velocity 'V' can be estimated if x, t0 and "t are
known. This is called the NMO correction and is done before stacking the data.

Velocity
Velocity of seismic waves has already been mentioned and used in a wave propagation exercise, here
wave propagation and related velocities are treated in a bit more detail.
Wave motion takes place in two modes. One is by compression also known as dilatation or
longitudinal or irrotational or P-wave, P, because this is the wave type that is usually the first
recorded event of a seismic record; the second is known as shear or transverse or rotational or S-wave,
S, because it is usually the second major event that is recorded on earthquake records (Fig. nn).
P-waves and S-waves have different velocities, respectively $ and %, expressed as
$=((&+2)/!)1/2 =(M/!)1/2
(N-nn)
1/2
%=(/!)
(N-(nn+1))
Where & and are elastic constants. As the elastic constants are always positive, $ is always larger
than %. It can be demonstrated that the S-wave velocity % ranges from 0 to 70% of the P-wave velocity
$. For fluids =0, it follows then from equation %=(/!)1/2 that the S-wave velocity in fluids %=0, i.e.
S-waves cannot propagate through fluids, not though air, not through the earths core.
P-wave velocity through water is approximately 1.5 km/s, which is much slower than through rocks
where it commonly ranges from 2.0 to 5.0 km/s. As a result, P-waves are affected by the presence of
oil and/or gas in a reservoir, S-waves are not.
As a rule of thumb, the following simple table of velocity versus medium can be used:
Lithologies (and other materials) are listed in order of increasing velocity (Fig. 3):
Air-water-unconsolidated rockshalessandstoneslimestones/dolomitessaltanhydrite.
Fig. 3.

Introduction to reflection seismic

D.A. Nieuwland, NewTec International BV.

Parameters that will affect velocity are:

o
Lithology
o
Depth
o
Age
o
Porosity
o
Interstitial fluids
o
Temperature
Most of the parameters listed above depend on one another, increasing depth goes with increasing age,
increasing temperature and decreasing porosity.
Density.
Almost all these parameters (with exception of temperature) tend to affect density and
consequently the seismic velocity. Gardner (1974) developed a simple formula to estimate the
relations between density and seismic velocity: ! = a.V1/4
Porosity.
Important is the role of porosity. Its inverse effect on velocity may be used to detect
high porosity zones by seismic methods. Velocities decrease with increasing porosity.
"t='"tf = (1-')"tm
1/V='.1/Vf + (1-')/Vm
Porosity has especially in clastic sediments an inverse relationship with depth. Increasing depth
decreases porosity due to compaction. This is especially so in sandstones and shales, in carbonate
rocks this relation is rarely the case. For the compaction process in clastics it is essential that the pore
fluid can escape. If the pore fluid cannot escape overpressure will develop.
Temperature.

A large increase in temperature results in a small but measurable velocity reduction.

Pore fill.
Replacing pore water with oil or gas reduces the P-wave velocity. Particularly the gas
effect is strong, because of the low density of gas (Domenico, Geophysics V41, 5), this is especially so
in unconsolidated sands.
Below a depth of some 2000 m the porosity effect tends to be stronger than the gas effect. From the
effects of pore-fill seismic velocities, the following rules-of-thumb apply:
Vp/Vs < 2.0
general for consolidated rocks (Poissons ratio <0.333)
1.4 < Vp/Vs < 2.0
pore fluid is water
1.3 < Vp/Vs < 1.7
pore fluid is gas
Vp/Vs > 2.0
unconsolidated water saturated sands (weathering layer).
A physical rock property that relates the rock strength in compressional and lateral directions is the
Poissons ratio (. (In rock mechanics ( is defined as the ratio between the axial and radial strain of a
rock sample in a simple unconfined compression test). Vp and Vs are related by ( according to:
Vp/Vs=((1-()/(0.5-())1/2 ; (=(0.5-( Vs/Vp)2)/(1-( Vs/Vp)2)
The reflection coefficient changes as a function of the offset. It has been demonstrated that the change
in reflection coefficient with offset is different for unconsolidated sands than for consolidated sands.
Again the effect is most apparent (stronger) for unconsolidated material. This effect is known as
Amplitude Versus Offset in short AVO (Fig. 4).
Two effects are observed:
1
The normal incident reflection becomes much stronger for gas.
2
With increasing offset the amplitudes in a gas reservoir increase whereas they decrease
with offset when the pores are water saturated.

Introduction to reflection seismic

D.A. Nieuwland, NewTec International BV.

Fig. 4.

Stress - strain relations

Stress, ) =force per unit area.
Strain is defined as: * =K.("V/V)
where:
K = bulk modulus, (incompressibility)
V = is the undeformed volume
"V = the change in volume (difference in V before and after deformation)
The relation between stress and strain can bededescribed by: ) = .*
where:
= shear modulus
Strain can also be described as a fuction of change in length by: e = E.("L)/L
where elasticity of the material is captured by the Youngs modulus: E = (3&+2)/&+
The Poissons ratio( is defined as ( =(transverse strain)/(longitudinal strain) =&/(2(&+)) and can be
used to estimate the horizontal stress from the vertical stress )h # )v.( (often ( # 0.3 to 0.25).

Definitions of Geophysical Velocities

NMO velocity
The velocity V can be estimated from the reflection hyperbola if x, t0 and "t are known. This is called
the NMO correction and is done before stacking the data.
tx=tx-t0=tx-(tx2-x2/V2)1/2
Stacking velocity
Is obtained by maximizing the events in CDP stacking (NMO velocity).
Interval velocity
The velocities in a depth (time) interval added and divided by the number of intervals gives the
Average velocity.
Average velocity
Average of the various interval velocities, approximately equals the RMS velocity and is commonly
used for depth conversion.
RMS velocity
Root Mean Square velocity, an alternative method to obtain a stacking velocity Vrms=[+vi2.ti/+ti]1/2
Migration velocity
Is used to migrate the data, in general Vmig<Vstack

D.A. Nieuwland, NewTec International BV.

Introduction to reflection seismic

Geological velocities
Are obtained by sonic logging in an uncased borehole. Sonic measures travel time "t, i.e. slowness.
Sonic velocities are measured in a high frequency range. This improves the resolution, but requires
calibration with the seismic, which has been acquired in a much lower frequency. The calibration
between seismic and borehole is done by means of a Vertical Seismic Profile (VSP) (Fig. 5).
Calibrated sonic log data can be used for depth calibration of the seismic and for the generation of
synthetic seismograms (Fig. 5 a,b,c).
A recent development are 3D VSP's which provide of course even more accurate velocity information.
(Fig. 5 a, b, c) VSP acquisition geometries.

Velocity Analyses
A wide range of velocity treatments is in use to arrive at the best possible image of the acoustic
(seismic) signals. This applies to the quality of the signals but also to the geometry of the reflector that
they represent, which has to be as close as possible to the real subsurface structure.
NMO correction
With velocities derived from the NMO (Fig. 2) a correction for the reflection hyperbola to a realistic
geometry is achieveMute
Muting is a process whereby a selected part if the traces is removed.
Outer mute sets all traces to zero until just after the first brake
Inner mute is ground-roll suppression or demultiplexing.
Deconvolution Before Stack
Deconvolution Before Stack (DBS) is a correction for water bottom multiples. The technique is also
used to correct for a signal that has 'bounced' between closely spaced strongly reflective layers. The
signal reflects frequently between the layers (it resonates) and the resulting image shows a package of
parallel apparently good reflectors. After de-multiplexing the real signal and more realistic image are
the result (Fig. 7).
(Fig. 7) Deconvolution Before Stack (DBS).

Before DBS

Deconvolution after stacking

After DBS

Introduction to reflection seismic

D.A. Nieuwland, NewTec International BV.

DAS is applied to increase the frequency content of the signal by amplifying existing higher
frequencies.
Static corrections
Static corrections are corrections per shot location that remove local effects above the seismic datum,
in order to achieve a more homogeneous signal free from near surface disturbances such as weathering
shallow lakes etc. (Fig. 8).
Fig. 8. Static corrections for near surface effects.

Migration
Migration is the operation whereby the reflected event is put in the correct spatial position. This is
performed after the NMO correction, but can be done before stacking the data. Greatly increase
computer power has enabled to depth-migrate (i.e. migrate and convert from time to depth) and even
to do this with pre-stack data: PSDM (Pre Stack Depth Migration). The results can be spectacular, but
require a very good velocity model. A risk with this method is that the result can be strongly 'model
driven'. Without first quality data this can stand in the way of an unbiased interpretation.

CDP gathering
CDP = Common Depth Point, better is to use Common Mid Point (CMP). This is a way of organizing
the raw data from shot gathers to CMP gathers

Introduction to reflection seismic

D.A. Nieuwland, NewTec International BV.

10

Interpretation
It is good practice to follow a more or less standard sequence of interpretation actions to ensure a
rigorous and more or less standardized workflow, thereby minimizing the risk of overseeing elements.
A standard sequence could be as follows:

Well information should be tied to the seismic. This can be sonic log or density data, but any
other type of well information can be used, depths of horizons being a very fundamental one.
Horizon picking, various types of horizons need to be considered:
o Formation tops, including top reservoir(s)
o Base seal and seal thickness (top seal)
o Unconformities
o Strong velocity contrasts
Fault picking
Depth conversion
o Velocities from seismics (stacking or migration velocities)
o Velocities from wells
! Interval velocities from sonic logs
! Check shots
! VSP
Map and section evaluation
o Trap types
o Pit falls
Thin layer analyses
o Compare resolution: frequency content and typical layer thicknesses (if available).
Direct Hydrocarbon Indicators (DHI)
o Bright / Dim spots
o Flat spot
o Polarity inversion
o Gas chimneys
o Velocity anomalies
o AVO analyses.