Space Shuttles and its Advancements

Space Shuttle Components

The space shuttle's components include: the orbiter, three main engines, the external tank, and two solid rocket boosters.
Altogether, the launch weight is about 4.5 million pounds.
Orbiter: Each orbiter is 121 feet long, with a wingspan of 78 feet and a tail height of 57 feet. Constructed mainly of aluminum, it is about the size of a DC-9
commercial airliner, and can carry a payload of 65,000 pounds into space. The payload bay is 60 feet long and 15 feet in diameter. The landing weight varies
from mission to mission and ranges from 200,000 pounds to 230,000 pounds. Each orbiter is designed for a lifetime of about 100 space missions. The forward
fuselage houses the cockpit and crew cabin and crew work areas. The mid-fuselage area consists of the payload bay and the wing and main landing gear attach
points. The aft fuselage houses the main engines, the orbital maneuvering system (OMS), the reaction control system (RCS) pods, the wing aft spar, and the
attach point for the vertical tail.

Main Engines: The main engines operate on a mixture of liquid oxygen and liquid hydrogen, each engine producing a sea level thrust of 375,000 pounds and a
vacuum thrust of 470,000 pounds. The engines can be throttled over a thrust range of 65 to 109 percent, allowing a high power setting during liftoff and initial
ascent, and a power reduction during final ascent to keep acceleration of the orbiter at three earth gravities. The engines are gimbaled (movable) to control pitch,
yaw, and roll. Normal engine operating time on each flight is about 8.5 minutes. Each engine is designed for about 7.5 total operating hours.
External Tank: The external tank is 154 feet long and 28.6 feet in diameter. It is constructed primarily of aluminum alloys. Empty weight of an external tank is
78,100 pounds. When filled and flight ready, each has a gross weight of 1,667,677 pounds and contains nearly 1.6 million pounds (143,060 gallons) of liquid
oxygen and more than 226,000 pounds (526,126 gallons) of liquid hydrogen. The external tank is the only major part of the space shuttle system not reused after
each flight.
Solid Rocket Boosters: The space shuttle solid rocket boosters are the largest solid propellant motors ever built and the first to be used on a manned spacecraft.
Each motor is made of 11 individual weld-free steel segments joined together with high-strength steel pins. Each assembled motor is 116 feet long, 12 feet in
diameter, and contains more than l million pounds of solid propellant. The propellant burns at a temperature of 5,800 degrees Fahrenheit and generates a liftoff
thrust of 2.65 million pounds. The exhaust nozzles are gimbaled to provide yaw, pitch, and roll control to help steer the orbiter on its ascent path. The solid
propellant is made of atomized aluminum powder (fuel), ammonium perchlorate (oxidizer), iron oxide powder (catalyst), plus a binder and curing agent. The
boosters burn for two minutes in parallel with the main engines during initial ascent and give the added thrust needed to achieve orbital altitude. After two
minutes of flight, at an altitude of about 24 miles, the booster casings separate from the external tank. They descend by parachute into the Atlantic Ocean where
they are recovered by ship, returned to land, and refurbished for reuse
Space Shuttle Sub-System
Space shuttles have many important subsystems, including: the Orbital Maneuvering System (OMS); the Reaction Control System (RCS); Electrical Power;
Hydraulic Power; Environment Control and Life Support System (ECLSS); and Thermal Protection.
Orbital Maneuvering System (OMS): Two rocket units at the orbiter's aft end, at the base of the vertical tail, are used to place the vehicle onto its final orbital
path, as well as for extended maneuvering while in space. The OMS is also used to slow the orbiter at the end of a mission. As the orbiter slows down, gravity
pulls it back into the atmosphere, and it glides back to Earth for a runway landing. The OMS uses nitrogen tetroxide and monomethyl hydrazine for fuel. Each
engine produces 6,000 pounds of thrust.
Reaction Control System (RCS): This system consists of 44 nozzles on both sides of the nose and each side of the aft fuselage pod near each OMS engine. The
RCS is used throughout the mission to move or roll the orbiter as the crew carries out tasks which require the vehicle to be pointed certain ways for experiments
and photography. The RCS uses the same types of fuel as the OMS. Thirty-eight of the thrusters produce 870 pounds of thrust each. The six others each produce
25 pounds of thrust.
Electrical Power: Three fuel cells supply electrical power on the orbiter during all phases of a mission. The units are located in the mid-body area of the payload
bay. Electrical power is produced by the chemical reaction of hydrogen and oxygen, which are supplied continuously as needed to meet output requirements. A
by-product of this reaction is drinking water for the crew. Each fuel cell is connected to one of three independent electrical distribution systems. During peak and
average power loads, all three systems are used. During minimum loads, only two are used and the third is on standby, but can be brought back on line instantly
if needed. The system provides up to 24 kilowatts of power, ranging from 27.5 to 32.5 volts of direct current.
Hydraulic Power: Three auxiliary power units (APUs) furnish power to operate hydraulic systems on the orbiters, such as the main engine gimbaling controls,
the nose and main landing gear and brake systems, and the rudder, speed brake, and eleven flight control surfaces. The APUs are fueled by hydrazine which is
changed into a hot gas by a granular catalyst. The momentum of the expanding gas spins turbine blades and this energy is transferred to gearboxes on the
hydraulic pump units. All three APUs operate during launch, but only two are needed for reentry and landing.
Environment Control and Life Support System (ECLSS): The orbiter's environmental control and life-support system purifies the cabin air, adds fresh
oxygen, keeps the pressure at sea level, heats and cools the air, and provides drinking and wash water. The system also includes lavatory facilities. The cabin is
pressurized to sea level (14.7 psi) with 21 percent oxygen and 79 percent nitrogen, comparable to earth's atmosphere. The air is circulated through lithium
hydroxide/charcoal canisters which remove carbon dioxide. The canisters are changed on a regular basis. Excess heat from the cabin and flight-deck electronics
is collected by a circulating coolant water system and transferred to radiator panels on the payload bay doors where it is dissipated. The fuel cells produce about
seven pounds of water each hour. It is stored in tanks, and excess water is dumped overboard. The lavatory unit collects and processes body waste, and also

Dept. of Mechanical Engg.

MESCE Kuttippuram

Space Shuttles and its Advancements

collects wash water from the personal hygiene station. The lavatory unit, located in the mid deck area, operates much like those on commercial airlines but is
designed for a weightless space environment.
Thermal Protection: The thermal protection system is designed to limit the temperature of the orbiter's aluminum and graphite epoxy structures to about 350
degrees (F) during reentry. There are four types of materials used to protect the orbiter. Reinforced carbon-carbon is a composite of a layer of graphite cloth
contained in a carbon matrix. It is used on the nose cap and wing leading edges where temperatures exceed 2,300 degrees (F). High-temperature reusable surface
insulation consists of about 20,000 tiles located mainly on the lower surfaces of the vehicle. The tiles are about six inches square and made of a low-density silica
fiber insulator bonded to the surface in areas where temperatures reach up to 1,300 degrees (F). Low-temperature reusable surface insulation also consists of
tiles. There are about 7000 of these on the upper wing and fuselage sides where temperatures range from 700 to 1,200 degrees (F). Flexible reusable surface
insulation (coated Nomex felt) is sheet-type material applied directly to the payload bay doors, sides of the fuselage and upper wing areas where heat does not
exceed 700 degrees (F).
n its 23 year history, the NASA space shuttle program has seen exhilarating highs and devastating lows. The fleet has taken astronauts on dozens of successful
missions, resulting in immeasurable scientific gains. But this success has had a serious cost. In 1986, the challenger exploded during launch procedures, and on
February 1st of 2003, the Columbia broke up during re-entry over Texas.
This seminar report would be covering the following points: A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE SPACE SHUTTLE.
THE SPACE SHUTTLE MISSION.
SPACE PLANES AND THE REPLACEMENT OF SPACE SHUTTLES.
This seminar will be taking a brief look into the latest space planes namely the HYPER SONIC PLANES WITH AIR BREATHING ENGINES that are being
planned to be rolled out by NASA for space exploration purpose.
INTRODUCTION
The successful explortion of space requires a system that will reliably transport payloads into space and return back to earth; without subjecting them an
uncomfortable or hazardous environment. In other words, the space crafts and its pay loads have to be recovered safely into the earth. The space shuttle used at
older times were not re-usable. So NASA invented re-usable space shuttle that could launch like a rocket but deliver and land like an aeroplane. Now NASA is
planning to launch a series of air-breathing planes that would replace the space shuttle.
A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE SPACE SHUTTLE
Near the end of the Apollo space program, NASA officials were looking at the future of the American space program. At that time, the rockets used to place
astronauts and equipment in outer space was one-shot disposable rockets. What they needed was a reliable, but less expensive, rocket, perhaps one that was
reusable. The idea of a reusable "space shuttle" that could launch like a rocket but deliver and land like an airplane was appealing and would be a great technical
achievement.
Photo courtesy NASA Liftoff of the space shuttle
NASA began design, cost and engineering studies on a space shuttle. Many aerospace companies also explored the concepts. In 1972 NASA announced that it
would develop a reusable space shuttle or space transportation programme (STS).NASA decided that the shuttle would consist of an orbiter attached to solid
rocket boosters and an external fuel tank because this design was considered safer and more cost effective.
At that time, spacecraft used ablative heat shields that would burn away as the spacecraft re-entered the Earth's atmosphere. However, to be reusable, a different
strategy would have to be used. The designers of the space shuttle came up with an idea to cover the space shuttle with many insulating ceramic tiles that could
absorb the heat of re-entry without harming the astronauts.
Finally, after many years of construction and testing (i.e. orbiter, main engines, external fuel tank, solid rocket boosters), the shuttle was ready to fly. Four
shuttles were made (Columbia, Discovery, Atlantis, Challenger). The first flight was in 1981 with the space shuttle Columbia, piloted by astronauts John Young
and Robert Crippen. Columbia performed well and the other shuttles soon made several successful flights.
The space shuttle consists of the following major components:
Two solid rocket boosters (SRB) - critical for the launch
External fuel tank (ET) - carries fuel for the launch
Orbiter - carries astronauts and payload
THE SPACE SHUTTLE MISSION
A typical shuttle mission lasts seven to eight days, but can extend to as much as 14 days depending upon the objectives of the mission.
A typical shuttle mission is as follows:
1. Getting into orbit
Launch the shuttle lifts off the launching pad.
Ascent.
Orbital maneuvering burn.
2. Orbit-life in space.
3. Re-entry.
4. Landing.
The difference between space shuttle and hypersonic planes is mainly in the first function that is getting into orbit. We will study only about the first function of
the space shuttle.
1. GETTING INTO ORBIT
To lift the 4.5 million pound (2.05 million kg) shuttle from the pad to orbit (115 to 400 miles/185 to 643 km) above the Earth, the shuttle uses the following
components:
Two solid rocket boosters (SRB)
Three main engines of the orbiter
The external fuel tank (ET)
Orbital maneuvering system (OMS) on the orbiter
Let's look at these components closely.

Dept. of Mechanical Engg.

MESCE Kuttippuram

Space Shuttles and its Advancements

Solid rocket boosters

The SRBs are solid rockets that provide most of the main force or thrust (71 percent) needed to lift the space shuttle off the launch pad. In addition, the
SRBssupport the entire weight of the space shuttle orbiter and fuel tank on the launchad. Each SRB has the following dimensions.
Height - approximately 150 ft (46 m)
Diameter - 12 ft (3.7 m)
Weight:
o Empty - 192,000 lb (87,090 kg)
o Full - 1,300,000 lb(589,670 kg)
Photo courtesy NASA
One of the space shuttle's main engines
Thrust - 2.65 million lb (11.7 million N wing dimensions, parameters and parts:
Because the SRBs are solid rocket engines, once they are ignited, they cannot be shut down. Therefore, they are the last component to light at launch.
Main engines
The orbiter has three main engines located in the aft (back) fuselage (body of the spacecraft). Each engine is 14 feet (4.3 m) long, 7.5 feet (2. 3 m) in diameter at
its widest point (the nozzle)
Photo courtesy NASA
The main engines provide the remainder of the thrust (29 percent) to lift the shuttle off the pad and into orbit.
The engines burn liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen, which are stored in the external tank(ET), at a ratio of 6:1. They draw liquid hydrogen and oxygen from the
ET at an amazing rate equivalent to emptying a family swimming pool every 10 seconds! The fuel is partially the burned in a pre-chamber to produce high
pressure, hot gases that drive fuel pumps. The fuel is then fully burned in the main chamber and the exhaust gases (water vapor) leave the nozzle at
approximately 6,000 mph (10,000 km/h). Each engine can generate between 375,000 and 470,000 lb (1,668,083 to 2,090,664 N) of thrust; the rate of thrust can
be controlled from 65 percent to 109 percent maximum thrust. The engines are mounted on round bearings that control the direction of the exhaust, which
controls the forward direction of the rocket.
External fuel tank
As mentioned above, the fuel for the main engines is stored in the ET. The ET is 158 ft (48 m) long and has a diameter of 27.6 ft (8.4 m). When empty, the ET
weighs 66,000 lb (30,000 kg). It holds about 1.6 million lb (719,000 kg) of propellant with a total volume of about 526,000 gallons (2 million liters).
The ET is made of aluminum and aluminum composite materials. It has two separate tanks inside, the forward tank for oxygen and the aft tank for hydrogen,
separated by an intertank region. Each tank has baffles to dampen the motion of fluid inside. Fluid flows from each tank through a 17 in. (43 cm) diameter feed
line out of the ET through an umbilical line into the shuttle's main engines. Through these lines, oxygen can flow at a maximum rate of 17,600 gallons/min
(66,600 l/min) and hydrogen can flow at a maximum rate of 47,400 gallons/min (179,000 l/min). During the first few shuttle missions, the ET was painted white,
but this was stopped to reduce the weight.
Orbital maneuvering systems
The two orbital maneuvering systems' (OMS) engines are located in pods on the aft section of the orbiter, one on either side of the tail. These engines are used to
place the shuttle into final orbit, to change the shuttle's position from one orbit to another, and to slow the shuttle down for re-entry.
The OMS engines burn monomethyl hydrazine fuel (CH3NHNH2) and nitrogen tetroxide oxidizer (N2O4). Interestingly, when these two substances come in
contact, they ignite and burn automatically (i.e., no spark required) in the absence of oxygen. The fuel and oxidizer are kept in separate tanks, each pressurized
by helium. The helium is used to push the fluids through the fuel lines (i.e., no mechanical pump required). In each fuel line, there are two spring-loaded solenoid
valves that close the lines. Pressurized nitrogen gas, from a small tank located near the engine, is used to open the valves and allow the fuel and oxidizer to flow
into the combustion chamber of the engine. When the engines are shut off, the nitrogen goes from the valves into the fuel lines momentarily to flush the lines of
any remaining fuel and oxidizer; this purge of the line prevents any unwanted explosions. During a single flight, there is enough nitrogen to open the valves and
purge the lines 10 times.
Either one or both of the OMS engines can fire, depending upon the orbital maneuver. Each OMS engine can produce 6,000 lb (26,400 N) of thrust. The OMS
engines together can accelerate the shuttle by 2 ft/s2 (0.6 m/s2). This acceleration can change the shuttle's velocity by as much as 1,000 ft/s (305 m/s). To place
into orbit or to de-orbit takes about 100-500 ft/s (31-153 m/s) change in velocity. Orbital adjustments take about 2 ft/s (0.61 m/s) change in velocity. The engines
can start and stop 1,000 times and have a total of 15 h burn time.
As the shuttle rests on the pad fully fueled, it weighs about 4.5 million pounds or 2 million kg. The shuttle rests on the SRBs as pre-launch and final launch
preparations are going on through T minus 31 seconds:
1. T minus 31 s - the on-board computers take over the launch sequence.
2. T minus 6.6 s - the shuttles main engines are ignited one at a time (0.12 s apart). The engines build up to more than 90 percent of their maximum thrust.
3. T minus 3 s - shuttle main engines are in lift-off position.
4. T minus 0 s -the SRBs are ignited and the shuttle lifts off the pad.
5. T plus 20 s - the shuttle rolls right (180 degree roll, 78 degree pitch).
6. T plus 60 s - shuttle engines are at maximum throttle.
7. T plus 2 min - SRBs separate from the orbiter and fuel tank at an altitude of 28 miles (45 km). Main engines continue firing.
Parachutes deploy from the SRBs.
SRBs will land in the ocean (about 140 miles (225 km) off the coast of Florida.
Ships will recover the SRBs and tow them back to Cape Canaveral for processing and re-use.
1. T plus 7.7 min - main engines throttled down to keep acceleration below 3g's so that the shuttle does not break apart.
2. T plus 8.5 min - main engines shut down.
3. T plus 9 min - ET separates from the orbiter. The ET will burn up upon re-entry.
4. T plus 10.5 min - OMS engines fire to place you in a low orbit.
5. T plus 45 min - OMS engines fire again to place you in a higher, circular orbit (about 250 miles/400 km).
SPACE PLANES AND REPLACEMENT OF SPACE SHUTTLE
To replace the space shuttle NASA is planning to launch a series of space planes that named as X series planes. Some X series planes are given below
The X-37, which will test many space plane technologies, including re-entry capabilities.
The X-34, a sub orbital vehicle that will test technologies to reduce cost, time and personnel for space launches.
The X-33, a reusable launch vehicle (RLV) that is a prototype for a space shuttle replacement.

Dept. of Mechanical Engg.

MESCE Kuttippuram

Space Shuttles and its Advancements

In this the third one that is X-33 is the one that will replace the space shuttle in the future. Despite the shuttle's many accomplishments, the fact remains that it
is extremely expensive to launch into space. Each pound of payload in the shuttle's bay costs $10,000 to launch. According to NASA, each of the space shuttle's
two solid rocket boosters carries about 1 million pounds (453,592 kg) of solid propellant. The large external tanks hold another 500,000 gallons of super cold
liquid oxygen and liquid hydrogen. These two liquids are mixed and burned to form the fuel for the shuttle's three main rocket engines. The cost of this huge
amount of propellant, and of recovering and replacing the solid rocket boosters for every mission is extremely expensive. NASA's solution to the problem is the
X-33.
The X-33 is a prototype for a unique single-stage-to-orbit vehicle. Its wedge-like shape is unlike any spacecraft that has preceded it. At its base, the X-33 is 77
feet (23.5 m) wide, and the vehicle is 69 feet (21 m) long. The purpose of this design is to allow the spacecraft to hold all of the needed propellant onboard the
ship, thus eliminating the need for solid rocket boosters. By eliminating the boosters and the main fuel tank, NASA will trim much of the liftoff weight that
makes space shuttle missions so expensive. Launch costs for the X-33, or a derivative of the X-33, are expected to be only a tenth of the cost of launching the
space shuttle.
Two more tests will follow, and successful testing could lead to a more efficient space-access vehicle. NASA officials say that the scramjet engine would be a
major step forward for NASA and would arguably provide a safer, more flexible, less expensive way to get people and cargo to space.
HYPER SONIC PLANES WITH AIR BREATHING ENGINES
Living in air
The futuristic X-43A prototype looks like a flying surfboard. Its thin, has a wingspan of 5 feet (1.5 m), measures 12 ft (3.7 m) long and 2 ft (0.61 m) thick and
weighs 2,800 pounds (1,270 kg). A working version of the X-43A will be about 200 ft (61 m) in length but still relatively lightweight, en most unique feature of
the X-43A is its engine.
abling it to carry heavier loads into space. But the most unique feature of the X-43A is its engine.
Photo courtesy NASA
The dimensions and views of the X-43A
The best way to understand an X-43As air-breathing engine is to first look at a conventional rocket engine. A typical rocket engine is propelled by the
combustion created when a liquid oxidizer and a hydrogen fuel are burned in a combustion chamber. These gases create a high-pressure, high-velocity stream of
hot gases. These gases flow through a nozzle that further accelerates them to speeds of 5,000 to 10,000 mph (8,047 to 16,093 kph) and provides thrust.
The disadvantage of a conventional rocket engine is that it requires a lot of onboard oxygen. For example, the space shuttle needs 143,000 gallons of liquid
oxygen, which weighs 1,359,000 pounds (616,432 kg). Without the liquid oxygen, the shuttle weighs a mere 165,000 pounds 74,842 kg . NASA has determined
that it can easily drop the weight of a vehicle at launch if they were to take away the liquid oxidizer, which would quickly drop the weight of the vehicle to about
3.1 million pounds. That's still a heavy vehicle, but it would mean a huge reduction in cost of launching a vehicle into orbit.
Solution to this is its air-breathing engine. An air-breathing engine requires no onboard oxygen. The X-43A will scoop up oxygen as it flies through the
atmosphere. In an Earth-to-orbit mission, the vehicle would store extra oxygen onboard, but less than what a space shuttle requires. The scramjet engine is a
simple design with no moving parts. The X-43A craft itself is designed to be a part of the engine system: The front of the vehicle acts as the intake for the
airflow, and so, if you remove the liquid oxygen, wouldn't the fuel be unable to combust and provide thrust You have to think outside the normal operation of a
conventional rocket engine. Instead of using liquid oxidizer, an air-breathing rocket, as its name suggests, will take in air from the atmosphere. It will then
combine it with the fuel to create combustion and provide thrust.
An air-breathing rocket engine, also called a rocket-based, combined cycle engine, is very similar to a jet engine. In a jet engine, the compressor sucks in air. The
engine then compresses the air, combines it with a fuel, and burns the product, which expands and provides thrust. A jet engine can only be used for up to Mach 3
or 4 before its parts will begin to overheat. In a supersonic combustion ramjet, or scramjet, an air inlet draws in air. The air is slowed and compressed as the
vehicle speeds through the atmosphere. Fuel is added to the supersonic airflow, where the two mix and burn. Fuels most likely to be used with the air-breathing
rockets include liquid hydrogen or hydrocarbon fuel
Taking flight
As mentioned before, scramjet-powered aircraft dont carry oxygen onboard. That means that they cant lift off like conventional spacecraft. The X-43A
will require a booster rocket to get it up to a hypersonic speed, at which point it will be released and sent flying on its own. This rocket boost is necessary for the
scramjet engine to work.
As efficient as air-breathing rockets are, they can't provide the thrust for liftoff. For that, there are two options being considered. NASA may use turbojets or airaugmented rockets to get the vehicle off the ground. An air-augmented rocket is like a normal rocket engine, except that when it gets a high enough speed, maybe
at Mach two or three, it will augment the oxidization of the fuel with air in the atmosphere, and maybe go up to Mach 10 and then change back to normal rocket
function. These air-augmented rockets are placed in a duct that capture air, and could boost performance about 15 percent over conventional rockets. Further out,
NASA is developing a plan to launch the air-breathing rocket vehicle by using magnetic levitation (maglev) tracks. Using maglev tracks, the vehicle will
accelerate to speeds of up to 600 mph before lifting into the air.
Following liftoff and after the vehicle reaches twice the speed of sound, the air-augmented rockets would shut off. Propulsion would then be provided by the airbreathing rocket vehicle, which will inhale oxygen for about half of the flight to burn fuel. The advantage of this is it won't have to store as much oxygen on
board the spacecraft as past spacecraft have, thus reducing launch costs. Once the vehicle reaches 10 times the speed of sound, it will switch back to a
conventional rocket-powered system for a final push into orbit.
Because it will cut the weight of the oxidizer, the vehicle will be easier to maneuver than current spacecraft. This means that traveling on an air-breathing rocketpowered vehicle will be safer. Eventually, the public could be traveling on these vehicles into space as space tourists.
Two more tests will follow, and successful testing could lead to a more efficient space-access vehicle. NASA officials say that the scramjet engine would be a
major step forward for NASA and would arguably provide a safer, more flexible, less expensive way to get people and cargo to space.
Photo courtesy NASA
Magnetic levitation tracks could one day be used to launch vehicles into space.
The Marshall Center and NASA's Glenn research center Cleveland are planning to design a flight-weight air-breathing rocket engine in-house for flight
demonstration by 2005.
That project will determine if air-breathing rocket engines can be built light enough for a launch vehicle.
ADVANTAGES
Reduces launch cost
Vehicle will be easier to maneuver the current spacecraft.
Air-breathing rocket-powered vehicle will be safer

Dept. of Mechanical Engg.

MESCE Kuttippuram

Space Shuttles and its Advancements

CONCLUSION
By using air breathing engine we can reduce the launch cost. Moreover air breathing rocket vehicle safer as compaired to conventional rocket.
REFERENCES
1. http://www.howstuffworks.com
2. http://www.howspaceshuttleworks.com
3. spacecraft system engineering- Peter Fortescue and John Stoaark
Reference: http://www.seminarprojects.com/Thread-space-shuttles-and-its-advancements-seminar-report#ixzz2jQkGr8UX

INTRODUCTION

The successful explortion of space requires a system that will reliably transport payloads into space and return back to earth; without
subjecting them an uncomfortable or hazardous environment. In other words, the space crafts and its pay loads have to be recovered safely into the
earth. The space shuttle used at older times were not re-usable. So NASA invented re-usable space shuttle that could launch like a rocket but deliver
and land like an aeroplane. Now NASA is planning to launch a series of air-breathing planes that would replace the space shuttle.A BRIEF
HISTORY OF THE SPACE SHUTTLE

Near the end of the Apollo space program, NASA

officials were looking at the future of the American space
program. At that time, the rockets used to place astronauts and
equipment in outer space was one-shot disposable rockets.
What they needed was a reliable, but less expensive, rocket,
perhaps one that was reusable. The idea of a reusable "space
shuttle" that could launch like a rocket but deliver and land like
an airplane was appealing and would be a great technical
achievement.
Photo courtesy NASA Liftoff of the space shuttle

NASA egan design, cost and engineering studies on a space shuttle. Many aerospace companies also explored the concepts. In 1972 NASA
announced that it would develop a reusable space shuttle or space transportation programme (STS).NASA decided that the shuttle would consist
of an orbiter attached to solid rocket boosters and an external fuel tank because this design was considered safer and more cost effective.
At that time, spacecraft used ablative heat shields that would burn away as the spacecraft re-entered the Earth's atmosphere.
However, to be reusable, a different strategy would have to be used. The designers of the space shuttle came up with an idea to cover the space
shuttle with many insulating ceramic tiles that could absorb the heat of re-entry without harming the astronauts.
Finally, after many years of construction and testing (i.e. orbiter, main engines, external fuel tank, solid rocket boosters), the shuttle
was ready to fly. Four shuttles were made (Columbia, Discovery, Atlantis, Challenger). The first flight was in 1981 with the space shuttle
Columbia, piloted by astronauts John Young and Robert Crippen. Columbia performed well and the other shuttles soon made several successful
flights.
The space shuttle consists of the following major components:

Dept. of Mechanical Engg.

MESCE Kuttippuram

Space Shuttles and its Advancements

Two solid rocket boosters (SRB) - critical for the launch

External fuel tank (ET) - carries fuel for the launch

Orbiter - carries astronauts and payload

THE SPACE SHUTTLE MISSION
A typical shuttle mission lasts seven to eight days, but can extend to as much as 14 days depending upon the
objectives of the mission.
A typical shuttle mission is as follows:

1.

Getting into orbit

Launch the

shuttle lifts off the launching pad.

Ascent.
Orbital
2.

Orbit-life in space.

3.

Re-entry.

4.

Landing.

maneuvering burn.

The difference

between space shuttle and hypersonic

planes is mainly in the first

function that is getting into orbit. We will

study only about the first function

of the space shuttle.

1.
2.

GETTING INTO ORBIT

To lift the 4.5

million pound (2.05 million kg)

shuttle from the pad to

orbit (115 to 400 miles/185 to 643

km) above the Earth,

the shuttle uses the following

components:

Two solid rocket boosters

(SRB)

Three main engines of

the orbiter

The external fuel tank

Orbital maneuvering
Let's look at these components

(ET)

Photo courtesy NASA

One of the space shuttle's main engines

system (OMS) on the orbiter

closely.

Solid rocket boosters

The SRBs are solid rockets that provide most of the main force or thrust (71 percent) needed to lift the
space shuttle off the launch pad. In addition, the SRBssupport the entire weight of the space shuttle orbiter and fuel
tank on the launchad. Each SRB has the following dimensions.
Height - approximately 150 ft (46 m)

Diameter - 12 ft (3.7 m)

Weight:

Empty - 192,000 lb (87,090 kg)

Full - 1,300,000 lb(589,670 kg)

Thrust - 2.65 million lb (11.7 million N wing dimensions, parameters and parts:

Dept. of Mechanical Engg.

MESCE Kuttippuram

Space Shuttles and its Advancements

Because the SRBs are solid rocket engines, once they are ignited, they cannot be shut down. Therefore, they are the last component to light at
launch.
Main engines
The orbiter has three main engines located in the aft (back) fuselage (body of the spacecraft). Each engine is 14 feet (4.3 m) long, 7.5
feet (2. 3 m) in diameter at its widest point (the nozzle)

The main engines provide the remainder of the thrust (29 percent) to lift the shuttle off the pad and
into orbit.

Photo courtesy NASA

The engines burn liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen, which are stored in the external tank(ET), at a ratio of 6:1. They draw liquid
hydrogen and oxygen from the ET at an amazing rate equivalent to emptying a family swimming pool every 10 seconds! The fuel is partially the
burned in a pre-chamber to produce high pressure, hot gases that drive fuel pumps. The fuel is then fully burned in the main chamber and the
exhaust gases (water vapor) leave the nozzle at approximately 6,000 mph (10,000 km/h). Each engine can generate between 375,000 and 470,000
lb (1,668,083 to 2,090,664 N) of thrust; the rate of thrust can be controlled from 65 percent to 109 percent maximum thrust. The engines are
mounted on round bearings that control the direction of the exhaust, which controls the forward direction of the rocket.
External fuel tank

As mentioned above, the fuel for the main engines is stored in the ET. The ET is 158 ft (48 m) long and has a diameter of 27.6 ft (8.4
m). When empty, the ET weighs 66,000 lb (30,000 kg). It holds about 1.6 million lb (719,000 kg) of propellant with a total volume of about
526,000 gallons (2 million liters).
The ET is made of aluminum and aluminum composite materials. It has two separate tanks inside, the forward tank for oxygen and
the aft tank for hydrogen, separated by an intertank region. Each tank has baffles to dampen the motion of fluid inside. Fluid flows from each tank
through a 17 in. (43 cm) diameter feed line out of the ET through an umbilical line into the shuttle's main engines. Through these lines, oxygen can
flow at a maximum rate of 17,600 gallons/min (66,600 l/min) and hydrogen can flow at a maximum rate of 47,400 gallons/min (179,000 l/min).
During the first few shuttle missions, the ET was painted white, but this was stopped to reduce the weight.
Orbital maneuvering systems

The two orbital maneuvering systems' (OMS) engines are located in pods on the aft section of the orbiter, one on either side of the
tail. These engines are used to place the shuttle into final orbit, to change the shuttle's position from one orbit to another, and to slow the shuttle
down for re-entry.

Dept. of Mechanical Engg.

MESCE Kuttippuram

Space Shuttles and its Advancements

The OMS engines burn monomethyl hydrazine fuel (CH3NHNH2) and nitrogen tetroxide oxidizer (N2O4). Interestingly, when these two substances
come in contact, they ignite and burn automatically (i.e., no spark required) in the absence of oxygen. The fuel and oxidizer are kept in separate tanks,
each pressurized by helium. The helium is used to push the fluids through the fuel lines (i.e., no mechanical pump required). In each fuel line, there are
two spring-loaded solenoid valves that close the lines. Pressurized nitrogen gas, from a small tank located near the engine, is used to open the valves and
allow the fuel and oxidizer to flow into the combustion chamber of the engine. When the engines are shut off, the nitrogen goes from the valves into the
fuel lines momentarily to flush the lines of any remaining fuel and oxidizer; this purge of the line prevents any unwanted explosions. During a single
flight, there is enough nitrogen to open the valves and purge the lines 10 times.

Either one or both of the OMS engines can fire, depending upon the orbital maneuver. Each OMS engine can produce 6,000 lb
(26,400 N) of thrust. The OMS engines together can accelerate the shuttle by 2 ft/s 2 (0.6 m/s2). This acceleration can change the shuttle's velocity
by as much as 1,000 ft/s (305 m/s). To place into orbit or to de-orbit takes about 100-500 ft/s (31-153 m/s) change in velocity. Orbital adjustments
take about 2 ft/s (0.61 m/s) change in velocity. The engines can start and stop 1,000 times and have a total of 15 h burn time.

As the shuttle rests on the pad fully fueled, it weighs about 4.5 million pounds or 2 million kg. The shuttle rests on the SRBs as prelaunch and final launch preparations are going on through T minus 31 seconds:

1.

T minus 31 s - the on-board computers take over the launch sequence.

2.

T minus 6.6 s - the shuttles main engines are ignited one at a time (0.12 s apart). The engines build up to
more than 90 percent of their maximum thrust.

3.

T minus 3 s - shuttle main engines are in lift-off position.

4.

T minus 0 s -the SRBs are ignited and the shuttle lifts off the pad.

5.

T plus 20 s - the shuttle rolls right (180 degree roll, 78 degree pitch).

6.

T plus 60 s - shuttle engines are at maximum throttle.

7.

T plus 2 min - SRBs separate from the orbiter and fuel tank at an altitude of 28 miles (45 km). Main engines
continue firing.

Parachutes deploy from the SRBs.

SRBs will land in the ocean (about 140 miles (225 km) off the coast of Florida.

Dept. of Mechanical Engg.

MESCE Kuttippuram

Space Shuttles and its Advancements

Ships will recover the SRBs and tow them back to Cape Canaveral for processing and re-use.
1.

T plus 7.7 min - main engines throttled down to keep acceleration below 3g's so that the shuttle does not
break apart.

2.

T plus 8.5 min - main engines shut down.

3.

T plus 9 min - ET separates from the orbiter. The ET will burn up upon re-entry.

4.

T plus 10.5 min - OMS engines fire to place you in a low orbit.

5.

T plus 45 min - OMS engines fire again to place you in a higher, circular orbit (about 250 miles/400 km).

SPACE PLANES AND REPLACEMENT OF SPACE SHUTTLE

To replace the space shuttle NASA is planning to launch a series of space planes that named as X series planes. Some X series
planes are given below

The X-37, which will test many space plane technologies, including re-entry capabilities.

The X-34, a sub orbital vehicle that will test technologies to reduce cost, time and personnel for space
launches.

The X-33, a reusable launch vehicle (RLV) that is a prototype for a space shuttle replacement.
In this the third one that is X-33 is the one that will replace the space shuttle in the future. Despite the

shuttle's many accomplishments, the fact remains that it is extremely expensive to launch into space. Each pound of
payload in the shuttle's bay costs $10,000 to launch. According to NASA, each of the space shuttle's two solid rocket
boosters carries about 1 million pounds (453,592 kg) of solid propellant. The large external tanks hold another
500,000 gallons of super cold liquid oxygen and liquid hydrogen. These two liquids are mixed and burned to form the
fuel for the shuttle's three main rocket engines. The cost of this huge amount of propellant, and of recovering and
replacing the solid rocket boosters for every mission is extremely expensive. NASA's solution to the problem is the X33.
The X-33 is a prototype for a unique single-stage-to-orbit vehicle. Its wedge-like shape is unlike any
spacecraft that has preceded it. At its base, the X-33 is 77 feet (23.5 m) wide, and the vehicle is 69 feet (21 m) long.
The purpose of this design is to allow the spacecraft to hold all of the needed propellant onboard the ship, thus
eliminating the need for solid rocket boosters. By eliminating the boosters and the main fuel tank, NASA will trim
much of the liftoff weight that makes space shuttle missions so expensive. Launch costs for the X-33, or a derivative
of the X-33, are expected to be only a tenth of the cost of launching the space shuttle.
Two more tests will follow, and successful testing could lead to a

more efficient space-access vehicle.

NASA officials say that the scramjet engine would be a major step forward for NASA and would arguably provide a
safer, more flexible, less expensive way to get people and cargo to space.
HYPER SONIC PLANES WITH AIR BREATHING ENGINES
Living in air
The futuristic X-43A prototype looks like a flying
surfboard. Its thin, has a wingspan of 5 feet (1.5 m), measures 12 ft (3.7 m) long and 2 ft (0.61 m) thick and weighs 2,800 pounds (1,270 kg). A
working version of the X-43A will be about 200 ft (61 m) in length but still relatively lightweight, en most unique feature of the X-43A is its
engine. abling it to carry heavier loads into space. But the most unique feature of the X-43A is its engine.

Dept. of Mechanical Engg.

MESCE Kuttippuram

Space Shuttles and its Advancements

10

Photo courtesy NASA

The dimensions and views of the X-43A
The best way to understand an X-43As air-breathing engine is to first look at a conventional rocket engine. A typical
rocket engine is propelled by the combustion created when a liquid oxidizer and a hydrogen fuel are burned in a combustion
chamber. These gases create a high-pressure, high-velocity stream of hot gases. These gases flow through a nozzle that further
accelerates them to speeds of 5,000 to 10,000 mph (8,047 to 16,093 kph) and provides thrust.
The disadvantage of a conventional rocket engine is that it requires a lot of onboard oxygen. For example, the space shuttle needs
143,000 gallons of liquid oxygen, which weighs 1,359,000 pounds (616,432 kg). Without the liquid oxygen, the shuttle weighs a mere 165,000
pounds 74,842 kg . NASA has determined that it can easily drop the weight of a vehicle at launch if they were to take away the liquid oxidizer,
which would quickly drop the weight of the vehicle to about 3.1 million pounds. That's still a heavy vehicle, but it would mean a huge reduction in
cost of launching a vehicle into orbit.
Solution to this is its air-breathing engine. An air-breathing engine requires no onboard oxygen. The X-43A
will scoop up oxygen as it flies through the atmosphere. In an Earth-to-orbit mission, the vehicle would store extra
oxygen onboard, but less than what a space shuttle requires. The scramjet engine is a simple design with no moving
parts. The X-43A craft itself is designed to be a part of the engine system: The front of the vehicle acts as the intake
for the airflow, and so, if you remove the liquid oxygen, wouldn't the fuel be unable to combust and provide thrust?
You have to think outside the normal operation of a conventional rocket engine. Instead of using liquid oxidizer, an
air-breathing rocket, as its name suggests, will take in air from the atmosphere. It will then combine it with the fuel to
create combustion and provide thrust. An air-breathing rocket engine, also called a rocket-based, combined cycle
engine, is very similar to a jet engine. In a jet engine, the compressor sucks in air. The engine then compresses the
air, combines it with a fuel, and burns the product, which expands and provides thrust. A jet engine can only be used
for up to Mach 3 or 4 before its parts will begin to overheat. In a supersonic combustion ramjet, or scramjet, an air
inlet draws in air. The air is slowed and compressed as the vehicle speeds through the atmosphere. Fuel is added to
the supersonic airflow, where the two mix and burn. Fuels most likely to be used with the air-breathing rockets
include liquid hydrogen or hydrocarbon fuel
Taking flight

As mentioned before, scramjet-powered aircraft dont carry oxygen onboard. That means that they cant lift off like

conventional spacecraft. The X-43A will require a booster rocket to get it up to a hypersonic speed, at which point it will be released and sent
flying on its own. This rocket boost is necessary for the scramjet engine to work. As efficient as air-breathing rockets are, they can't
provide the thrust for liftoff. For that, there are two options being considered. NASA may use turbojets or airaugmented rockets to get the vehicle off the ground. An air-augmented rocket is like a normal rocket engine,
except that when it gets a high enough speed, maybe at Mach two or three, it will augment the oxidization of the fuel

Dept. of Mechanical Engg.

MESCE Kuttippuram

Space Shuttles and its Advancements

with air in the atmosphere, and maybe go up to Mach 10 and then change back to normal rocket function. These airaugmented rockets are placed in a duct that capture air, and could boost performance about 15 percent over
conventional rockets. Further out, NASA is developing a plan to launch the air-breathing rocket vehicle by using
magnetic levitation (maglev) tracks. Using maglev tracks, the vehicle will accelerate to speeds of up to 600 mph
before lifting into the air. Following liftoff and after the vehicle reaches twice the speed of sound, the air-augmented
rockets would shut off. Propulsion would then be provided by the air-breathing rocket vehicle, which will inhale
oxygen for about half of the flight to burn fuel. The advantage of this is it won't have to store as much oxygen on
board the spacecraft as past spacecraft have, thus reducing launch costs. Once the vehicle reaches 10 times the
speed of sound, it will switch back to a conventional rocket-powered system for a final push into orbit.

Because it

will cut the weight of the oxidizer, the vehicle will be easier to maneuver than current spacecraft. This means that
traveling on an air-breathing rocket-powered vehicle will be safer. Eventually, the public could be traveling on these
vehicles into space as space tourists.

Two more tests will follow, and successful testing could lead to a more

efficient space-access vehicle. NASA officials say that the scramjet engine would be a major step forward for NASA
and would arguably provide a safer, more flexible, less expensive way to get people and cargo to space.
The Marshall Center and NASA's Glenn
research center Cleveland are planning to
design a flight-weight air-breathing rocket
engine in-house for flight demonstration
by 2005.
That project will determine if airbreathing rocket engines can be built light
enough for a launch vehicle.
ADVANTAGES

Reduces launch cost

Vehicle will be easier to

maneuver the current
spacecraft.

Air-breathing rocketpowered vehicle will be

safer

CONCLUSION

By using air

breathing engine we can reduce the

launch cost. Moreover air breathing
rocket vehicle safer as compaired to
conventional rocket.
REFERENCES
www.howstuffworks.com

Photo courtesy NASA

Magnetic levitation tracks could one day be used to launch

1.

vehicles into space.

2. spacecraft system engineering-

www.howspaceshuttleworks.com
Peter Fortescue and John Stoaark

Dept. of Mechanical Engg.

MESCE Kuttippuram

11

Space Shuttles and its Advancements

ABSTRACT

12

In its 23 year history, the NASA space shuttle program has seen exhilarating highs and devastating lows. The fleet has taken

astronauts on dozens of successful missions, resulting in immeasurable scientific gains. But this success has had a serious cost. In 1986, the
challenger exploded during launch procedures, and on February 1 st of 2003, the Columbia broke up during re-entry over Texas.
This seminar report would be covering the following points:

A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE SPACE SHUTTLE.

THE SPACE SHUTTLE MISSION.

SPACE PLANES AND THE REPLACEMENT OF SPACE SHUTTLES.

This seminar will be taking a brief look into the latest space planes namely the HYPER SONIC PLANES WITH AIR BREATHING

ENGINES that are being planned to be rolled out by NASA for space exploration purpose.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
present the seminar.

First of all I thank the almighty for providing me with the strength and courage to
I avail this opportunity to express my sincere gratitude towards

Dr. T.N. Sathyanesan, head of mechanical engineering department, for permitting me to conduct the seminar. I
also at the outset thank and express my profound gratitude to my seminar guide Mr. Mohan C.C. and staff incharge
Asst. Prof. Mrs. Jumailath Beevi. D., for their inspiring assistance, encouragement and useful guidance.

am also indebted to all the teaching and non- teaching staff of the department of mechanical engineering for their
cooperation and suggestions, which is the spirit behind this report. Last but not the least, I wish to express my
sincere thanks to all my friends for their goodwill and constructive ideas.CONTENTS\
INTRODUCTION

1.

A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE SPACE SHUTTLE

2.

THE SPACE SHUTTLE MISSION

3.

SPACE PLANES AND REPLACEMENT OF SPACE SHUTTLE 10

4.

HYPER SONIC PLANES WITH AIR BREATHING ENGINES 12

5. ADVANTAGES

17

6. CONCLUSION

18

7. REFERENCES

19

Dept. of Mechanical Engg.

MESCE Kuttippuram