Professional Documents
Culture Documents
In
electronics,
impedance
matching
is
the
practice
of
designing
the
input
impedance
of
an
electrical
load
(or
the
output
impedance
of
its
corresponding
signal
source)
to
maximize
the
power
transfer
or
minimize
reflections
from
the
load.
In the case of a complex source impedance ZS and load impedance ZL, maximum power transfer is obtained
when
where * indicates the complex conjugate.
Plot below shows power lost due to internal resistance of the source and the power transferred to the load as
a function of the load resistance.
/0#='45%&0.&%$.&-0'45%&0(%&=#%'/%-,(.",)%3(/'".>,(%'7%=(
=.4&%&#%$.B'$'/(%&0(%2#=("%.>,(%&#%"(.-0%&0(%,#.3;
H#%&0'/%'/%=0("(%&0(%'3(.%#7%$.&-0'45%&0(%"(/'/&.4-(%#7
&0(%,#.3%&#%&0.&%#7%&0(%5(4(".&#"%-.$(%7"#$;%D(7#"(
,#458%'&%=./%(B&(43(3%&#%-#6("%&0(%5(4(".,%/'&*.&'#4%#7
.4)%,#.3%'$2(3.4-(%-#44(-&(3%&#%.%/#*"-(%#7%(,(-&"'-.,
(4("5)%#"%6#,&.5(%ELK!G8%='&0%'&/%#=4%'4&("4.,%/#*"-(
! ' 5 ; Q _ %<
< # = %&& 0 ( %22 # = ( " %77 ( 3 %&& # %&& 0 ( %,, # . 3 %66 . " ' ( / %.. / %&& 0 ( %,, # . 3
" ( / ' / & . 4 - ( %'' / %66 . " ' ( 3 %EE " ( 3 %22 , # & G 8 %.. 4 3 %=
= 0 . & %00 . 2 2 ( 4 / %&& # %&& 0 (
2 # = ( " %=
= . / & ( 3 %'' 4 %:
: F E > , * ( %22 , # & G ;
&".4/7("8%&0(48%$.&-0'45%&0(%'$2(3.4-(/%'/4+&%2."&'-*,.",)
(77'-'(4&_%'&%.-&*.,,)%5'6(/%.%`3D%,#//;
a#(/%&0'/%$(.4%&0.&%'$2(3.4-(%$.&-0'45%"(.,,)%#4,)
.22,'(/%&#%5(4(".&#"/%'4%2#=("%/&.&'#4/b%Y#8%.43%'4%7.-&
'&%3#(/4+&%"(.,,)%.22,)%&0("(%('&0("%@%#"%.&%,(./&8%4#&
/'$2,);%U,,%'&%"(.,,)%$(.4/%'/%&0.&%./%)#*%3".=%$#"(%.43
$#"(%2#=("%7"#$%.%5(4(".&#"%>)%"(3*-'45%&0(%,#.3
"(/'/&.4-(8%.%2#'4&%'/%"(.-0(3%=0("(%0.,7%&0(%
5(4(".&#"+/%#*&2*&%2#=("%'/%>('45%=./&(3%'4/'3(%'&;
J>6'#*/,)%='&0%6(")%0'50%2#=("%5(4(".&#"/%'&+/%4#&%.
5##3%'3(.%&#%,#.3%&0($%(6(4%&0'/%0(.6',)%@%,(&%.,#4(
3"#22'45%&0(%: V (6(4%7*"&0("8%=0("(%(6(4%$#"(%2#=("
'/%,#/&%'4/'3(%&0(%5(4(".&#"%&0.4%"(.-0(/%&0(%,#.3;%EH((
&0(%>,*(%-*"6(%'4%!'5;Q8%/0#='45%&0(%2#=("%,#/&%'4%&0(
5(4(".&#";G%K#/&%2#=("%/&.&'#4%5(4(".&#"/%."(%,#.3(3
='&0%.4%: V /#$(=0.&%0'50("%&0.4%: F 8%&#%=./&(%./%,'&&,(
2#=("%./%2#//'>,(;
H#%=0(4%?H%'$2(3.4-(%$.&-0'45%.%5##3%'3(.b%F,.3
)#*%./9(3;%D./'-.,,)%'&+/%7#"%/'&*.&'#4/%".&0("%3'77("(4&
7"#$%&0.&%'4%!'5;C8%=0("(%=(+"(%/&*-9%='&0%.%2."&'-*,."
,#.3%#"%-.>,(%'$2(3.4-(8%.43%=(%/&',,%=.4&%&#%('&0("
$.B'$'/(%&0(%2#=("%&".4/7(""(3%'4&#%&0(%,#.38%#"%
$'4'$'/(%&0(%.$#*4&%#7%2#=("%"(7,(-&(3%>.-9%7"#$%'&
'4&#%&0(%-.>,(8%#"%>#&0;
!"#$%&'(#)%*$+,-.
!#"%(B.$2,(%'4%$.4)%:!%/'&*.&'#4/8%=(%&(43%&#%0.6(
.%"(,.&'6(,)%7'B(3%VJUa%'$2(3.4-(%@%/.)%.%"(/#4.4&
Horowitz
signal
in
common-emitter amplifier
looking into a transistor's collector is high, whereas the impedance looking into the emitter is low (as in the emitter follower).
Although the output impedance of a common-emitter amplifier will be dominated by the collec- tor load resistor, the output
impedance of an emitter follower will not be dominated by the emitter load resistor, but rather by the impedance looking into the
emitter.
efficiency is low (due to power loss in the resistor) and it is usually impractical to construct a 'good' current
source this way. Nonetheless, it is often the case that such a circuit will provide adequate performance
when the specified current and load resistance are small. For example, a 5 V voltage source in series with a
4.7 kilohm resistor will provide an approximately constant current of 1 mA (5%) to a load resistance in
the range of 50 to 450 ohm.
For
transistors
there
are
several
types
of
impedance
considered.
1. (large
,
active
region)
rin=
Re
(small
letters
are
AC
circuit
response).
The
base
requires
very
little
current
to
establish
a
signal
(large
impedance).
2. (large
,
active
region)
Zout
=
Zsource/(+1).
The
emitter
can
source
a
large
current
without
substantial
voltage
drop
(small
impedance)
3. (Eber
Molls
characterization
of
base
emitter)
re=25/IC(mA).
The
ideal
PN
junction
is
insufficient
to
analyze
response
and
an
effective
resistance
for
the
junction
must
be
added
to
the
model.
Analyze
the
I-V
diode
curve
of
the
E-M
model
to
find
base
emitter
junction
behavior.
4. Collector
impedance
when
used
as
a
voltage
amplifier.
Here
the
collector
acts
as
a
large
impedance
in
parallel
with
the
RC.
1&2
are
general
characterizations
useful
when
the
transistor
is
operating
in
the
standard
mode
while
3
is
important
when
the
operation
depends
on
more
critical
review.
For
example,
when
Re
is
small
so
as
to
increase
gain
then
rule
3
may
be
important.
Consider
an
arbitrary
network
of
resistors
and
DC
power
supplies.
Each
resistor
is
characterized
by
a
resistance
in
Ohms.
These
elements
have
the
special
property
that
the
voltage
across
and
current
through
a
resistor
are
related
in
a
very
simple
manner:
=
where
V
and
I
are
measured
across
and
through
R
If
you
drive
the
circuit
with
an
AC
power
supply
the
relationship
doesnt
change.
! !"# = ! !"#
where
V
and
I
are
measured
across
and
through
R
As
a
matter
of
fact
no
matter
how
the
voltage
changes
as
a
function
of
time
the
relationship
continues
to
follow
Ohms
Law.
() = ()
where
V
and
I
are
measured
across
and
through
R
However
if
you
consider
how
a
diode
works
in
a
circuit
it
is
not
possible
to
provide
a
single
parameter
that
relates
the
voltage
and
current
in
the
above
manner.
Diodes
do
not
follow
Ohms
law
and
therefore
to
find
the
operating
relationship
between
voltage
and
current
for
a
diode
in
series
with
a
resistor
you
use
the
LOAD
LINE
METHOD.
Even
for
the
case
of
DC
voltages
you
cannot
assign
an
impedance
to
characterize
the
diodes
complete
response.
In
some
special
cases
it
may
be
interesting
or
useful
to
examine
the
voltage
vs
current
and
should
this
relationship
be
approximately
linear
under
certain
operating
conditions
then
using
a
given
resistance
for
a
small
specific
operating
range
may
be
fruitful
but
in
general
there
is
no
validity
to
thinking
of
diodes
in
terms
of
impedance.
Often
one
can
treat
the
base-
emitter
diode
of
a
transistor
as
a
resistor
for
the
small
signal
response.
One
finds
it
fruitful
to
extend
the
idea
of
impedance
(Z)
to
components
such
as
capacitors
and
inductors.
However
the
relationship
is
more
complicated
because
one
must
allow
for
a
phase
change
in
addition
to
the
amplitude
proportionality.
One
also
finds
that
one
can
only
define
an
impedance
for
a
specific
frequency.
But
as
long
as
the
component
is
driven
by
some
oscillatory
voltage
of
fixed
frequency
the
impedance
is
a
valid
concept.
This
impedance
in
however
now
complex.
But
you
can
find
a
complex
fixed
value
that
characterizes
the
voltage
across
the
component
given
the
current
and
a
fixed
value
of
.
! !"# = ! !"#
However
there
is
no
valid
relationship
() = ()
for
capacitors,
inductors
or
their
combinations
for
constant
Z.
There
may
be
problems
where
people
extend
the
definition
to
allow
Z(t)
or
some
other
formulation
that
highlights
behavior
in
a
nice
way
but
for
our
purposes
Z
is
a
complex
constant
characterized
by
frequency
but
applied
in
an
Ohms
law
approach
only
when
is
constant
and
then
V=IZ.
Not
all
components
behavior
can
be
characterized
by
impedance.
L,C
and
combinations
have
a
defined
impedance
base
on
specific
value.
Given
L,C,
R
and
combinations
and
their
performance
for
all
,
solutions
for
more
general
voltages
can
be
found
using
the
LaPlace
or
Fourier
transform
which
combines
the
frequency
dependence
appropriately.
The
idea
of
impedance
is
also
important
when
one
wants
to
characterize
the
devices
that
may
serve
as
signal
sources
or
signal
receivers.
Below
we
see
a
circuit
where
a
network
supplies
voltage
to
a
load.
The
network
is
replaced
by
the
Thevinen
equivalent
circuit
with
one
power
supply
in
series
with
a
resistor.
The
resistor
is
considered
as
the
output
impedance
of
the
source
and
the
load
is
considered
the
input
impedance.
In
these
situations
it
should
be
clear
that
an
ideal
source
should
be
able
to
deliver
a
specific
voltage
to
the
load
without
distortion.
This
would
be
the
case
for
a
power
supply
with
a
fixed
amplitude
when
Zo<<ZL
The
input
and
output
impedances
are
useful
and
important
in
the
case
of
transistors
because
transistors
have
the
ability
to
provide
a
significant
load
for
a
signal
that
is
a
source
while
presenting
a
small
impedance
when
driving
the
next
stage
of
the
circuit.
INPUT/OUTPUT
IMPEDANCE
So
power
or
signal
source
is
used
as
an
input
to
a
transistor
(base).
The
current
required
to
create
a
voltage
Vb
depends
on
the
out
put
impedance
of
the
source
and
the
input
impedance
of
the
transistor.
Usually
Zo
<<
Zin
voltage
drop
across
Ro
is
then
small
glossary:
stiff
low
resistance
for
source
or
bias
network
where
voltage
changes
little
when
loaded
because
fluctuations
in
current
for
the
load
are
small
compared
to
the
source
or
the
biasing
circuit.
loads
the
source
draws
current
from
the
source.
exceptions
(There
are
circuits
where
the
source
impedance
should
not
be
less
than
the
load
or
input
impedance):
match
impedance
for
signal
transmission
current
sources
Zin
<<
Zo
Use
figure
2.6
emitter
follow.
How
much
current
vs
voltage
Z=V/I?
The
relevant
equation:
Start
to
find
how
base
Voltage
changes
the
emitter
current
! = ! !
(Here
the
delta
implies
that
there
may
not
be
a
linear
relationship
between
V
!!
and
I
so
in
a
region
of
voltage
the
tangent
to
the
I-V
curve
!!
is
the
relevant
quantity.
If
one
is
looking
at
how
an
AC
signal
is
impacted
as
it
changes
around
a
Q-point
then
the
change
in
current
around
the
bias
point
that
produces
a
change
in
voltage
wrt
the
bias
point
are
the
relevant
quantites.)
and
this
should
be
just
given
by
the
above
equation
because
the
emitter
follows
the
base
and
Ohms
law
holds
for
the
emitter
resistor.
Then
how
much
voltage
is
required
at
the
base
to
produce
a
current
Ib.
You
can
find
Ib
by
removing
the
extra
current
from
Ie
that
comes
from
transistor
action
because
the
change
in
the
base
current
ultimately
produces
a
large
current
through
Re.
Assume
a
gain
factor
of
!
!!!
! = !!! ! = !(!!!)
!!!
!!!
Horowitz
distingues
hFE
and
hfe
(DC,
AC).
This
is
useful
because
in
later
circuits
the
resistor
Re
may
be
put
in
parallel
with
a
cap
that
can
lower
the
AC
impedance
Ze
while
maintaining
a
DC
impedance
of
Re.
Relationships
derived
for
R
hold
also
for
complex
Z.
Output
(impedance
looking
into
the
emitter
ie
the
Rth
of
a
diagram
above
showing
a
source
and
an
internal
resistance).
Now
(see
below)
Vs
looks
like
Vth
and
one
needs
to
find
the
effective
resistance
in
series
with
this
voltage
because
it
will
limit
how
much
current
can
be
drawn
from
this
source
etc.
Here
the
resistance
that
will
limit
the
current
is
the
resistance
of
the
source
applied
at
the
base
but
due
to
transistor
action
it
doesnt
limit
the
currently
directly.
One
can
neglect
Re
if
it
is
much
larger
than
RL
but
how
much
current
can
be
drawn
through
RL
for
a
given
applied
VS
will
depend
on
the
resistance
Rs.
But
here
again
because
the
actual
current
that
can
be
drawn
is
amplified
there
is
a
need
for
much
smaller
current
from
the
source
and
this
reduces
the
impact
of
RS.
1
! =
+ 1 !"#
!!
!"# = !!!
(refer
to
this
as
type
1
impedance)
Thus
Zout
is
reduced.
i.e.
you
can
pull
current
out
of
the
emitter
with
less
effect
by
Zs.
This
above
analysis
relied
on
.
This
is
valid
for
the
transistor
in
the
active
region.
In
some
cases
it
is
important
to
look
more
closely
at
the
behavior
of
this
PN
junction.
Using
the
Eber
Molls
model
you can find the small-signal impedance looking into the
emitter, for the base held at a fixed voltage by taking the derivative of Vbe with respect to
IC you get
re= VT/IC = 25/IC
This is the DC and AC impedance and is present in all circuits. For many circuits and/or
regions of operation this will be a negligible effect.
In an active transistor the amount of current is limited by the source of current to the base
by impedance of type 1. The max current you can draw is a factor of greater than can
be supplied to the base. One raises the base voltage and in order to sustain this voltage a
certain current is required from the source but this current goes through RS so it has an
impact in that the source voltage is dropped. For type 2 you see that the base-emitter PN
junction itself acts like a resistor because there is a voltage drop across the diode to push
the current through the diode.
For type 1 the base emitter is treated as an ideal diode with only a turn-on voltage and
then any arbitrary amount of current available. Vbe should always have the 0.6 volt drop
but no effective resistance. The ability to draw current would be impacted by RS. While
in type 2 even if RS=0 or Re=0 there would be some voltage dropped across the diode due
to the diode not being ideal but rather following a diode equation. Setting Re=0 will still
have a finite effective emitter resistance because the diode itself acts like a small resistor.
Many
signal
sources
are
designed
to
work
with
different
loads.
In
this
case
a
frequency
generator,
for
example,
may
be
capable
of
an
output
that
is
well
behaved
for
small
loads.
However,
one
must
be
careful
to
check
operating
characteristics
for
devices
to
ensure
proper
behavior.
In
nuclear
physics
devices
such
as
photomultiplier,
PMT,
tubes
respond
to
stimuli
by
generating
a
charge
pulse.
For
a
short
period
a
charge
Q
is
accumulated
and
placed
on
a
capacitor.
One
can
view
the
capacitor
as
being
instantly
charged
(actual
charging
time
~
1
ns).
A
coax
cable
is
connected
to
the
PMT
with
the
charged
capacitor
placed
across
the
central
wire
to
circular
braid.
As
we
will
discuss
latter
the
capacitor
discharges
by
sending
a
current
into
the
cable.
Current
will
continue
to
flow
into
the
cable
and
a
voltage
difference
between
the
central
wire,
core,
and
the
circular
outside
part
of
the
cable,
braid,
will
be
maintained
based
on
how
a
capacitor
discharges
through
a
resistor
where
the
cable
appears
to
the
capacitor
as
a
50
resistor.
This
happens
because
charge
flows
into
the
cable
core
and
flows
out
of
the
braid
in
the
identical
fashion
that
current
flows
into
one
end
of
a
50
resistor
and
out
the
other
side
back
to
the
capacitor.
For
the
cable
one
can
follow
the
flow
of
charge
down
the
cable
in
the
core
and
back
(opposite
flow)
in
the
braid.
Taking
a
cross
section
of
the
cable
at
some
point
Icore=-Ibraid
and
Vcore-braid=Icore
50
.
The
voltage
and
current
change
in
time
but
their
ratio
at
every
point
in
time
and
every
location
along
the
cable
is
identical
to
a
50
resistor.
The
impedance
of
a
cable
is
50
.
As
long
as
the
signal
propogates
in
the
cable
this
relationship
holds
and
the
signal
propogates
via
the
electric
and
magnetic
currents
generated
by
the
charge
and
current.
Eventually
the
signal
reaches
the
end
of
the
cable.
Usually
the
cable
is
plugged
into
the
next
device.
This
might
be
a
scope,
ADC,
or
discriminator.
If
the
input
impedance
of
this
device
is
50
then
voltage
presented
Vcore-braid
is
correctly
matched
to
drive
the
current
presented
and
the
core
simply
passes
the
current
through
the
input
impedance
to
the
braid.
To
understand
what
happens
to
this
charge
flow
one
must
realize
that
initially
at
the
starting
end
of
the
cable,
charge
was
put
into
the
core
and
the
same
amount
of
charge
was
sucked
out
of
the
braid.
In
essence
the
front
bit
of
cable
acted
as
a
capacitor
charging
the
core
+
and
the
braid
-.
The
next
segment
of
cable
then
gets
a
packet
of
+
charge
and
returns
charge
back
to
the
first
stage.
Eventually
the
first
stage
of
the
cable
is
discharged
by
passing
all
its
charge
down
the
line
on
the
core
side
and
receiving
the
charge
that
was
originally
sucked
out.
At
this
point
in
time
the
stage
has
V=I=0
but
the
stages
n,
n+1
have
a
charge
and
current
pulse
moving
through.
Charge
is
passed
down
the
core
and
returned
through
the
braid
so
that
the
early
stages
will
be
fully
discharged.
If
the
impedance
of
the
input
for
the
receiving
device
(scope,
ADC)
doesnt
match
the
cable
impedance
then
the
voltage
and
current
being
transmitted
to
the
device
do
not
match
the
V/I
of
the
device.
To
make
this
match,
Ohm,s
law
applies,
and
an
additional
current/voltage
is
generated
through
the
device
impedance
this
additional
part
serves
as
a
source
for
the
cable
and
a
pulse
travels
back
up
the
cable
toward
the
PMT.
Depending
on
your
goals
etc.
this
spurious
signal
may
create
problems.
For
signal
propagation
matching
impedance
is
important.
The
PMT
can
drive
any
connected
impedance
but
once
the
signal
is
applied
to
a
transmitting
medium
propagation
without
reflections
requires
that
the
medium
doesnt
change.
If
your
arm
is
a
source
then
you
can
shake
any
size
rope
but
once
the
pulse
is
propagating
on
the
rope
any
change
in
the
rope
characteristics
will
result
in
reflections.