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Week 1

4.1 Vectors and Lines

Many quantities that we measure can be completely defined by a real number called a scalar.
ex. length, weight, volume, area
Quantities that are defined by the two components: magnitude and direction are called vectors.
ex. displacement, velocity, force
A vector can be represented geometrically as a directed line segment.

A is the initial point

B is the terminal point

and AB=AB is the vector directed from A to B.

The magnitude of AB is the length of the arrow and we write kABk. We often use the lower case
letters ~u, ~v , w
~ to refer to vectors and k, l and m to denote scalars.
We can think of vectors as a new number system and we can do many familiar operations with
vectors.
Equality of Vectors
Two vectors ~u and ~v are equal if they have the same magnitude and direction.

Note: Position of a vector is not important.

Sum
To find the sum of two vectors ~u and ~v :
Position ~v so its initial point lies on the terminal point of ~u. Then ~u + ~v is the vector from the
initial point of ~u to the terminal point of ~v .

Note: ~u + ~v = ~v + ~u
Zero Vector
A vector of magnitude 0 is called the zero vector and is denoted by ~0.
Note: For any vector ~v , we have ~v + ~0 = ~v .
Negative Vector
The vector ~v has the same length as ~v but is oppositely directed.
Note: ~v + (~v ) = ~0
Scalar Multiplication
If a 6= 0 is a real number (scalar) and ~v 6= ~0:
1. The magnitude of a~v is ka~v k = |a|k~v k.
2. The direction of a~v is the same as ~v if a > 0 and opposite to ~v if a < 0.

Note: All scalar multiples of a vector are parallel. If k~v = ~0 then either k = 0 or ~v = ~0.
Unit Vectors
A vector ~u is called a unit vector if k~uk = 1.
1
~u is a unit vector.
Note: If ~u 6= ~0, then
k~uk

Distance Between Vectors

D(~u, ~v ) = k~u ~v k

Note: ~u ~v = ~u + (~v )
2

Vectors in R2 and R3
Since we can position a vector anywhere, it can be helpful to place a vector on a coordinate grid with
the initial point at the origin. Then we will refer to the vector by the coordinates of its terminal
point.

Algebraically if ~u = [u1 u2 u3 ]T and ~v = [v1 v2 v3 ]T are two vectors in R3 :

~u = ~v if u1 = v1 , u2 = v2 , and u3 = v3
~u + ~v = [u1 + v1 u2 + v2 u3 + v3 ]T
k~u = [ku1 ku2 ku3 ]T
p
k~uk = u21 + u22 + u23
p
D(~u, ~v ) = k~u ~v k = (u1 v1 )2 + (u2 v2 )2 + (u3 v3 )2
Example 1



 
7
1
Suppose ~u =
and ~v =
in R2 , find and check geometrically:
6
2
(a) ~u + ~v
(b) 2~u
(c) k~u ~v k
(d) k~uk

Suppose a vector is not positioned at the origin but we are given its initial point P (x1 , y1 ) and
terminal point
 Q(x2 , y2 ).

x x1
Then P Q = 2
= [x2 x1 y2 y1 ]T .
y2 y1

Similarly, if P (x1 , y1 , z1 ) and Q(x2 , y2 , z2 ) are two points in R3 , then P Q = [x2 x1 y2 y1 z2 z1 ]T .

Example 2:
Find the midpoint between the points P1 (3, 4) and P2 (9, 7).

Lines
Lines in R3 are determined by a point P0 (x0 , y0 , z0 ) and a direction vector d~ = [a b c]T .

~
We can think of the line l as all the points P (x, y, z) for which P0 P is parallel to d.

~ where t R
P0 P = td,

x x0
ta

~

y
and td = tb .
Now P0 P =
0
tc
z z0

x x0
a

So we have y y0 = t b .
z z0
c
Equating components, we get the parametric equations of a line
x = x0 + ta
y = y0 + tb
z = z0 + tc
through the point (x0 , y0 , z0 ) and in the direction of the vector d~ = [a b c]T .
We can also write these equations in vector form as


x
x0
a
y = y0 + t b
z
zo
c
Example 3:
(a) Find the parametric equations for the line passing through the points P1 (2, 4, 1) and P2 (5, 0, 7).
(b) Where does this line intersect the xy-plane?

4.2 Projections & Planes

Another operation we can perform with vectors is called:

Dot Product:
If ~u = [u1 u2 u3 ]T and ~v = [v1 v2 v3 ]T , then their dot product ~u ~v is a scalar defined by
~u ~v = u1 v1 + u2 v2 + u3 v3
Example 1:
If ~u = [2 1 3]T and ~v = [1 4 1]T , find ~u ~v .

Theorem 1: Properties of Dot Product

If ~u, ~v and w
~ are vectors in R2 or R3 :
1. ~u ~v = ~v ~u
2. ~v ~0 = ~0 ~v = 0
3. ~v ~v = k~v k2
4. (k~v ) w
~ = k(~v w)
~ = ~v (k w),
~ where k is any scalar
5. ~u (~v w)
~ = ~u ~v ~u w
~
Example 2:
Simplify 3~u (2~v 3w
~ + 4~z).
Theorem 2: A Second Definition of Dot Product
Let ~u and ~v be non-zero vectors with initial points aligned. If is the angle between ~u and ~v , where
0 , then
~u ~v = k~ukk~v k cos

Proof:

Fact:
If ~u ~v = 0, then ~u and ~v are orthogonal.
Proof:

Example 3:
Show that the points P (3, 1, 1), Q(4, 1, 4) and R(6, 0, 4) are the vertices of a right triangle.

Projections
It is sometimes of interest to decompose a vector ~u into a sum of two vectors; one parallel to some
~ The projection of ~u on d~ is denoted proj ~~u.
vector d~ and one perpendicular to d.
d

Theorem 3:
~u d~ ~
d.
Let ~u and d~ =
6 ~0 be two vectors. Then projd~~u =
~ 2
kdk
Proof:

Example 4:
Find the projection of ~u = [2 1 3]T on d~ = [4 1 2]T and express ~u = w
~1 + w
~ 2 , where w
~ 1 is parallel
~
~
to d and w
~ 2 is perpendicular to d.

Example 5:
Find the shortest distance from the point P (1, 3, 2) to the line through R(2, 0, 1) with direction
vector d~ = [1 1 0]T .

Planes
We can specify a line by its slope (direction) and a point. We specify a plane by its inclination and
a point. We can describe the inclination of the plane by a non-zero vector called the normal vector
~n that is perpendicular to every vector in the plane. (In this case we say ~n is perpendicular to the
plane.)
Suppose we want to find the equation of the plane passing through the point P0 (x0 , y0 , z0 ) and

having ~n = [a b c]T as a normal. We can think of the plane as all the points P (x, y, z) so that P0 P
is orthogonal to ~n.


x x0 y y0

P P ~n = 0
T 0
z z0 [a b c]T = 0

This is called the Vector Equation of a Plane.

Scalar Equation of a Plane

Taking the dot product, we obtain the

a(x x0 ) + b(y y0 ) + c(z z0 ) = 0

Example:
Find the scalar equation of the plane through the point (3, 1, 4) and perpendicular to the vector
~n = (4, 2, 5).