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q Institution of Chemical Engineers
INTRODUCTION
Long pipelines are frequently used for the transport of large
quantities of hydrocarbons under high pressure. In the case
of a typical offshore platform in the North Sea, for example,
the amount of gas present in a 150 km pipeline at 100 bar is
637,000kg. This represents an enormous source of energy
release which in the event of full bore pipeline rupture
(FBR) poses the risks of general and extreme re exposure
to all personnel in `open platform areas, and also undermines platform integrity. The Piper Alpha tragedy1 clearly
demonstrated the catastrophic nature of this type of
accident.
The risk of FBR is of course not con ned to offshore
installations. Table 1 lists some of the documented cases2 of
pipeline rupture in the past two decades which have resulted
in numerous fatalities and damage to the environment.
In order to isolate and thereby limit the amount of inventory
which may be released as a result of pipeline rupture, it is now
a statutory requirement3 that all pipelines larger than 40 mm
diameter conveying ammable gases or liquids must be
equipped with emergency shutdown valves (ESDV).
In offshore operations, the responsibility is then placed
upon the operators of the platform to demonstrate, through
the Safety Case 4 , that all hazards arising from pipeline
rupture are addressed and satisfactorily accommodated.
Central to this type of analysis is the evaluation of the
release rate and its variation with time in the event of FBR
during isolated (ESDV operating) and un-isolated (ESDV
disabled) release. Such data have an important bearing on
almost every safety aspect of the platform including the
survival time of the temporary safe refuge.
Basically, there are two types of valves which may be
employed for emergency shutdown. These include ball
201
202
MAHGEREFTEH et al.
Table 1. A listing of some of the major accidents relating to pipeline rupture2.
Date
Location
Nature of accident
Damage caused
9 December 1970
24 October 1978
28 July 1988
28 August 1988
9 November 1988
30 January 1992
March 1992
29 September 1993
October 1994
THEORY
The theory describing the unsteady generalized onedimensional ow including heat transfer and friction has
been well documented9 1 1 and hence only a brief account of
the important features is given here.
Basically, the analysis involves solving the mass, momentum and energy conservation equations (see Appendix) using
a numerical approach such as that based on the Method of
Characteristics (MOC)9 . This type of modelling has been
shown to simulate FBR of gas pipelines with a reasonable
degree of accuracy1 0 ,1 1 .
The three conservation equations given in the Appendix
may be replaced by the following characteristic and
compatibility equations:
dt
dx
=
p
dt
dx
=
6
1
u
1
u6
(1)
(2)
= [w
ab ]dt
(4)
where b is the friction term.
The characteristic equations (1) and (2) stipulate the way
in which information is propagated through a ow eld. As
such, they play a fundamental role in dictating the ESDV
response time. To illustrate this, it is important to appreciate
the nature of the process taking place following FBR.
FBR results in a centred expansion wave that propagates
q ad6 u
along the pipeline away from the rupture plane with the
speed of sound. The origin of a centred expansion wave is a
singular point where in nite values for ow properties exist
at any given time and distance9 . The velocity at the front of
the wave which is a C+ characteristic is a. This wave
imparts a drop in pressure which in turn results in a series of
expansion waves which propagate into the disturbed uid
with an increasing negative velocity, - u, and decreasing
speed of sound, a. These waves result in the acceleration of
the uid particles (which have a C0 characteristic with
velocity, u) in the opposite direction and hence result in
out ow. Accordingly, the speed of propagation,
dx/ dt = u + a, of each consecutive expansion wave is
smaller than that of the preceding wave and hence the
waves diverge.
Figure 1 is a schematic representation of the above
phenomenon. The zone near the rupture plane represents
domains of rapid changes in ow properties such as pressure
and discharge velocity. Indeed this type of behaviour is
synonymous with FBR where massive amounts of inventory
are released during the rst few seconds following rupture.
This trend is immediately superseded by a much lower and
gradually decreasing discharge rate.
In the case of a check valve, its activation time, ta is
predominantly governed by the time it takes for the rst
centred expansion wave (C+ t0 characteristic) to travel from
the rupture plane to the location of the valve. At this
instance, the velocity ur of the gas in the reverse direction is
zero and hence the valve will not be exposed to a pressure
surge provided it closes instantaneously. The problem arises
for larger values of tc when the ow velocity ur rapidly
increases. The resulting pressure surge which may be
signi cant is estimated from Joukowski s equation5 which
is given by:
2
(5)
D P = q aur + ur
It is then up to the design engineer to decide whether the
mechanical integrity of the pipeline may be undermined
following exposure to this level of pressure surge. Such a
203
Figure 1. A schematic representation of expansion wave propagation with time following full bore pipeline rupture.
= Pn - (q a)jn un +
w
- ab
jn D
(6)
= Pp + (q a)jp up +
w + ab
jp D
(7)
pj 9 + D
t = K1
(8)
Figure 3. Grid scheme for the conditions on either side of the closing ball
valve.
204
MAHGEREFTEH et al.
Pj 9 - - Pn - (q a)nj 9 - (uj - un ) = w
- ab
nj 9 - D
t = K2
as:
Q(t) = u(t)Af (t)
(9)
Pj 9 +
- P0 - a2
0j 9 +
-q
=
w
0j 9 + D
= K3
(10)
2D P(t)
q (t)
(11)
= A0 + A1 x + A2x 2 + A3 x 3 + A4 x
Af (t) = 2
- R-
(2R - x(t))
2
where:
K4
D P
= u2o C2oq o
(16)
R-
- Pj 9 - = K1 - K2 + PP - Pn - uj
(q a)pj 9 + + (q a)nj 9 - + ((q a)pj 9 + up
(17)
+ (q a)nj 9 - un
(12)
(14)
- Pj 9 - = K3 - K2 + P0 - Pn - uj (q a)nj 9 -
2R - x(t)
+ (q a)nj 9 - un + a2
360
R2
- R-
(2R - x(t))
- a2
(13)
0j 9 +
0j 9 +
(18)
K5 - (q a)pj 9 + uj
a2
0j 9 +
(19)
where:
K5
= K1 - K3 + Pp - P0 + (q a)pj 9 + up +
a2
0j 9 +
(20)
Substituting for q j from equation (19) into equation (15)
and equating to equation (17), the uid velocity uj is given
by the following cubic equation:
u3j + K6 u2j + K7 uj + K8
=0
(21)
where:
K6
K
= (q -a)pj59
(22)
K7
(q a)pj 9 + + (q a)nj 9 - a2
(q a)pj 9 + K4
K8
K1 - K2 + Pp - Pn + (q a)pj 9 + up
a2
0j 9 +
q
a)
u
(
+
nj 9 - n
(q a)pj 9 + K4
0j 9 +
(23)
(24)
205
Figure 5. (a) Pressure and uid velocity pro les following FBR. (b) Flow
reversal location along the pipeline as a function of time following FBR.
206
MAHGEREFTEH et al.
Pressure/Time History
The effect of time delay
Figure 8 shows various pressure transients created on the
upstream side of a check valve positioned 300 m from the
rupture plane (just above the sea level in offshore
platforms). Curve A represents the response for valve
closing upon sensing ow reversal. Curves B, C and D, on
the other hand, represent the data for closure at 0.55, 1.4 and
6.5 s after the passage of ow reversal. In practice such time
delays may represent an intentional damped closure of the
valve in order to avoid damage due to valve slamming6 ,8 ,1 4 .
The data relate to a short pipeline (10 km), as pressure
uctuations are more pronounced in such cases (see later).
The data in Figure 8 indicate signi cant pressure
oscillations, the amplitude of which directly increases
with time delay. Indeed such uctuations have often been
observed in practice primarily in pipelines transporting
water and steam in the nuclear industry1 4 . They arise as a
consequence of the re ection of the expansion waves
(generated following FBR) from the closed end of the
pipeline. As the speed of the re ected wave is equal to the
local speed of sound relative to the uid velocity (left
running characteristic), such oscillations are expected to be
more frequent in pipelines containing liquids. Experimental
data reported in the literature1 5 1 7 are in support of this
view.
207
Figure 11. Variation of surge pressure at the upstream side of a check valve
with closure time delay (relative to the passage of ow reversal). The valve
is positioned 300 m from the rupture plane.
208
MAHGEREFTEH et al.
APPENDIX
The continuity, motion and energy conservation equations
are:
q
+ uq x + q ux = 0
q ut + q uux + Px - b
Pt + uPx - a (q
2
(A1)
=0
+ uq x ) - w
(A2)
=0
(A3)
= -2 D q
b
u| u|
(A5)
= (c - 1)(q - ub
(A6)
NOMENCLA TURE
a
Af
Cd
D
f
g
P
q
Q
R
T
T
ta
tc
Tf
tr
u
ur
Uh
x
speed of sound, m s- 1
ow area at valve, m2
valve discharge coef cient
pipe diameter, m
fanning friction factor
gravitational constant, m s- 2
pressure, Pa
heat transfer term, W m- 3
volumetric uid ow rate through the valve, m3 s- 1
radius of pipe, m
temperature, K
surrounding temperature, K
valve activation time, s
valve closure time, s
uid temperature, K
valve response time, s
uid velocity, m s- 1
reverse ow velocity, m s- 1
heat transfer coef cient, W m- 2 K- 1
distance along pipe in downstream direction, m
Greek letters
b
friction term
q
density, kg m- 3
c
ratio of speci c heats
s
dimensionless time
x
percentage area of valve opening
w
non-isentropic term (includes friction and heat transfer effects)
Values of coef cients for equation (12)
A0
- 0.00111888
A1
0.001104507
A2
8.13E-05
A3
- 1.73E-06
A4
1.81E-08
REFERENCES
1. Cullen, W. D., 1990, The Public Inquiry into the Piper Alpha Disaster
(HMSO).
2. Bond, J., 1996, IChemE Accident Database.
3. The Offshore Installations Emergency Pipeline Valve Regulations,
1989, Statutory Instruments (HMSO).
4. A Guide to Offshore Installation (Safety Case) Regulations, 1992
(HMSO).
5. Wylie, E. B. and Streeter, V. L., 1978, Fluid Transients (McGraw-Hill
Inc., USA).
6. Thorley, A. R. D., 1989, Check valve behaviour under transient ow
conditions: A state-of-the-art review, Transactions of the ASME,
Journal of Fluids Engineering, 111: 178183.
7. Perko, H. D., 1986, Check valve dynamics in pressure transient
analysis, Proceedings of the 5th International Conference on Pressure
Surges, Hannover, Germany 22 24 September, 229236 (BHRA).
209
18. Simpson, A. R. and Bergant, A., 1996, Interesting lessons from column
separation experiments, 7th International Conference on Pressure
Surges and Fluid Transients in Pipelines and Open Channels, BHR
Group Conference Series, No. 19, Boldy, A. (ed).
19. Kameswara, C. V. and Eswaran, K., 1993, On the analysis of pressure
transients in pipelines carrying compressible uids, Int J Pressure
Vessels and Piping, 56: 107129.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors are extremely grateful to Dr Keith Gugan, Chief Safety
Consultant at AMEC Process & Energy Ltd, for his invaluable advice.
ADDRESSES
Correspondence concerning this paper should be addressed to Dr H.
Mahgerefteh, Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering,
University College London, Torrington Place, London WC1D 7JE, UK. Email: h.mahgerefteh@ucl.ac.uk
I. G. Economou is presently at the Molecular Modelling of Materials
Laboratory, Institute of Physical Chemistry, National Research Centre for
Physical Sciences, GR 15310 Ag. Paraskevi Attikis, Greece.
The manuscript was received 18 March 1997 and accepted for
publication after revision 7 July 1997.