!

Chapter!2:!
Chemistry!of!Life!

Chemistry!
Matter is anything that has mass and takes up
space it is made up of elements. For instance:
organisms
-Examples: C, H, O, N, P, S
Elements are the basic building blocks of matter
that cannot be broken down by chemical means
(92 of 115 !(!ununpen'um )
Atoms are the smallest units of an element that
retain the element s physical and chemical
properties. These bond together to form
molecules

Naturally!Occurring!Elements!in!
Humans!

Nutrient!Deciencies!

Subatomic!par'cles!of!atoms!

Neutrons!have!a!neutral!charge!
Protons!are!posi?vely!charged!
Neutrons!and!protons!make!up!the!nucleus!
Electrons!are!nega?vely!charged!and!orbit!around!the!nucleus!
Subatomic Particles
Charge

Particle

Atomic Mass

1p

+1

Neutron

Electron

Proton
hydrogen
H

6p
6n

7p
7n

carbon
C

nitrogen
N

0.00055

8p
8n

oxygen
O

How!many!protons,!electrons,!and!
neutrons!are!in!an!atom?!

Atomic!Number!And!Atomic!Mass!
Atoms!of!elements!dier!in!
their!number!of!subatomic!
par?cles!
!
Atomic!number!
Mass!number!
!
Atomic!mass!

Step!1!
Use!your!periodic!table!
to!nd!an!element!

http://education.jlab.org/qa/pen_number.html

Step!2!
The!number!of!Protons!(+!charge)!
!
The!atomic!number!=!#!protons!
!
Kr!has!36!protons!

http://education.jlab.org/qa/pen_number.html

Step!3!

The!number!of!Electrons!(Q!charge)!
Remember!atoms!have!no!overall!charge.!
Atoms!must!have!an!equal!#!of!protons!and!electrons!
#protons=#electrons!
Kr!has!36!electrons!

Step!4!
The number of Neutrons (no charge)
Mass # (atomic weight rounded to nearest whole #)

Neutrons = Mass # - Protons

Neutrons = 84 36
Neutrons = 48

Summary!
Number!of!Protons!=!Atomic!#!
Number!of!Electrons!=!Protons!!
Number!of!Neutrons!=!Mass!#!Q!Protons!
!

Problems!
1. Find!the!protons!(p+),!electrons!(eQ),!
neutrons!(n)!of!Oxygen!
2. Find!the!p+,!eQ,!n!of!Xenon!(Xe)!
3. Find!the!p+,!eQ,!n!of!Zirconium!(Zr)!
!

Oxygen!(O)!
p+,!eQ,!n!
Number!of!Protons!=!Atomic!#!
Number!of!Electrons!=!Protons!!
Number!of!Neutrons!=!Mass!#!Q!Protons!
Protons!=!8!
Electrons!=!8!
Neutrons!=!16Q8!=!8!

Xenon!(Xe)!
p+,!eQ,!n!!
!

Number!of!Protons!=!Atomic!#!
Number!of!Electrons!=!Protons!!
Number!of!Neutrons!=!Mass!#!Q!Protons!
Protons!=!54!
Electrons!=!54!
Neutrons!=!131Q54!=!77!
!
!

Zirconium!(Zr)!
p+,!eQ,!n!
Number!of!Protons!=!Atomic!#!
Number!of!Electrons!=!Protons!!
Number!of!Neutrons!=!Mass!#!Q!Protons!
Protons!=!40!
Electrons!=!40!
Neutrons!=!91Q40!=!51!

What!Is!An!Isotope?!

Radioac've!Isotopes!
Nuclei!decay!spontaneously!and!give!o!
par?cles!and!energy!(halfQlife)!
Used!to!date!fossils,!trace!atoms!through!
metabolic!processes,!sterilize!medical!
equipment,!diagnose!medical!disorders,!and!
treat!cancer!

Radioac've!Isotopes!Have!Many!Medical!Uses!
Low!Levels!

Small!amounts!of!
radia?on!can!be!used!
as!a!tracer!allowing!
doctors!to! see !inside!
of!the!body!
!
! !!a)!I131!used!to!
examine!thyroid!
!
! !!

High!Levels!

Excessive!amounts!of!
radia?on!will!damage!
DNA!!and!(cancer!
cell)!
Can!be!used!to:!
!!Kill!pathogens!
!!Treat!disease!(e.g.,!
cancer)!

a: Biomed Commun./Custom Medical Stock Photo; b(patient): Courtesy National Institutes of Health
(NIH); b(brain scan): Mazzlota et al./Photo Researchers, Inc.

ELEMENTS a review
Made!of!individual!atoms.!
Cannot!be!broken!down!into!simpler!
substances.!
Listed!on!the!periodic!table.!
Created!to!be!the!building!blocks!of!all!maeer.!

Molecules!&!Compounds!
Molecule Two or more of the same element chemically join
together.
Hydrogen (H2), Oxygen (O2), Nitrogen (N2) are not compounds
because each is composed of a single element.
Compound At least two different elements chemically join
together.
Water (H2O), carbon dioxide (C02), and methane (Ch4), are
compounds because each is made from more than one
element

Atoms are to elements as molecules are to

compounds!!

Energy!Levels!Of!Electrons!
3Electrons
Types
Bonds:
are of
located
in energy
levels or electron shells

Ionic Bond
Covalent Bond
Hydrogen Bond

Periodic!Table!of!Elements!

Forma'on!of!Chemical!Bonds!
!Interac?ons!of!atoms!that!result!in!atoms!
staying!close!together!temporarily!
Ionic!bonding!
Covalent!bonding!

Ionic!Bonding!

Covalent!bonds!

Atoms!in!this!type!of!bond!share!electrons!
Results!in!a!stable!outer!shell!

Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

1p

1p

8p
8n
8p
1p
oxygen
O

1p

8n

2 hydrogen
2H

water
H 2O

a. When an oxygen and two hydrogen atoms covalently bond, water results.

oxygen
O

oxygen gas
O2

oxygen
O

8p

8p

8p

8p

8n

8n

8n

8n

b. When two oxygen atoms covalently bond, oxygen gas results.

Covalent!Bonding!

Electronega'vity!

A!Covalent!Bond!can!be!Polar!or!Nonpolar!
Electronegativity the attraction of an atom for the
electrons in a covalent bond

Atoms in a molecule share electrons to

varying degrees depending on the element
Nonpolar covalent bond when the sharing of
electrons between atoms is relatively equal
Polar covalent bond unequal sharing of
electrons

Electronega'vity!and!the!!
Periodic!Table!

Waters!Importance!To!Life!
Water!contains!unique!proper?es!that!make!it!
a!life!!suppor?ng!substance!and!this!stems!
from!the!structure!of!the!molecule!
Polar!molecule!
Hydrogen!bonding!

Hydrogen!Bonds!Between!H2O!
Molecules!

Four!Emergent!Proper'es!Of!Water!
Proper?es!of!water!arise!from!the!aerac?on!!
between!oppositely!charged!atoms!of!
dierent!water!molecules!by!hydrogen!bonds!
Cohesive!and!adhesive!behavior!
Ability!to!moderate!temperate!
Expansion!upon!freezing!
Versa?lity!as!a!solvent!

Cohesion!and!Adhesion!of!Water!
Cohesion!is!the!clinging!of!water!each!other!
!
!
!
Adhesion!is!the!clinging!of!water!another!
substance!
Both!adhesion!and!cohesion!helps!transport!!
water!and!dissolved!nutrients!against!gravity!

Cohesion!and!Adhesion!In!Plants!
Transpires

Modera'on!of!Temperature!
Water!moderates!temperatures!by!absorbing!
heat!from!warmer!air!and!releasing!stored!
heat!to!cooler!air!with!only!slight!changes!in!
its!own!temperature!
High!specic!heat!of!water!(boil!water)!
High!heat!of!vaporiza?on!of!water!

Floa'ng!Of!Ice!On!Liquid!Water!

Water:!The!Solvent!Of!Life!
Water!is!the!solvent!in!aqueous!solu?ons!
Solvent!
Solute!

Acidic!And!Basic!Condi'ons!
Water!is!in!a!state!of!dynamic!equilibrium!in!
which!water!molecules!dissociate!at!the!same!
rate!at!which!they!are!formed!

The!pH!Scale!

Buers!
Substances!that!minimize!changes!in!
concentra?on!of!hydrogen!ion!or!hydroxide!
ion!in!a!solu?on!(pH)!
!
Usually!buers!are!acidQbase!pairs!that!accept!
hydrogen!ions!in!solu?on!or!donate!hydrogen!ions!

Weak Acid!

Weak Base!

Carbon:!The!Backbone!Of!Life!
Cells!are!70Q95%!water,!but!living!organisms!
are!made!up!of!chemicals!that!are!mostly!
carbonQbased!
Organic!chemistry!is!the!study!of!compounds!that!
contain!carbon!

The!Forma'on!of!Bonds!With!Carbon!
Carbon!contains!four!valence!electrons!
(tetravalence)!in!a!shell!that!holds!eight!

Most!frequent!bonding!partners!include!
hydrogen,!oxygen!and!nitrogen!

Molecules!Of!Life!

Dehydra'on!Synthesis!

Hydrolysis!

Nucleic!Acids!
Made!of!monomers!called!nucleo?des!
Deoxyribonucleic!acid!(DNA)!
Ribonucleic!acid!(RNA)!

Nucleo'de!Structure!

Nitrogenous!Bases!

Structure!of!DNA!

Structure!of!RNA!

Proteins!
Proteins!account!for!more!than!50%!of!the!dry!
mass!of!most!cells!and!the!func?ons!of!living!
organisms!depends!on!proteins!(enzymes,!
defense,!storage,!transport,!hormones,!
receptors,!contrac?le!and!structural)!
Made!of!monomers!called!amino!acids!

Amino!Acid!Structure!

Polypep'des!
Polymers!of!amino!acids!that!range!in!length!
from!a!few!to!more!than!a!thousand!amino!
acids!
Amino!acids!are!linked!together!by!pep?de!
bounds!by!dehydra?on!synthesis!
A!protein!consists!of!one!or!more!polypep?des!

Forma'on!Of!A!Pep'de!

Protein!Structure!and!Func'on!!
A!func?onal!protein!consists!of!one!or!more!
polypep?des!twisted,!folded,!and!coiled!into!a!
unique!shape,!which!is!determined!by!the!
sequence!of!amino!acids!
Protein!structure!determines!its!func?on!
Primary!structure,!secondary!!
structure,!ter?ary!structure!!
and!quaternary!structure!

Primary!Structure!Of!A!Protein!

Secondary!Structure!Of!A!Protein!

Ter'ary!Structure!Of!A!Protein!!
ThreeQdimensional!shape!of!a!protein!!
!

Quaternary!Structure!Of!A!Protein!!
Results!when!two!or!more!polypep?de!chains!
form!one!macromolecule!

What!Determines!Protein!Structure?!!
In!addi?on!to!primary!structure,!physical!and!
chemical!condi?ons!can!aect!the!structure!of!
a!protein!
Altera?ons!in!pH,!salt!concentra?on,!temperature!
or!other!environmental!factors!can!cause!a!
protein!to!unravel!

Denatura'on!

Rela'onship!Between!Proteins!and!DNA!

Enzymes!
Cataly?c!protein!that!speeds!up!a!chemical!
reac?on!by!lowering!the!ac?va?on!energy!(EA)!
Enzymes!are!substrateQspecic!
Example:!hydrolysis!of!sucrose!by!sucrase!
(enzyme)!into!glucose!and!fructose!

Cataly'c!Cycle!Of!An!Enzyme!

What!are!EnzymesQHow!Do!They!
Work?!

Carbohydrates!
Made!of!monomers!called!monosaccharides!
or!simple!sugars!(CH2O)!

Fuel!for!cellular!work,!raw!material!for!making!
other!organic!molecules!or!disaccharides!and!
polysaccharides!

Monosaccharide's!
Simple!sugars!containing!3!Q7!carbons!in!their!
backbone!

Disaccharides!Synthesis!

Polysaccharides!
Polymers!containing!a!few!100!to!a!few!1,000!
monosaccharide's!linked!together!

Provide!sugar!for!the!cell!(storage!
polysaccharides)!or!protect!the!cell!or!a!whole!
organism!(structure!polysaccharides)!

Storage!Polysaccharides!

Structural!Polysaccharide:!Cellulose!

Structural!Polysaccharide:!Chi'n!

Lipids!
Large!class!of!molecules!that!have!liele!to!no!
anity!for!water!because!they!contain!mostly!
hydrocarbons!
Examples!include!triglycerides,!phospholipids,!
steroids,!waxes!and!some!pigments!

Fats!Or!Triglycerides!

Fa\y!Acid!Varia'on!

Phospholipids!

Plasma!Membrane!

Steroids!
Lipids!characterized!by!a!carbon!skeleton!
consis?ng!of!four!fused!rings!

CHAPTER!2!Q!CHEMISTRY!OF!LIFE!
REVIEW!QUESTIONS!
1.!Dene!the!following!terms:!chemistry,!maeer,!mass,!weight,!element,!trace!elements,!atom,!subatomic!
par?cles,!atomic!symbol,!atomic!number,!atomic!mass,!mass!number,!isotope,!radioac?ve!isotope,!halfQlife,!
valence!shell,!valence!electrons,!octet!rule,!ion,!ca?on,!anion,!molecules,!compounds,!electronega?vity,!polar!
covalent!bond,!nonpolar!covalent!bond,!hydrogen!bonding,!cohesion,!adhesion,!specic!heat,!heat!of!
vaporiza?on,!solvent,!solute,!hydrophilic,!hydrophobic,!buer,!organic!chemistry,!polymers,!monomers,!
dehydra?on!synthesis,!hydrolysis!synthesis,!phosphodiester!bond,!polypep?de,!protein,!pep?de!bond,!alpha!
helix,!betaQpleated!sheet,!glycosidic!bond,!saturated!fat,!unsaturated!fat!and!trans!fat.!
2.!Name!the!four!elements!make!up!96.0%!of!the!human!body.!!
3.!Describe!the!characteris?cs!(loca?on,!charge!and!mass)!of!the!three!subatomic!par?cles!that!make!up!an!
atom.!How!to!calculate!each!one!by!using!the!periodic!table.!
4.!Describe!the!maximum!number!of!electrons!that!can!be!located!in!the!rst!shell!and!second!shell!of!an!
atom.!
5.!Describe!what!happens!to!electrons!during!ionic!bonding!and!provide!an!example!of!a!molecule!that!forms!
this!way.!
6.!Describe!what!happens!to!electrons!during!covalent!bonding!and!provide!examples!of!molecules!that!form!
this!way.!!
7.!Describe!how!the!structure!of!water!inuences!the!behavior!of!water!molecules!(polar!molecule!and!
hydrogen!bonding).!
8.!Describe!the!four!emergent!proper?es!of!water!and!how!each!property!contributes!to!the!homeostasis!of!
human,!plant!or!aqua?c!life.!!
9.!Describe!the!pH!scale!and!understand!its!rela?onship!to!concentra?ons!in!hydrogen!and!hydroxide!ion!
concentra?ons.!

10.!Describe!the!structure!of!carbon!and!its!importance!to!the!study!of!the!
diversity!of!organic!molecules.!!
11.!Describe!the!four!organic!macromolecules!of!life.!!
12.!Describe!the!structure!of!a!nucleo?de.!
13.!Compare!and!contrast!the!structure!and!func?on!of!DNA!and!RNA.!!
14.!Describe!the!general!func?ons!of!proteins.!!
15.!Describe!the!structure!of!an!amino!acid!and!the!importance!of!the!R!
group.!
16.!Describe!&!Iden?fy!the!four!levels!of!protein!structure.!!
17.!Describe!denatura?on!and!the!altera?ons!that!can!occur!in!an!
environment!to!make!denatura?on!happen.!!
18.!Describe!the!structure!and!func?on!of!monosaccharide's.!!
19.!Describe!an!example!of!disaccharides!that!was!discussed!in!lecture.!!
20.!Describe!the!structure!and!func?on!of!a!triglyceride.!!
21.!Describe!the!structure!and!func?on!of!a!phospholipid.!!
22.!Describe!the!structure!and!func?on!of!a!steroid.!