Greenroads Manual v1.

Materials & Resources

LIFECYCLE ASSESSMENT
MR-1

GOAL
Createnewlifecycleassessmentinformationforroads.

CREDIT REQUIREMENTS
Conductadetailedprocessbasedlifecycleassessment(ISOLCA)orhybrideconomic
inputoutputlifecycleassessment(HybridEIO)accordingtotheISO14040standard
frameworksforthefinalroadwaydesignalternative.Includeallitemsontheproject
bidlistintheinitialscopeofthestudybeforeanystreamliningofthescopeisdone.
Useprimarydataforallprocesseswherepossible.Wherenoprimarydataexists,use
thebestavailabledataandjustifythesubstitution.Chooseatleastthreeimpact
categoriestoreportforthelifecycleimpactassessment(LCIA)fromtheEnvironmental
ProtectionAgency(EPA)FrameworkforResponsibleEnvironmentalDecisionMaking
(FRED:2000).Useequivalencyfactorsfortheimpactassessmentbasedonthemost
currentversionoftheindicatormodelreferenced.FREDisavailablefromtheAmerican
CenterforLifeCycleAssessmenthere:http://www.lcacenter.org/library/pdf/fred.pdf.
Notethatsomeequivalencyfactorsinthisdocumentareoutdated.Seethefollowing
MR1Researchsectionformoredetails.
Details
TheLCAmaybestreamlinedaccordingtothestreamliningprocess
recommendationsfromthe1999SocietyofEnvironmentalToxicologyand
Chemistry(SETAC)reportStreamlinedLifeCycleAssessment:AFinalReportfrom
theSETACNorthAmericaStreamlinedLCAWorkgroup(Weitzetal.,1999).
Socialimpactassessmentisnotrequiredforthiscredit,butmaybecompletedif
socialmetricsorindicesareappropriateorrelevantfortheproject.

DOCUMENTATION
CopyofthecompletedLCA.Thisdocumentshouldinclude,atminimum,thefollowing
specificinformation.
Nameandcontactinformationofperson(s)whoconductedtheLCA.Besureto
listanyLCACertifiedProfessionals(LCACP)involvedintheproject.
Alistofalldatasourcesused,andtheinputdataused.Ifdataisproprietary,list
theownerandcontactinformation,andidentifyallprocessesincludedinthe
proprietarydatasets.
ListanymaterialinputsnotlistedinPR3butincludedintheLCA(thesewillbe
nonpavementitems).
Detailedresultsofthelifecycleinventory(LCI).
Lifecycleimpactassessment(LCIA)resultsshowingaminimumofthreeimpact
categories(i.e.globalwarmingpotential,acidification,photochemicalsmog,
humanhealth,etc.)fromFRED.Listsourcesofequivalencyfactorsused.
Thedataqualityscoreofthefinalalternative(seeMR1Researchsection.)
Alistofthetopthreecontributingprocessestotheimpactcategories(basedon
normalizedresults,suchasannualenergyuseperAmericanhousehold,etc.)
Alistofalllimitationsofthestudyscopeanddataused.

MR-1

Lifecycle Assessment

2 POINTS

RELATED CREDITS
PR2LifecycleCost
Analysis
PR3Lifecycle
Inventory
PR6Waste
ManagementPlan
EW4Stormwater
CostAnalysis
CA3SiteRecycling
Plan
CA7WaterUse
Tracking

SUSTAINABILITY
COMPONENTS

Ecology
Economy
Extent
Expectations
Exposure

BENEFITS
Improves
Accountability
IncreasesAwareness
CreatesNew
Information

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Greenroads Manual v1.5

APPROACHES & STRATEGIES

Createaspreadsheettocapturealloftheprocessesforproductionoftheroadwayprojectandcompletean
LCAinaccordancewiththereferencedISOstandards.
HireaprofessionalthirdpartyconsultantifpossibletoreviewtheprojectandproduceafinalLCAreport.The
benefits:sometimestheyhaveaccesstosomeproprietarydataandsoftwarethatismorerecentorhigher
qualitythanpubliclyavailablesources.
UseanopensourcesoftwareprogramforLCA.Thesearebecomingmorecommonandarepublicallyavailable
forfreeviaanumberofLCAorganizations.
ConsiderusingahybridEIOmodelthatincorporatesbotheconomicsectordataandprocessbaseddata.
Collectprimaryemissionsdatawhereverpossible.
Usedatathatiscurrent,localorotherwiseprojectspecifictoimprovedataqualityfortheprojectLCAmodel.
Example: Comprehensive Process-Based LCA Approach (Stripple, 2001)
WhilenotacompleteLCAbecausetheimpactassessmentandinterpretationstepswerenotcompleted,
Stripple(2001)providesthebestavailableexampletodateofwhatshouldbeconsideredinacomprehensive
roadwaylifecycleinventoryanalysisandimpactassessmentbasedonanISOLCAmodel(fromSETACEurope).
Thelifecyclephasesstudiedwereconstruction,operation,maintenanceandassociatedtransportation
activities.Extractionactivitiesandtrafficwereincluded,butdisposalofwasteandproductionofcapital
equipmentwerenotconsidered.Inatrulycomprehensivestudy,wastegenerationandrecyclingactivitiesfor
mostpavementswillhavealargeroleintheoverallassessmentoftheroadway.Capitalequipmentproduction
mayalsobeincludedbutitisnotunusualforittobeexcludedviathestreamliningprocess.
Followingisalistofunitprocesses(andequipment)thatwereconsideredfortheinventoryanalysiswithinhis
definedGoal,Scope,andsystemboundaries(slightlyadaptedforclarity).(Stripple,2001)
TableMR1.1:ExampleunitprocessesinStripple(2001)
Aggregateproduction(blasting, Felling(trees)
crushing)
Foundationreinforcement
usingcement/limecolumns
Aluminium[sic]production
Foundationreinforcement
Bitumenproduction
usingconcretepiles
Cementproduction
Freighttransportationbysea
Cementstabilizationofbase
Hotmixasphaltproduction
courseinconcreteroad
construction
Layingofconcretewearing
courseinconcreteroad
Landclearingofrightofway
construction
Clearingsnow
Layingofroadmarkings
Coldmixasphaltproduction
Minoroperationalactivities
Concreteproduction(mixing)
(minorrepairs,other)
Concretetexturing

Mowingofrightofway
Drivingdieselmaintenance
Operatingasphaltpavers
vehicles
Operatingasphaltrollers
Electricityproduction
Operatingdumptrucks
Erectionandremovalofsnow
posts
Operatingexcavators
Operatingthetackcoattruck
Extractionofquarrygraveland
sand
Operatingwheelloaders
Extractionofsaltforwinter
Polyethyleneplastic
roadmaintenance
production

Quicklimeproduction
Roadmarking,sign,lighting,
trafficlight,otherrailingand
fenceproduction
Saltgrittingofroadinwinter
roadmaintenance
Sandgrittingofroadinwinter
roadmaintenance
Sawcuttingjointsinconcrete
Sealingconcretejoints
Steelproduction
Surfacemillingofconcreteand
asphaltpaving
Syntheticrubber(EPDM)
production
Trenchdigginginroad
maintenance
Trucktransportation
Washingofroadsigns
Washingofroadsideposts
Wildlifefences
Zincproduction

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Materials & Resources

Thefunctionalunitsinthestudywere:
Theconstruction,maintenanceandoperationovera40yearperiodof1lanekmofroad,13metersin
width,with0.5msurfacecourseand1mbasecoursepavedwithhotmixasphaltandusingvehiclesfor
constructionandmaintenancewithlowemissiondieselengines.
Theconstruction,maintenanceandoperationovera40yearperiodof1lanekmofroad,13metersin
width,with0.5msurfacecourseand1mbasecoursepavedwithcoldmixasphaltandusingvehiclesfor
constructionandmaintenancewithlowemissiondieselengines.
Theconstruction,maintenanceandoperationovera40yearperiodof1lanekmofroad,13metersin
width,with0.5msurfacecourseand1mbasecoursepavedwithconcreteandusingvehiclesfor
constructionandmaintenancewithlowemissiondieselengines.
TheresultsoftheinventoryanalysisforenergyuseareshowninFigureMR1.1below.

FigureMR1.1:Resultsoflifecycleinventoryanalysisforenergyofthreetypesofroadways.Dottedlines
representstoredenergyinasphalt.(Stripple,2001)

Thefullreport(2ndedition)isavailablefromtheIVLSwedishEnvironmentalResearchInstitute,Ltd.here:
http://www3.ivl.se/rapporter/pdf/B1210E.pdf
Example: Impact Assessment for HMA Overlay Using FRED (EPA, 2000; Schenck, 2000)
IntheirdocumentationfortheFREDtool,theEPAprovidesaperfectlyrelevantexampleofanimpact
assessmentforaroadwayproduct,asphaltcement.ThefollowingistakenfromAppendixC:AsphaltCoating
CaseStudyandSchenck(2000).ThearticlebySchenck(2000)providesfurtherexplanationofhowLCA,
especiallytheimpactassessmentstep,canbeusedtomakeprocurementdecisionsforroadmaintenance
activitiesfortheDepartmentofDefense.

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Greenroads Manual v1.5

Goal&ScopeofStudy
Thestudymodeleda1.5inchthickoverlayappliedwithafrequencyof79yearsovera20yeartimeperiodand
estimatedthetemperatureofapplicationatorabove165F.ForpurposesofthisExample,theinventoryand
impactassessmentresultsforthewaterbasedasphaltemulsionalternative,GSB88(gilsonite),areomittedto
minimizeconfusionwiththeLCIAprocessthatisrequiredforthiscredit.Notethatingeneral,thiswasavery
simplifiedlifecycleassessmentmodelduetothesimplicityoftheproductitself(EPA,2000).Explicitdata
criterialimitsensuredthatInputandoutputdatawasnotcollectedifitrepresentedlessthanonepercentof
thetotalmass,energy,orexpectedtoxicityscorecontribution(humanhealthandecosystemhealthindicators).
TableMR1.2belowshowstheprocessesandmaterialdata,sourcesandtypesofdatacollectedforthemodel.
TableMR1.2:DataSourcesforLCAStudy(Schenck,2000;EPA,2000)
ProcessorMaterialData
Type
Asphalt
IndustryAverage
Aggregate
Primary
Diesel(HMAProduction)
Primary:surrogate
Diesel(ConstructionVehicleFuels)
IndustryAverage
Sand
Primary
Gilsonite
Primary
Hydrochloricacid(HCl)
Primary
Water
Primary
NP40(Detergent)
Primary
Surfactant
IndustryAverage
LightCycleOil
Primary
LandUse(Road,m2)
Calculated
LandUse(Manufacturing,m2)
Mixed

Source
IndustryAssociation
Manufacturer
Applier
PublishedData
Manufacturer
Manufacturer
Manufacturer
Manufacturer
Manufacturer
PublishedData
Manufacturer
Thisstudy
Manufacturer,Engr.Estimate

InventoryAnalysis
TableMR1.3presentstheresultsofthelifecycleinventoryanalysisfortheHMAapplicationonly.Azero
indicatesthataparticularrawmaterialwasusedtomaketheThinLayerofHMAproduct.
TableMR1.3:SummaryofHMAInventory
SystemDescription(RawMaterials)
Asphalt
Aggegate
Diesel(ConstructionVehicleFuels)
Diesel(HMAProduction)
Sand
Gilsonite
Hydrochloricacid(HCl)
Water
NP40(Detergent)
Surfactant
LightCycleOil
LandUse(Road,m2)
LandUse(Manufacturing,m2)

ThinLayerofHMA(2Applications)lb/lanemi/20yr
122,621
2,181,960
3,063
884
0
0
32
4,779
0
156
0
5888
<10

ImpactAssessment
TableMR1.4presentstheresultsofthelifecycleimpactassessmentfortheHMAapplicationonly.Notably,the
valuesinTableMR1.3abovetranslatethroughtoTableMR1.4:azeroindicatesthataparticularvalueinthe
inventoryanalysiswasalsozero.ThisisbecausetheMR1.3valuesaremultipliedbyequivalencyfactorsas
definedintheFRED.(Technically,itcouldalsomeanthat:1.theequivalencyfactorassignedtoaparticular

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Materials & Resources

impactwaszerothoughgenerallyanimpactwithzeroequivalencywouldnotbereported(i.e.notstudied),or
2.theresultcouldbeconsiderednegligibleandreportedaszero.)
TableMR1.4:LCIAResults
Impact
Indicator
GlobalWarmingPotential(kgCO2e)
OzoneDepletion(kgCFC11e)
Acidification(kgSO2e)
Eutrophication(kgPO4e)
PhotochemicalSmog(kgO3e)
HumanToxicity
Cancer
NonCancer
Ecotoxicity(dimensionless)
ResourceDepletion
Fossil(tonsoilequivalent)
Mineral(equivalenttons)
Preciousmetals(equivalenttons)
OtherIndicators
LandUse(ha)
WaterUse(m3)
SolidWaste(ton)

ThinLayerofHMA(2Applications)lb/lanemi/20yr
LCIAResults
40,000
0
300
0.02
80
0.2
5
2000
90000
0
0
0.6
2
800

FigureMR1.2showsanexampleofacontributionanalysis,wheretherelativecontributions(onascaleof100
percent)areshownasassignedtoeachlifecyclestage.AcontributionanalysismayalsobedonewiththeLCIA
resultstoshowwhichprocessescontributemosttocertainimpacts.

FigureMR1.2:ExamplecontributionanalysisforLCIAofasphaltcement.(Schenck,2000)

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Greenroads Manual v1.5

SomeNotesonResults(Interpretation)
ThisExampleonlyshowshalfthepicture,butthefullLCAwasactuallycompletedonbothtypesof
maintenancetechniquesandisexplainedinSchenck(2000)andtheFREDdocumentation.However,evaluating
thesetwoalternativesbycomparingtheimpactsofthetwoproductsmusttakeintoaccounttherelativedata
qualityavailable.AfewbriefexamplesofnotesthatmightbeusefultoareaderofanLCAreportforthe
interpretationstepfollow:
InTableMR1.2,secondarydata(averagedata)forasphaltproductionwasusedandmaynotbe
representativeoftheactualproductstudied.InformationfromthemanufacturerfortheGSB88wasfrom
primarysourcesandmaybemorerepresentative.Ifprimarydatawereavailablefortheasphalt,theresults
maybedifferentthanthoseproducedbythemodel.Thisistrueformanydifferentpartsofthedataused.
Closescrutinyofthedataintheinventoryanalysisshowsthatmanyofthedatavalueswerenotavailableor
notreportedforeitherproduct,asdenotedbyNAintheFREDcasestudy.
IftheFREDcasestudyiscomparedtothepublishedresultsoftheLCIA,itisclearthatthereisveryhigh
uncertaintyintheresultsbecausethecomputedresultsreportuptofivesignificantdigits.Theamount,for
example,ofGWPthatwascomputedwas44,368kgCO2e.Thatcomputedlevelofprecisionisnot
reasonable,andthevaluereportedonlyreflectsonesignificantdigit(40,000kgCO2e).
ItisunclearwhytheinventoryamountreportedforResourceDepletionMineralsis0.Thisshould
probablyhavebeendocumentedsomewhere.
Itisunclearwhattheassumedtransportationdistancewasforeitherproduct(bothinSchenckandthe
FREDdocumentation).
Furtherdiscussionandthefulllifecycleinventory,impactassessment,andinterpretationforthisEPAcase
studyareavailableintheFREDguidancedocumentavailableat:http://www.lcacenter.org/library/pdf/fred.pdf.
Thereaderisreferredtothatresourcetomakehis/herowninterpretationsofthecasestudiesprovided.

POTENTIAL ISSUES
1. Missingorotherwiseunavailabledata(suchasfromproprietarysources).Whereverpossible,datashouldbe
collectedfortheproject.Thisincludes(butisnotlimitedto)emissionsandenergyusesuchasemissionsdata
gatheredfromatthehotmixasphalt(HMA)batchplant,amountsofwaterusedinconcretemixes,fueltypes,
tippingfeereceipts,cut/fillvolumes,etc.Ingeneral,secondarydatachoicesshouldbebasedonrealistic
projectbasedinformation.
2. Professionallifecycleassessmentmayincuranaddedcosttotheproject.Projectsshouldbudgetforthis
additionalcostwherepossiblewhenplanningtoattemptthiscredit.
3. DatamanagementinprocessbasedLCAscanrequiremuchmanpower,betimeconsuming,andalsohighcost.
4. Thereisnosuchthingasasimpleproduct.Allproductsandprocessesaremorecomplicatedthanhumans
couldeverconceive.LCAsstillonlypresentasimplifiedmodeloftheactuallifecycle.ThegoalisthattheLCA
modelisrealisticandrepresentative,notexact.
5. StakeholdersinvolvedinLCAtendtosetsystemboundariesandconditionstotheircredit.Thiscanskewor
discreditresultsinsomecases.Transparencyisakeyissueinpart,forthisreason.
6. Professionallifecycleassessmentinfersthatfinalresultsmaybeproprietary.Verifyrightstosharethis
informationpriortosubmittingdocumentationforthiscredit.Wherepossible,usedatasourcesorLCA
softwarethatdoesnotincorporateproprietarydataunless,adequatelyreferencedanddocumentedforthe
project.UsingOpenSourceLCAprogramsmaybeabletohelpavoidsuchissues.
7. AnyuncertaintiesorassumptionsmadeintheLCAmustbeclearlyspecifiedordocumented(pertheISO
standards).Additionally,anysubstitutionsorgenericdatausedmustbeexplicitlystated.
8. Allocationproceduresusedforestimationsorassumptionsshouldbetransparentandsupporting
documentation(includingreferences)shouldbeprovided(wherepublishingandproprietaryrightspermit).
9. Comprehensivelifecycleassessmentsrequiredetailedattentiontodataquality.

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Greenroads Manual v1.5

Materials & Resources

RESEARCH
ThisparticularcreditisavailableasasupplementtothethreerelatedProjectRequirements:PR1Environmental
ReviewProcess,PR2LifecycleCostAnalysis,andPR3LifecycleInventory.Thiscreditrepresentsbothanadded
step(impactassessment)tothebasicprocessinvolvedinthesethreecreditsandanexpandedroadwaysystem
scopefortheinventoryanalysisstepcompletedforPR3.PR2andPR3providedecisionmakinginformation
aboutcostandbaselineenvironmentalperformance(specificallyenergyuseandcarbondioxideemissions)forthe
roadwaypavementsection.Similarly,socialimpactclassificationandcharacterizationispartoftheenvironmental
reviewprocess(seePR1)formanyroadwayprojects,butgenerallythisprocesswillnotrequireorspecifytheuse
ofanyparticularsocialmetric(e.g.birthanddeathrates,obesityrates,productivityrates,etc.)formeasurement
oftheseimpacts.ThiscreditrequiresanexpandedscopeofthesethreeProjectRequirementsthatincludesthe
entireroadwayprojectsystemaswellasanimpactassessmentstepfortheproject.
NotethatanintroductiontoLCA,itsbasicframeworkcomponents,andvarietyofLCAmethodsisprovidedinthe
ResearchsectionofPR3.Thisresearchdiscussionissupplemental.
ExistingLiterature
Mostexistingliteratureforroadwaylifecycleassessmentsfocusontheinitialconstructionandmaintenanceof
pavementsectionsalone.ToourknowledgenostudieshavecompletedafullsystemwideLCAforaroadway
project.However,onestudycompletedbyStrippleetal.(2001),hascompletedafulllifecycleinventory(LCI)that
incorporatesallaspectsofaroadway,fromproductionprocessesofseveralkindsofpavementallthewaytothe
componentsoftheroadwaysuchaselectricutilitiesandwildlifefencing.Thisstudyfollowedthe
recommendationsfortheLCAprocessbytheSocietyofEnvironmentalToxicologyandChemistry(SETACEurope),
butisconsideredanincompleteLCAbecausetheimpactassessmentandinterpretationstepswerenotdone.
However,thepaperservesasagreatexampleofthefirsttwostepsinLCA,butnotethattheapplicabilityand
utilityoftheprimarilyEuropeandatasetisquestionableforapplicationsintheUnitedStates(i.e.itisdifficultto
justifysubstitutionofStripplesinventorydataintoanonEuropeanLCAstudywithoutclosescrutinyofhisdata).
However,becauseSETACreferencesthesamemethodologyforLCA,namelytheInternationalStandards
Organization(ISO)14040and14044standards,thispaperisagreatexampleoftheframeworkandapproachfor
thiscredit.SeethefirstExampleintheprevioussectionformoredetails.
LCAMethodologySteps
Alifecycleisdefinedasconsecutiveandinterlinkedstagesofaproduct[orproject]system,fromrawmaterial
acquisitionorgenerationfromnaturalresourcestofinaldisposalor[endoflife:EOL](InternationalStandards
Organization:ISO,2006a).Generally,therearefourbasicstepstoanytypeoflifecycleassessment.Adifferent
interpretationofthesestepsthanthatshowninFigurePR3.2isshowninFigureMR1.3fromSETAC.Definitionof
thegoalandscope(theboundariesandextentofthestudy)willalwaystakeplaceforeveryLCAproject,andthe
variationinmethodologywillresultfromtheinitialchoicesmadeinthisinitial.InventoryAnalysis,thesecondstep,
willtakeplaceasoneofthreegeneraltypesasnotedinPR3.Thesearebriefly:
ProcessBasedLCA(alsoISOLCA)
EconomicInputOutputLCA(EIOLCA)
HybridLCA(alsoHybridEIOLCA)
Eachoftheseapproacheswillproducedifferentresultsfortheinventoryanalysisandingeneralcannotbe
comparedcrossplatformbecausetheprocessesconsideredandsystemboundarieswillvarywidely.

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Greenroads Manual v1.5

FigureMR1.3:TheframeworkforLifeCycleAssessment(Consoli,1993)

ThefinaltwostepsoftheLCAaretheimpactassessmentandinterpretationoftheresults.Theimpactassessment
stepinvolvesanassignmentorapplicationofsubjectivevalues,whereinparticularindicatorsormetricsarechosen
toweightheresultsoftheinventoryanalysisaccordingtothosesubjectivevalues.Thesevaluesalsoneedtobe
explicitlydefinedinthegoalandscopeinordertoproduceameaningfulresultforinterpretation.Duetothe
iterativenatureofLCAs,however,itismorepracticaltostatethattheinterpretationstepreallyhappens
throughouttheentireLCAprocess,andoftenresultsinrefiningthescopewhendataiscollectedandanalyzedin
theinventoryanalysis.

ChoosingtheLCAModel
Aprocessbasedlifecycleassessmentisonethatisconducted(usually)accordingtothestandardssetbythe
InternationalStandardsOrganization(ISO)lifecycleassessmentstandards,ISO14040andISO14044(2006a,2006b).
TheISOclearlyoutlinesthestepsanditerativeprocessbehindatechnicalLCAinbothofthosestandards.Thebasic
ideaofaprocessbasedLCAisthateverythingismadeofasumofdifferentparts.Thosepartsarealsoresultsof
differentprocesses.Fundamentally,everypartandprocessneedsmaterialsandenergy(e.g.makes)inorderto
fittogetherintoawhole(e.g.takes).
Forasimpleexample,makingonetonoftheproductcalledhotmixasphalt(HMA)isactuallytheresultof
takingtwomaterials,asphaltbinderandaggregate,throughaprocessthatmakesHMA,mixing.Sothe
processesthatthattheHMAproductactuallytakesare:asphaltbinderproduction(material),aggregate
production(material),andHMAmixing(aprocess).
Thesethreeprocessescouldbefurtherbrokendownintoevenmorespecificprocesses,calledunitprocesses.
Forexample,HMAmixingiscomposedofheating,drumplantoperating,andfuelcombustionforheating,
etc.Themodel,andalsothedatacollectionrequirement,expandsastheprocessesgetmorespecific.Similarly,
eachoftheseprocessestakemorethanjustasphaltandaggregatetomakeHMA:theyalsorequireenergyfrom
electricity,capitalequipmentandworkers,whoalsoneedfoodandhousing,healthcare,acartodrivetowork,and
soon.Iftheprocessbasedmodelwerecontinuedandscaleduptoincludesuchinformation,itwouldbecome
incrediblycomplexanddifficult.Clearly,thescope,systemboundariesandpurposeoftheLCAarekeyissues.
ThisscopingissueissomewhatalleviatedbyEconomicInputOutputLCA(EIOLCA)models.EIOLCAusesabasisof
economicinputoutput(EIO)analysistomodelhowsectorbasednationalindustriesinteractandhowproductsare
intertwined.LCAwaseasilycombinedwithEIOdatabecausethecomputationalstructurewassimilartotheEIO

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approach.EIOLCAusesonlypubliclyavailableinformationtodetermineeconomywide,systemlevelresults
insteadofprocessspecificresults(Hendricksonetal.,1998).ThismeansthatEIOLCAaggregatessectorlevelof
datatoquantifytheenvironmentalimpactcontributeddirectlyorindirectlybyeachsectoroftheeconomy.Itis
typicallybasedonmonetaryinputsinsteadofdimensionsormassandoutputsahandfulofcommon
environmentalimpacts,dependingontheindexselected.ThismethodwillnotearnGreenroadscredit.
HybridLCAisacombinationofprocessbasedandEIObasedLCA(Bilecetal.,2006),effectivelyeliminatingmostof
thedisadvantagesofeithermodelasidefrombuiltinuncertaintiesindata.EIOdataareusuallyusedforcommon
productsorprocesses,whileothersaredescribedbytheprocessbasedmethod.HybridLCAcanbefurther
categorizedintofollowingtypes:tieredhybridanalysis,inputoutputbasedhybridanalysis,integratedhybrid
analysis,andaugmentedprocessbasedhybridanalysis(Suh,2004;Bilecetal.,2006).Thesetypesdifferin
technicaldetailssuchashowdataisallocatedoraggregated,wherethespecificboundariesaredrawnbetween
processandEIOanalysis,andgeneraldataprocessingtechniques.
StreamlinedLCAisaproposedmethodofminimizingdatacollectioneffortsatthestartofaLCAprojectbyscoping
outparticularprocessesthrougheducatedassumptions(mostofthetime).Thisinevitablyleadstoatechnically
nonISOconformantframework,becausevaluationisappliedatthestart,beforedatahasbeencollectedand
analyzed.Curranetal.(1996)notethatstreamliningisreallypartofacontinuumthatfallssomewherebetween
thelevelofdetailforanISOLCAandanEIOLCA,andalsotechnicallyallLCAsarestreamlinedtosomeextentdue
totheiriterativenature.
AcomparisonoftheadvantagesanddisadvantagesofthecommontypesofLCAareshowninTableMR1.5.
Ultimatelyitisuptotheprojectteamtodeterminewhichmethodwillbemostappropriate.
TableMR1.5:ProcessBasedLCAandEIOLCA(ExpandedfromHendrickson,Lave&Matthews,2006)
LCAMethod
ProcessBased
LCA(ISOLCA)
(ISO,2006a;ISO
2006b)

Advantages

Detailed,processspecificresults

Allowsforspecificproductcomparisons
Identifiesareasinsupplychainfor
improvement(weakestlinks,orlackofdata)
Providesabasisforprocessspecific
informationthatmaybeusedforother
developmentprocessesandassessments
Canbedonewithpubliclyavailabledata

Resultsareeconomywide,comprehensive
assessments

Allowsforsystemslevelcomparisons

Providesinformationoneverycommodityin
theeconomy
Providesabasisforinformationthatmaybe
usedforotherfuturedevelopmentof
productsandprocessesandassessments
Canbedonewithpubliclyavailabledata

EIOLCA
(Hendricksonetal,
1998;Hendrickson,
Matthews&Lave,
2006)

NOTE:
METHODWILLNOT
EARNTHISCREDIT.
DONOTUSE.

MR-1

Disadvantages

Lifecycle Assessment

Systemboundariesaresubjective(or
projectspecific)
Maybehighcostandtimeintensive
Hardtousewheninitiallydevelopinga
processorproduct
Oftenuseproprietarydata

Cannotbereplicatedifconfidentialdatais
used
Uncertaintyindataormissingdata
Productassessmentscontainaggregate
data(suchasfoodthatfeedsworkersand
thewoodthatmakestheirhousing)
Processassessmentsaredifficult
Mustlinkmonetaryvalueswithphysical
units
Economicimportsaretreatedasproducts
createdwithineconomic(region,stateor
country)boundaries
Lackofcompletedataforenvironmental
effects
Difficulttoapplytoanopeneconomy
(withsubstantialnoncomparableimports)
Uncertaintyindata

Materials & Resources

LCAMethod
TieredHybridLCA
(Suh&Huppes,
2005)

HybridEIO
(Treloar,1997;Joshi,
2000;Crawford,
2008)

Greenroads Manual v1.5

Advantages

CombinesprocessandEIOdatatoproduce
morerepresentativeresult

Doublecountingerrorsmaybepresentin
results

Facilitatesinventoryanalysis

Mayomitimportantprocesses

Reducesdatacollectiontime

Doesnotalwaysmodelinteraction
betweenprocessandIOdata
appropriately

Incorporatessomedisadvantagesfrom
bothISOandEIOmodels
Requiresiteration

Incorporatessomedisadvantagesfrom
bothISOandEIOmodels
Computationallycomplex

IncorporatesadvantagesfrombothISOand
EIOmodels
CombinesprocessandEIOdatatoproduce
morerepresentativeresult
DisaggregatesIOkeysectorsandsubstitutes
detailedeconomicinformation
IncorporatesadvantagesfrombothISOand
EIOmodels
Useanddisposalphasesareaddressed
manuallyinsteadofbysector
Fillsprocessdatagapswherepreviouslyno
informationexisted
CombinesprocessandEIOdatatoproduce
morerepresentativeresult
IncorporatesadvantagesfrombothISOand
EIOmodels
ConnectsprocessandEIOmodelsinmatrix

Difficulttolearn

Eliminatesneedfortieredanalysis

Dataintensive

Timeintensive

Addressesinteractionsbetweensectorand
processdata
Consistentcomputationalframework

Nodoublecounting

Startswithprocessdataandsystemand
scalesup
Useseconomyasultimatesystemboundary

Usesmostlyprocessdata

Maysavemoney

Maysavetime

Requiresreasonabledatamanagement
efforts

Processesassignedsignificanceearlyin
scopingandalignwithgoalsofstudy

Providesfocusedassessment

IntegratedHybrid
(Suh,2004;Bilecet
al.,2006)

AugmentedProcess
BasedHybrid
(Guggemos,2003;
Guggemos&
Horvath,2005)
StreamlinedLCA
(Curranetal.,1996;
Weitzetal.,1999)

Disadvantages

Incorporatessomedisadvantagesfrom
bothISOandEIOmodels
SubstitutionofIOdataformissing
processesmayreducemodelreliability

Incorporatessomedisadvantagesfrom
bothISOandEIOmodels

Excludesupstreamand/ordownstream
processes
Limitsrawmaterialinputconsiderations
Resultsmaybemoresubjectivedueto
weightingassignedearly(byscopingout
processesordatarequirements)
Mayignoreimportantimpacts
unintentionally
Mayresultinreportingincompleteresults
topublic

AdditionalNotesonLCIA:FREDFramework
EquivalencyfactorsforimpactclassificationandcharacterizationforthisGreenroadscreditareprovidedbythe
EnvironmentalProtectionAgencys(EPA)FrameworkforResponsibleEnvironmentalDecisionMaking(FRED)(EPA,
2000).Thefactorsaresubdividedintoeightcategoriesandthreegeneraltypesofflowsareinvestigated:(1)
emissionstoair,(2)emissionstowater,and(3)resourcedepletion(includesrawmaterials,fuels,waterandland).
Werecognizethatthereareanumberofmetrics,indicatorsandindicesavailableforuse;theFREDframeworkis

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flexible,broadlyapplicable,comprehensive,anddocumentedrespectably.Currentlythisisthemosttransparent
andflexibletoolthatispubliclyavailableforimpactassessment.
FREDisbasedonavarietyofdifferentindicatortoolsormetricsthathavebeendevelopedbydifferent
institutions,andreflectglobalaveragesorindicators.However,documentationforsomeoftheindicatorsusedin
thetoolhasnotbeenupdated,likelyduetolackoffunding.Theusermayconsultthoseindividualsourcesinorder
tocheckforupdates,determineapplicability,orsubstituteregionalandlocalindicatorvalueswhereappropriate
(EPA,2000).ThedesignersofFREDconsiderimpactmodelselectiontobeaniterativeprocess.Asthescienceand
thedatasupportingthescience[develop],newer,moreenvironmentallyrelevantmodelswillgraduallyreplacethe
currentmodels(EPA,2000).SomeotherlimitationsoftheFREDtoolareprovidedexplicitlyinthe
documentation.Notably,anydatauncertaintiesintheestablishedequivalencyfactorsthatareusedwithinthe
toolitselfareinherentissues.Also,FREDdoesnotincludeanysocialoreconomicimpacts.
GreenroadshasprovidedsomesuggestedresourcestouseinplaceofthoselistedintheFREDdocumentation.
Eithermaybeusedinsupportofthiscredit(theprocessiswhatwearelookingforhere),butreferencesforthe
selectedindicatormustbecitedtoearnthiscredit.TableMR1.6(nextpage)liststheFREDimpactcategorieswith
sometypicalexamplesthatwouldbefoundinanLCIandusedintheimpactassessment.Notethatthisisonlya
sample,andthattheFREDdocumentationprovidesanumberofchemicalcompoundstotrack.
NotethatideallyFREDisdesignedtocomparetwoormoreproductsthathavethesamefunctionalunit.Theutility
ofcompletinganimpactassessmentforjustonesingleprojectisthatthereisnotnecessarilyanyestablished
industryaverageintermsofenvironmentalperformancethatcanbeusedforcomparisonofpavements.This
creditaimstohelpdevelopthisinformationinasystematicwaybyusingtheframeworkprovidedforimpact
assessmentbytheEPAsFREDtool.Resultsoftheimpactassessmentmaythereforenotbesuitableforevaluative
purposes(EPA,2000),however,thisdoesnotmeanthattwodifferentdesignalternativesshouldnotbecompared
usingLCA.ForreportingpurposesinthisGreenroadscredit,wejustwanttoknowaboutthefinaldesign
alternative.
OtherLCIATools
AnotherEPAtool,theToolsforReductionandAssessmentofChemicalandOtherReleases(TRACI),isno
longeravailablefromtheEPA.Asofthiswriting,weunderstandthatthistooliscurrentlybeingupdated.
(EPA,2008).
Commonlyusedproprietarysoftwaretoolsmayhavebuiltinimpactassessmentindicators,suchasGaBi
andSimaPro.Thesetoolsoftenreportasinglevalueforallimpacts(anindex)thatdoesnotnecessarily
disaggregatecontributionstothatindexfromeachimpactorprocess,andmaynotbeappropriateforuse
inthiscreditbecausetheweightingcanlacktransparency.
OthertoolsforimpactassessmentareavailablethroughtheNationalInstituteofScienceandTechnology
(NIST),suchastheBEES(BuildingorEnvironmentalandEconomicSustainability)tool.ThecaveatwithBEES
isthatitismostlyusedinthebuildingindustry,sovaluationandweightingsystemsusedbyNISTimpact
assessmenttoolsmaynotbeadequateforweightingimpactsofpavementorinfrastructureprojects
withoutfurtheradjustmentandreview.Also,thissoftwaretoolgeneratesonlyoneindexasascore
insteadofreportingdisaggregatedimpacts.

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TableMR1.6:FREDImpactCategoriesandIndicatorModelsfortheFREDLCASystem(EPA,2000)
Impact
ImpactIndicator
Indicator*
ExampleLCIData
GreenroadsComment
Category
Model/Source
NeededforModel
Global
Carbondioxide
Recommendusingupdated
Intergovernmental CO2e(kg)
Warming
(CO2)
equivalencyfactorsfromIPCC2007
PanelonClimate
Nitrousoxide(N2O) FAR(Solomonet.al.),especiallyfor
Potential
Change(IPCC)
Methane(CH4)
CH4,N2O.Othersarelessprevalent
Halons
inroads/paving.
Stratospheric
World
CFC11e
Methylbromide
Recommendusingupdatedindicator
Ozone
Meterological
Chlorofluorocarbons forequivalencyfactors:Effective
Depletion
Organization
(CFCs)
EquivalentStratosphericChlorine
(WMO)
Hydrofluorocarbons concentration(EECl,EESC).SeeEPAs
(HCFCs)
2006AirQualityCriteriaforOzone

andOtherPhotochemicalOxidants
Acidification
Chemical
Acidification Ammonia
Equivalents
Potential
Nitricoxide
(AP)
Nitrogendioxide
Sulfurdioxide
Photochemical EmpiricalKinetic
Maximum
Acetone
RecommendusingaboxorEulerian
Smog
Modeling
Incremental CarbonMonoxide
modelandMIRvaluesfromCarter
Approach(EKMA) Reactivity
Formaldehyde
(2009)withbinnedreactivitiesbased
(MIR)
Alkanes
uponnalkane,isoalkane,cyclo
Aromatics(VOCs)
alkane,aromaticsandnapthalenes.
Napthalenes
SeealsoLeukenandMebust(2008).
Eutrophication RedfieldRatio
PO4e(kg)
Phosphates
Nitricoxide
Nitrates
Ammonia
HumanHealth Universityof
Benzene
Toxicchemicals
Recommendusingcurrentdatafrom
California,
TEP(cancer)
theEnvironmentalDefenseFund
Berkeley(UCB)
TouleneTEP
(EDF)ScorecardandUCBTEPsas
TEPs
(non
showninFREDdocumentation.See
cancer)
alsoMcKoneandHertwich(2001)
andHertwichetal.(2006)
Ecological
Toxicity

ResearchTriangle N/A
Institute(RTI)LCIA
Expert(Version1)

Toxicchemicals

Resource
Depletion

LifeCycleStressor
Environmental
Assessment
(LCSEA)Modelby
Scientific
Certification
Systems

Various

Mass,
volume
(water)or
landarea

RecommendRTImodelanddata
fromEPAsECOTOXdatabaseto
determinespecificweightingas
showninFREDdocumentation(EPA,
2000;2010)
Recommendusingcomputed
resourcedepletionequivalency
factorsusingupdatedSCS0022008
(Draft)asshowninFREDdocument
(EPA,2000;SCS,2008)

DataQuality
ThemostimportantstepintheinterpretationphaseoftheLCAistheidentificationofthedataqualityand
statementofuncertainties.QualityofdatausedinanLCAcanbeevaluatedduringtheinterpretationstageofthe
LCAusingdataqualityscores.Forthiscredit,eachpieceofdatashouldberatedwithnumbers1to5andscored
accordingtothecriteriasetforwardbytheUniversityofWashingtonDesignforEnvironmentLab(Collegeof

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Engineering,DepartmentofMechanicalEngineering,underthedirectionofDr.JoyceCooper),basedon
ISO14040:2006requirements.ThescoringisshowninTableMR1.7.
TableMR1.7:Dataqualityscores(DQS)bytheUniversityofWashingtonDepartmentOfMechanical
EngineeringDesignforEnvironmentLab(Cooperetal.,n.d.)
Score
ID

ISO14040Data
QualityIndicators

Supporting
Information

ScoringMethod

DQS1

TimeRelated
CoverageData(i.e.
dataage)

Startdateofvalid
timespan

Deviationfromintendedperiod(differenceinyearstoyearof
study)
1. Lessthan3years
2. Lessthan6years
3. Lessthan10years
4. Lessthan15years
5. Ageofdataunknownormorethan15years

Enddateofvalid
timespan

DQS2

Geographical
Coverage

Areaandcountry
names

Deviationfromintendedarea
1. Datafromstudyarea
2. Averagedatafromlargerareawhichincludesstudyarea
3. Datafromareaundersimilarproductionconditions
4. Datafromareawithslightlysimilarproductionconditions
5. Datafromunknownareaorareawithdifferent
productionconditions

DQS3

Technology
Coverage

Technology
description

Deviationfromintendedtechnology
1. Datafromenterprises,processesandmaterialsunder
study
2. Datafromprocessesandmaterialsunderstudybut
differententerprises
3. Datafromprocessesandmaterialsunderstudybut
differenttechnology
4. Dataonrelatedprocessandmaterialsbutsame
technology
5. Dataonrelatedprocessandmaterialsbutdifferent
technology

Includedprocesses
Extrapolations

DQS4

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Precision,
completeness,and
representativeness
ofthedata

Samplingprocedure Representativenessforintendedprocess
1. Veryhigh(datarepresentallaspectsofsystemunder
Numberofsamples
study)
2. High(datarepresentamajoritysubsetofthesystem
Absolutesample
understudy)
volume
3. Moderate(datarepresentaminoritysubsetofthesystem
Relativesample
understudy)
volume
4. Low(datarepresentanexampleofthesystemunder
study)
Extrapolations
5. Veryloworunknown(theextenttowhichthedata
Uncertainty
representsthestudyisunknown)
adjustments

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Greenroads Manual v1.5

Score
ID

ISO14040Data
QualityIndicators

Supporting
Information

ScoringMethod

DQS5

Consistencyand
reproducibilityof
themethodsused
throughouttheLCA

Descriptionof
1. Veryhigh(dataarebasedondirectmeasurementsusinga
methodfordata
widelyacceptedtestmethodoronsoundengineering
collectionanddata
modelsrepresentingthecurrenttechnologyandhave
treatment
beenextensivelypeerreviewed.Also,thesourceprovides
atransparentaccountoftheassumptionsmade.)
2. High(althoughthedataarebasedonagenerallysound
testmethodormodelandthesourceprovidesa
transparentaccountoftheassumptionsmade,thedata
aredatedorlackenoughdetailforadequatevalidationor
havenotbeenextensivelypeerreviewed)
3. Moderate(dataarebasedonanunprovenornew
methodologyorarelackingasignificantamountof
backgroundinformation)
4. Low(dataarebasedonagenerallyunacceptablemethod,
butthemethodmayprovideanorderofmagnitudeflow)
5. Veryloworunknown(dataarebasedonanunknown
method,butthemethodmayprovideanorderof
magnitudevalueoftheflow)

DQS6

Sourcesandtheir
representativeness

Referencesusedfor Typeofreference
datacollectionand 1. Datafromreviewedsource
datatreatment
2. Datafrompublicwrittensource(notreviewed)
3. Datafromclosedwrittensource(notreviewed)
4. Othersources
5. Unknownsource

DQS7

Uncertaintyofthe
information

Meanvalue
Standarddeviation
Uncertaintytype
Descriptionof
strengthsand
weaknesses(e.g.
occurrenceofdata
gaps)

Coefficientofvariance
1. Below10%
2. 1025%
3. 2550%
4. 50100%
5. Over100%orunknown

GLOSSARY
CO2
CO2e
e
EIO
EIOLCA
EOL
Functionalunit
HybridLCA
ISO

Carbondioxide
Carbondioxideequivalentemission
Equivalent
EconomicInputOutput
EconomicInputOutputforLifeCycleAssessment
Endoflife
Thequantifiedperformanceofaproductsystemforuseasareferenceunit
(ISO,2006a)
AtypeofLCAthatcombinesbothprocessbasedandeconomicinputoutput
models
InternationalStandardsOrganization

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ISOLCA
LCA
LCCA
LCI
LCIA
Lifecycle

Lifecycleassessment

ProcessbasedLCA
Referenceflow

SETAC
StreamlinedLCA

Systemboundary
Unitprocess

Materials & Resources

ProcessbasedLCA
Lifecycleassessment
Lifecyclecostanalysis
Lifecycleinventoryanalysis
Lifecycleimpactassessment
consecutiveandinterlinkedstagesofaproduct[orproject]system,fromraw
materialacquisitionorgenerationfromnaturalresourcestofinaldisposalor
[endoflife:EOL](ISO,2006a)
Compilationandevaluationoftheinputs,outputsandthepotential
environmentalimpactsofaproductsystemthroughoutitslifecycle(ISO,
2006a)
AnLCAconductedaccordingtoISOStandard14040
Themeasureoftheoutputsfromprocessesinagivenproductsystem
requiredtofulfil[sic]thefunctionexpressedbythefunctionalunit(ISO,
2006a)
SocietyofEnviornmentalToxicologyandChemistry
IdentificationofelementsofanLCAthatcanbeomittedorwheresurrogate
orgenericdatacanbeusedwithoutsignificantlyaffectingtheaccuracyofthe
results(Weitzetal.,1999)
Setofcriteriadefiningwhichunitprocessesarepartofasystem(ISO,2006a)
Smallestunitconsideredinthelifecycleinventoryanalysisforwhichinput
andoutputdataarequantified(ISO,2006a)

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