Chapter II

Literature Review
1. Health
1.1 Definiton
Health is defined in the World Health Organisations Constituation as a
state of complete physical. Social and mental well-being, and not marely
the absence of disease or infirmity. Thus health is a positive concept
emphasising social and personal resources as well as physical
capabilities.
A health person therefore needs to maintain healthy habits such as taking
regular exercises and adequate rest, adopting a high level of personal
hygiene, eating a nutritionally balanced diet, abstaining from the abuse of
drugs and alcohol, taking care of ones mental well-being and developing
social skills to interact in a positive manner within society. To be healthy
is to be in a state of homeostatis (balance) with ones surroundings. To
avail one self to the advances of medical treatments and preventive
measures such as immunizations further booster ones health.
To achieve a healthy society, remember that a healthy person has a duty to
the health of his fellow beings, his surroundings and the environment he
lives in.
1.2 Factor that related to health
I.

Inherent factors

Age elderly persons and the very young ae more prone to be more
severally effective when sick as a result of their reduced imunnity , e.g.

yearly influenza vaccines are advised for the elderly yearly.

Ethnic origin certain ethnic groups are more at risk of developing
some illness. Probably as aresult of their a genetic make up, the
environment they live in or the rituals they practice , e.g.
nasopharyngeal cancer (NPC) is more common in souththern Chinese

especially among the fishing community. This is thought to be partly

due to the addition of salted fish to congee fed to their young.
Also chinesee non smoking females have the high risk of lung cancer ,
which is thought to be related to the exposure to mutagens in pumes

from oils use in wok cooking.

Genetic make up / inherited in families with a history of breast
cancer , certain gens could be inherited , which my result in an

increased risk for the condition.

Sex Certain conditions, e.g. seg linked recessive inherited
haemophilia, in which a coagulation factor 8 is missing resulting in
easy bleeding, occur only in males. The females of the family may or
may not be carries of the disease. Queen Victoria and her descendents
are well known to have been affiliated whit this genetically inherited
condition.

II.

Outside factors

Sosial class- the affluents suffer from diseases of plenty . A diet high
in fat is thought to be contributory to breast cancer which tends to
occurs in woman of the higher socieconomin class . On the other
hand,children and social classes 4 and 5 have been found to have an

increased morbidity and morality.

Occupation- occupation may be associated with certain diseases ,e.g.

lung cancer in asbestos workers.

Education- education helps to inform and guide choices.Choosing a

healthy lifestyle helps prevent diseases.

Nutrition- Both over and under-nutrition(malnutrition) are unhealthy

for the body

Habits- Habits such as smoking and excessive drinking may lead to

lung and liver cancer.

Habitat- Where one lives matters. A large scale comprehensive study
in 1966 conduted by the chinesse university of hongkong found that
the number of local asthmatic children doubles that of Beijing and
Guangzhou . High risk factors include home smoking,maternal

smoking ,use of synthetic pillow and bedding and the use of gas as

cooking fuel.
Environment- WHO estimates that every year over 5 miliion people
die of illnesses linked to unsafe drinking water ,improper excreta
disposal and unclean domestic environment.

2. Disease
2.1 Definiton
A disease is an abnormal condition affecting the body of an organism. It is
often construed to be a medical condition associated with specific
symptoms and signs.[1] It may be caused by external factors, such as
infectious disease, or it may be caused by internal dysfunctions, such as
autoimmune diseases. In humans, "disease" is often used more broadly to
refer to any condition that causes pain, dysfunction, distress, social
problems, or death to the person afflicted, or similar problems for those in
contact with the person. In this broader sense, it sometimes includes
injuries, disabilities, disorders, syndromes, infections, isolated symptoms,
deviant behaviors, and atypical variations of structure and function, while
in other contexts and for other purposes these may be considered
distinguishable categories. Diseases usually affect people not only
physically, but also emotionally, as contracting and living with many
diseases can alter one's perspective on life, and their personality.
2.2 Intrinsic determinants of disesase

Disease agents as determinants of disease

o "Living" agents, such as viruses, bacteria, rickettsia, protozoa,
helminths, arthropods etc.
o Non-living" agents, such as heat and cold, water, nutrients, toxic
substances etc.

Host determinants

o Species susceptibilities and natural reservoirs

o Breed susceptibilities
o Age susceptibilities
o Sex associations in disease
2.3 Extrinsic determinants of disease
Climate
o

Macroclimates
A large number of different factors combine to make up the microclimate.
Some of these factors (heat, cold, rainfall, wind, humidity etc) can act as

disease agents in their own right, either individually or in combinations.

Microclimates
While macroclimates can have a direct effect on microclimates, the study of
macroclimates alone can frequently be misleading in achieving an
understanding of the epidemiology of a disease. Regions where existing
macroclimatic conditions might be thought unsuitable for the transmission of
a disease may, in fact, contain limited areas where the microclimatic
conditions are suitable for the survival of the disease agent and its vector or
intermediate host. (An example may be a water hole or an irrigated pasture in
an arid environment). Such areas often provide enhanced conditions for
disease transmission, since they may prove attractive to livestock,
particularly at those times of the year when the macroclimate is at its most
severe. If the host and the agent (and the vector or intermediate host, if they
exist) are in close contact, the transmission of disease can be effected rapidly
and easily.

Soils
By interacting with climate, soils determine vegetation and the environment in
which the livestock are kept. The main effect of vegetation is on nutrition. Soils
therefore act indirectly as determinants of disease by causing starvation, if there
is little or no vegetation, or nutritiorial imbalances such as protein, energy,
vitamin or mineral deficiencies. Malnutrition can be the direct cause of disease,
or it can stress the host and thus increase its susceptibility to infection and disease

from other sources. Soils can also have an effect on the ability of the agent to
survive in the environment, through such factors as waterlogging, pH etc.

Man
Man is often able to create favourable, artificial microclimates for livestock
rearing by providing such inputs as housing, water supplies, irrigation etc.
Unfortunately, this often results in the creation of conditions favourable for the
survival of disease agents and their intermediate hosts or vectors. This means
that, by altering the environment, man can alter the determinants of the diseases
present in that environment. The changes in determinants will favour some
diseases and be detrimental to others. Thus changes in systems and methods of
production will result in changes in the relative importance of the diseases
present, with perhaps some new diseases being introduced and others
disappearing. The epidemiologist should be alert to such changes and should
attempt to predict the likely effect that these will have on the overall disease
picture, so that potentially dangerous situations can be averted or controlled.

3. Environmental Exposure

3.1 Concerns About Reproductive Health Effects

Over the past several decades, awareness has been growing regarding the
reproductive health effects of exposures to certain chemicals. Scientists,
clinicians, and patients have concerns about a number of recently identified
trends in fertility and reproduction (see Figure 1). Some of these trends are
localized to specific geographic locations; others are more widespread.
Given the history of the slow response to emerging data on toxicants, many
scientists, clinicians, and advocates are concerned that delays in addressing
exposures will occur again.14 Experience has demonstrated that waiting until
firm proof is available can cause significant time lags between the point
where there is knowledge of a link between health outcomes and exposure to
an environmental toxicant and the time when regulatory action is taken or
clear guidance provided. In the past, serious steps to prevent and mitigate

some environmental threats to public health were taken only after decades of
data were collectedand thousands of lives affected. For example, physicians
did not counsel patients to avoid tobacco exposure until several decades after
there were clear scientific data on the health effects of smoking. Lead,
mercury, and asbestos are other examples of this unfortunate lesson. For this
reason, many experts are fostering more widespread adoption of a
precautionary, or preventive, approach.
As early as the 1970s scientists developed the concept of the precautionary
principle, which states, When an activity raises threats of harm to human
health or the environment, precautionary measures should be taken even if
some cause-and-effect relationships are not fully established scientifically. 15
This principle provides a general approach to guide policy-making, patient
counseling, and personal decision-making about environmental exposures. On
the basis of currently available evidence, providers can take a precautionary
approach and recommend actions to avoid exposures.
3.2 Impact Envonmental exposure on Reproductive Health
Reproductive toxicants may contribute to a spectrum of adverse effects on
reproductive health. These effects include menstrual irregularities, early or
delayed puberty, infertility, subfertility, early pregnancy loss, fetal death,
impaired fetal growth, low birthweight, premature birth, and structural (e.g.,
cardiac defect) or functional (e.g., learning disability) birth defects.16,17 The
impact of exposure to a reproductive toxicant may not be immediately
evident. Instead, the effects may emerge at key life transitions: for example,
when attempting conception, during pregnancy, during development of the
embryo or fetus, in the newborn, and during the offsprings childhood,
puberty, and eventual fertility as an adult.18 For this reason, it is important to
be aware of the potential effects of a substance over a long period of time,
rather than only during the period immediately after exposure.
3.3 Timing of Exposure

The timing of exposure is another factor that strongly influences the ultimate
biological effect of exposure to environmental toxicants. Although exposure to
these substances can affect individuals at all stages of life, exposure during
critical windows of susceptibility may have more significance. These
windows vary somewhat depending on the particular toxicant and include
periods during gestation, childhood, adolescence, and adulthood. Because
these windows of susceptibility include very early pregnancy, clinicians
should counsel women about exposures throughout their reproductive lives.
3.4 Mechanisms of Environmental Exposure Effects
Some chemicals have direct toxic effects on the reproductive system.
Endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) can exert effects on hormoneproducing glands, such as the thyroid or pituitary, which in turn affect
reproductive health. EDCs also may have direct effects on the reproductive
system.
Toxicants can exert negative reproductive effects through several mechanisms,
as shown in Figure 4.21 Some chemicals kill or damage cells. If these cells are
oocytes or sperm cells, exposure to the chemicals can result in infertility. If
they are other types of cells, developmental problems can occur. For example,
the anti-seizure drug phenytoin causes birth defects by disrupting normal
embryonic and fetal development without causing mutations in DNA.16,22
Other chemicals alter the structure of DNA, causing gene mutations.21
Depending on the genes affected, mutations can result in an inability to
conceive or in birth defects in the offspring. Some chemotherapeutic agents
cause DNA mutations. Some industrial chemicals, such as benzene, also are
mutagenic. Finally, some chemicals, such as diethylstilbestrol (DES), cause an
epigenetic effect: they change the way in which genes are expressed, which
can affect reproductive outcomes.

4. Toxicity
4.1 Description
Toxicity is a general term used to indicate adverse effects produced by
poisons. These adverse effects can range from slight symptoms like headaches
or nausea, to severe symptoms like coma and convulsions and death.
Toxicity is normally divided into four types, based on the number of
exposures to a poison and the time it takes for toxic symptoms to develop. The
two types most often referred to are acute and chronic. Acute toxicity is due to
short-term exposure and happens within a relatively short period of time,
whereas chronic toxicity is due to long-term exposure and happens over a
longer period.
Most toxic effects are reversible and do not cause permanent damage, but
complete recovery may take a long time. However, some poisons cause
irreversible (permanent) damage. Poisons can affect just one particular organ
system or they may produce generalized toxicity by affecting a number of
systems. Usually the type of toxicity is subdivided into categories based on
the major organ systems affected. Some of these are listed in table 1.
Individual Toxicological Information Briefs (TIBs) are available which more

fully explain skin and reproductive toxicities. Another is available which

covers the formation of tumors and cancer.
Because the body only has a certain number of responses to chemical and
biological stressors, it is a complicated business sorting out the signs and
symptoms and determining the actual cause of human disease or illness. In
many cases, it is impossible to determine whether an illness was caused by
chemical exposure or by a biological agent (like a flu virus). A history of
exposure to a chemical is one important clue in helping to establish the cause
of illness, but such a history does not constitute conclusive evidence that the
chemical was the cause. To establish this cause/effect relationship, it is
important that the chemical be detected in the body (such as in the blood
stream), at levels known to cause illness. If the chemical produces a specific
and easily detected biochemical effect (like the inhibition of the enzyme
acetylcholinesterase), the resulting biochemical change in the body may be
used as conclusive evidence.
People who handle chemicals frequently in the course of their jobs and
become ill and need medical attention should tell their physicians about their
previous exposure to chemicals

Category
Respiratory

Table 1. General toxicity categories

System affected
Common symptoms
nose, trachea,
irritation, coughing, choking, tight chest

lungs
gastrointestinal stomach,

nausea, vomiting, diarrhea

Renal
neurological

intestines
Kidney
brain, spinal

back pain, urinating more or less than usual

headache, dizziness, behavior confusion,

hematological
dermatological
reproductive

cord
Blood
skin, eyes
ovaries, testes,

depression, coma, convulsions

anemia (tiredness, weakness)
rashes, itching, redness, swelling
infertility, miscarriage

fetus

5. Pollutans
5.1 Definiton
A pollutant is a waste material that pollutes air, water or soil. Three
factors determine the severity of a pollutant: its chemical nature, the
concentration and the persistence. Some pollutants are biodegradable and
therefore will not persist in the environment in the long term
5.2 Types of Pollutans
Stock pollutants
Pollutants that the environment has little or no absorptive capacity are
called stock pollutants (eg. persistent synthetic chemicals, nonbiodegradable plastics, and heavy metals). Stock pollutants accumulate in
the environment over time. The damage they cause increases as more
pollutant is emitted, and persists as the pollutant accumulates. Stock
pollutants can create a burdon for future generations by passing on
damage that persists well after the benefits received from incurring that
damage have been forgotten.
Fund pollutants
Fund pollutants are those for which the environment has some absorptive
capacity. Fund pollutants do not accumulate in the environment unless the
emission rate exceeds the receiving environment's absorptive capacity (eg.
carbon dioxide, which is absorbed by plants and oceans). Fund pollutants
are not destroyed, but rather converted into less harmful substances, or
diluted/dispersed to non-harmful concentrations.
5.3 Pollutans in food

Pollutants found in food can be toxic chemicals or biological contaminants

that are not naturally found in food. Food pollutants can cause illness
ranging from moderate to severe. Development of health problems such as
cancer, hormonal problems and problems with metabolism may occur and
in some cases can result in death.

6. Plastic as pollutans on human body

6.1 Definition of Plastic
plastic, polymeric material that has the capability of being molded or
shaped, usually by the application of heat and pressure. This property of
plasticity, often found in combination with other special properties such as
low density, low electrical conductivity, transparency, and toughness,
allows plastics to be made into a great variety of products. These include
tough and lightweight beverage bottles made of polyethylene terephthalate
(PET), flexible garden hoses made of polyvinyl chloride (PVC), insulating
food containers made of foamed polystyrene, and shatterproof windows
made of polymethyl methacrylate.
In this article a brief review of the essential properties of plastics is
provided, followed by a more detailed description of their processing into
useful products and subsequent recycling
6.2 Plastic as Materials
Plastics are inexpensive, lightweight, strong, durable, corrosion-resistant
materials, with high thermal and electrical insulation properties. The
diversity of polymers and the versatility of their properties are used to
make a vast array of products that bring medical and technological
advances, energy savings and numerous other societal benefits (Andrady
& Neal 2009). As a consequence, the production of plastics has increased
substantially over the last 60 years from around 0.5 million tonnes in 1950
to over 260 million tonnes today. In Europe alone the plastics industry has

a turnover in excess of 300 million euros and employs 1.6 million people
(Plastics Europe 2008). Almost all aspects of daily life involve plastics, in
transport, telecommunications, clothing, footwear and as packaging
materials that facilitate the transport of a wide range of food, drink and
other goods. There is considerable potential for new applications of
plastics that will bring benefits in the future, for example as novel medical
applications, in the generation of renewable energy and by reducing
energy used in transport (Andrady & Neal 2009).
Virgin plastic polymers are rarely used by themselves and typically the
polymer resins are mixed with various additives to improve performance.
These additives include inorganic fillers such as carbon and silica that
reinforce the material, plasticizers to render the material pliable, thermal
and ultraviolet stabilizers, flame retardants and colourings. Many such
additives are used in substantial quantities and in a wide range of products
(Meeker et al. 2009). Some additive chemicals are potentially toxic (for
example lead and tributyl tin in polyvinyl chloride, PVC), but there is
considerable controversy about the extent to which additives released from
plastic products (such as phthalates and bisphenol A, BPA) have adverse
effects in animal or human populations. The central issue here is relating
the types and quantities of additives present in plastics to uptake and
accumulation by living organisms (Andrady & Neal 2009; Koch & Calafat
2009; Meeker et al. 2009; Oehlmann et al. 2009; Talsness et al. 2009;
Wagner & Oehlmann 2009). Additives of particular concern are phthalate
plasticizers, BPA, brominated flame retardants and anti-microbial agents.
BPA and phthalates are found in many mass produced products including
medical devices, food packaging, perfumes, cosmetics, toys, flooring
materials, computers and CDs and can represent a significant content of
the plastic. For instance, phthalates can constitute a substantial proportion,
by weight, of PVC (Oehlmann et al. 2009), while BPA is the monomer
used for production of polycarbonate plastics as well as an additive used

for production of PVC. Phthalates can leach out of products because they
are not chemically bound to the plastic matrix, and they have attracted
particular attention because of their high production volumes and wide
usage (Wagner & Oehlmann 2009; Talsness et al. 2009). Phthalates and
BPA are detectable in aquatic environments, in dust and, because of their
volatility, in air (Rudel et al. 2001, 2003). There is considerable concern
about the adverse effects of these chemicals on wildlife and humans
(Meeker et al. 2009; Oehlmann et al. 2009). In addition to the reliance on
finite resources for plastic production, and concerns about additive effects
of different chemicals, current patterns of usage are generating global
waste management problems. Barnes et al. (2009) show that plastic
wastes, including packaging, electrical equipment and plastics from endof-life vehicles, are major components of both household and industrial
wastes; our capacity for disposal of waste to landfill is finite and in some
locations landfills are at, or are rapidly approaching, capacity (Defra et al.
2006). So from several perspectives it would seem that our current use and
disposal of plastics is the cause for concern (Barnes et al. 2009; Hopewell
et al. 2009).
6.3 Type of plastic

Plastic marked with an SPI code of 1 is made

with Polyethylene Terephthalate, which is also
known as PETE or PET. Containers made from
this plastic sometimes absorb odors and flavors
from foods and drinks that are stored in them.
Items made from this plastic are commonly
recycled. PETE plastic is used to make many
common household items like beverage
bottles, medicine jars, peanut butter jars,
combs, bean bags, and rope. Recycled PETE is
used to make tote bags, carpet, fiberfill
material in winter clothing, and more.

Plastic marked with an SPI code of 2 is made

with High-Density Polyethylene, or HDPE.
HDPE products are very safe and they are not
known to transmit any chemicals into foods or
drinks. HDPE products are commonly recycled.
Items made from this plastic include containers
for milk, motor oil, shampoos and conditioners,
soap bottles, detergents, and bleaches. Many
personalized toys are made from this plastic as
well. (Please note: it is NEVER safe to reuse an
HDPE bottle as a food or drink container if it
didnt originally contain food or drink!) Recycled
HDPE is used to make plastic crates, plastic
lumber, fencing, and more.

Plastic labeled with an SPI code of 3 is made

with Polyvinyl Chloride, or PVC. PVC is not
often recycled and it can be harmful if
ingested. PVC is used for all kinds of pipes
and tiles, but it's most commonly found in
plumbing pipes. This kind of plastic should not
come in contact with food items. Recycled
PVC is used to make flooring, mobile home
skirting, and more.

Plastic marked with an SPI code of 4 is made

with Low-Density Polyethylene, or LDPE. LDPE
is not commonly recycled, but it is recyclable in
certain areas. It is a very healthy plastic that
tends to be both durable and flexible. Plastic
cling wrap, sandwich bags, squeezable bottles,
and plastic grocery bags are all made from
LDPE. Recycled LDPE is used to make garbage
cans, lumber, furniture, and more.

Plastic marked with an SPI code of 5 is made

with Polypropylene, or PP. PP is not commonly
recycled, but it is accepted in many areas. This
type of plastic is strong and can usually
withstand higher temperatures. Among many
other products, it is used to make plastic diapers,
Tupperware, margarine containers, yogurt boxes,

syrup bottles, prescription bottles, and some

stadium cups. Plastic bottle caps are often made
from PP as well. Recycled PP is used to make ice
scrapers, rakes, battery cables, and more.

Plastic marked with an SPI code of 6 is made

with Polystyrene, also known as PS and most
commonly known as Styrofoam. It is
commonly recycled, but it is difficult to do so
and often ends up in landfills anyway.
Disposable coffee cups, plastic food boxes,
plastic cutlery, packing foam, and packing
peanuts are made from PS. Recycled PS is
used to make insulation, license plate frames,
rulers, and more.

The SPI code of 7 is used to designate

miscellaneous types of plastic that are not
defined by the other six codes. Polycarbonate
and Polylactide are included in this category.
These types of plastics are difficult to recycle.
Polycarbonate, or PC, is used in baby bottles,
large water bottles (multiple-gallon capacity),
compact discs, and medical storage containers.
Recycled plastics in this category are used to
make plastic lumber, among other products.

6.4 The composition, structure, and properties of plastics

Many of the chemical names of the polymers employed as plastics have
become familiar to consumers, although some are better known by their
abbreviations or trade names. Thus, polyethylene terephthalate and
polyvinyl chloride are commonly referred to as PET and PVC, while

foamed polystyrene and polymethyl methacrylate are known by their

trademarked names, Styrofoam and Plexiglas (or Perspex).
Industrial fabricators of plastic products tend to think of plastics as either
commodity resins or specialty resins. (The term resin dates from the
early years of the plastics industry; it originally referred to naturally
occurring amorphous solids such as shellac and rosin.) Commodity resins
are plastics that are produced at high volume and low cost for the most
common disposable items and durable goods. They are represented chiefly
by polyethylene, polypropylene, polyvinyl chloride, and polystyrene.
Specialty resins are plastics whose properties are tailored to specific
applications and that are produced at low volume and higher cost. Among
this group are the so-called engineering plastics, or engineering resins,
which are plastics that can compete with die-cast metals in plumbing,
hardware, and automotive applications. Important engineering plastics,
less familiar to consumers than the commodity plastics listed above, are
polyacetal, polyamide (particularly those known by the trade name nylon),
polytetrafluoroethylene (trademark Teflon), polycarbonate, polyphenylene
sulfide, epoxy, and polyetheretherketone. Another member of the specialty
resins is thermoplastic elastomers, polymers that have the elastic
properties of rubber yet can be molded repeatedly upon heating.
Plastics also can be divided into two distinct categories on the basis of
their chemical composition. One category is plastics that are made up of
polymers having only aliphatic (linear) carbon atoms in their backbone
chains. All the commodity plastics listed above fall into this category. The
structure of polypropylene can serve as an example; here attached to every
other carbon atom is a pendant methyl group (CH3):

The other category of plastics is made up of heterochain polymers. These

compounds contain atoms such as oxygen, nitrogen, or sulfur in their
backbone chains, in addition to carbon. Most of the engineering plastics
listed above are composed of heterochain polymers. An example would be
polycarbonate, whose molecules contain two aromatic (benzene) rings:

The distinction between carbon-chain and heterochain polymers is

reflected in the table, in which selected properties and applications of the
most important carbon-chain and heterochain plastics are shown and from
which links are provided directly to entries that describe these materials in
greater detail. It is important to note that for each polymer type listed in
the table there can be many subtypes, since any of a dozen industrial
producers of any polymer can offer 20 or 30 different variations for use in
specific applications. For this reason the properties indicated in the table
must be taken as approximations.
Properties and applications of commercially important plastics
polymer family and

density

degree of

glass

crystal

deflection

type

(g/cm3)

crystallinit

transition

melting

temperature

temperatur

temperatur

at 1.8 MPa

(C)

(C)

(C)

Thermoplastics
Carbon-chain
high-density

0.95

high

120

137

polyethylene (HDPE)
low-density

0.97
0.92

moderate

120

110

polyethylene (LDPE)
polypropylene (PP)

0.93
0.90

high

20

176

0.91
1.01.1
1.01.1

nil
nil

100
90120

(ABS)
polyvinyl chloride,

1.31.6

nil

85

unplasticized (PVC)
polymethyl

1.2

nil

115

methacrylate (PMMA)
polytetrafluoroethylen

2.12.2

moderate-

126

327

polystyrene (PS)
acrylonitrilebutadiene-styrene

e (PTFE)
Heterochain
polyethylene

high
1.31.4

moderate

69

265

terephthalate (PET)
polycarbonate (PC)
polyacetal
polyetheretherketone

1.2
1.4
1.3

low
moderate
nil

145
50
185

230
180

(PEEK)
polyphenylene sulfide

1.35

moderate

88

288

(PPS)
cellulose diacetate
polycaprolactam

1.3
1.11.2

low
moderate

120
50

230
210220

(nylon 6)
Thermosets*
Heterochain
polyester (unsaturated)
epoxies
phenol formaldehyde
urea and melamine

1.32.3
1.11.4
1.72.0
1.52.0

nil
nil
nil
nil

200
110250
175300
190200

formaldehyde
polyurethane
polymer family and

1.05
tensile

low
elongation

flexural

90100
typical products and

type

strengt

at break

modulus

applications

(%)

(GPa)

101,000

11.5

(MPa)
Thermoplastics
Carbon-chain
high-density

2030

milk bottles, wire and

polyethylene (HDPE)
low-density
polyethylene (LDPE)
polypropylene (PP)
polystyrene (PS)
acrylonitrile-

830
3040
3550
1555

100650
100600
12
30100

0.250.35

cable insulation, toys

packaging film, grocery

1.21.7

bags, agricultural mulch

bottles, food containers,

2.63.4

toys
eating utensils, foamed

0.93.0

food containers
appliance housings,

butadiene-styrene

helmets, pipe fittings

(ABS)
polyvinyl chloride,

4050

280

2.13.4

pipe, conduit, home

unplasticized (PVC)
polymethyl

5075

210

2.23.2

siding, window frames

impact-resistant

methacrylate (PMMA)
polytetrafluoroethylen
e (PTFE)
Heterochain
polyethylene

windows, skylights,
2035

200400

0.5

canopies
self-lubricated bearings,
nonstick cookware

5075

50300

2.43.1

transparent bottles,

terephthalate (PET)
polycarbonate (PC)

6575

110120

2.32.4

recording tape
compact discs, safety

polyacetal

70

2575

2.63.4

glasses, sporting goods

bearings, gears, shower

polyetheretherketone

70105

30150

3.9

heads, zippers
machine, automotive, and

3.84.5

aerospace parts
machine parts,

(PEEK)
polyphenylene sulfide

5090

110

(PPS)

appliances, electrical

cellulose diacetate
polycaprolactam

1565
40170

670
30300

1.5
1.02.8

equipment
photographic film
bearings, pulleys, gears

(nylon 6)
Thermosets*
Heterochain
polyester (unsaturated)

2070

<3

714

boat hulls, automobile

1430

panels
laminated circuit boards,

epoxies

35140

<4

phenol formaldehyde

50125

<1

823

flooring, aircraft parts

electrical connectors,

urea and melamine

3575

<1

7.5

appliance handles
countertops, dinnerware

formaldehyde
polyurethane

70

36

flexible and rigid foams

for upholstery, insulation

*All values shown are for glass-fibre-reinforced samples (except for polyurethane).
For the purposes of this article, plastics are primarily defined not on the
basis of their chemical composition but on the basis of their engineering
behaviour. More specifically, they are defined as either thermoplastic
resins or thermosetting resins.
6.4 Plastics in the Food Industry
The manufacturing of plastics and plastic products has come a long way in
the food service industry. These food packages are essential to keep food
from becoming contaminated or damaged during distribution, while
keeping food fresh. The food industry uses a wide range of plastics,
including cups, plates, bowls, kitchenware, packaging and bottles. There is
an emphasis on increasing the uses of various recycled products, including
plastic. Many agencies, such as the U.S. Food and Drug Administration
are involved in collecting polymeric materials (usually food industry
containers) and recycling these materials to create new food containers.
The world demand for food containers is estimated to increase nearly 3.8
percent per year. This is over $115 billion in 2013 due to an increase in the
global output of food and an influence towards fast foods to meet fastpaced lifestyles, with the highest gain being for plastic containers.
Food Storage
It is estimated that nearly half of the worlds supply of food goes to waste.
One of the main reasons for such significant food loss is due to poor food

storage methods. However, with the involvement of seal-tight plastic

products, perishables such as fruits, vegetables, and meats, last much
longer while still maintaining freshness. Foods can also be refrigerated or
kept frozen in plastic containers safely using rubber or plastic locked-lids
that keep oxygen from entering the container. This is especially important
in food service industries where large amounts of perishable foods are
being kept and served. Highly resistant plastics, including polystyrene and
polypropylene have also been used to create refrigerator door panels and
molding to help maximize usable space, keep the cold inside to maintain
the freshness of foods, and repel stains and spills.

Recycled Plastics in Food Packaging

Pervasive Plastics

The Safety of Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET)

Plastics and the Microwave

Availability of Fresh Food

Plastic products in the food industry have also played a beneficial role in
the availability of fresh foods at a decent turn-around time. The emerging
technologies related to plastics have made it possible to shelf stable food
products and reduce preparation, cooking and baking, and clean-up time.
The workload then decreases while the productivity increases. Studies
have shown that these advancements in food and food preparation, many
due to the increased use of plastics, provides significant savings in labor, a
reduction in food waste and contamination, and a high customer
satisfaction rate. Over 85% of waste is sent to landfills and dumps.
However, plastics can be melted down and reused. This reduces a large
amount of waste when these plastics are recycled and made into new
plastic containers. This method also helps to reduce pollution, disposal
costs, and environmental problems.

Concerns about Plastics and our Health

Currently there is a lot of concern about the chemicals contained in
plastics and how our daily use of plastics, especially as food and beverage
containers, could allow these chemicals to enter our bodies. Proper use of
plastic containers and knowing the risks can help you to minimize your
exposure. The following links will bring you to websites that share those
concerns and provide you with more detailed information.

Breast Cancer The Estrogen Connection: Plastics

Be Wise with Plastics

Bisphenol A (BPA) Information for Parents

A Call for the Reduction of BPA Exposure

Food Safety
Customer demands for high quality and safe food products have led to
modifications and innovative developments of plastic packaging materials
and products. Color changing plastics have been incorporated into various
food-packaging materials as a way to alert consumers about the conditions
of the food inside. These plastics have the ability to identify products that
are on the verge of spoilage or have lost their wholesomeness. Many food
service industries have adopted plastic color-coded cutting boards to
prevent cross contamination. They typically accept a coding system of six
colors that represent a group of foods, such as cooked meats, uncooked
meats, raw fish, dairy products, or raw vegetables. Employees are
typically provided a laminated sheet that tells them which groups of foods
belong to which colors to avoid food contamination.

How to Tell Which Plastic Containers are Risky?

Safe Use of Plastic Food Packaging and Containers

Helping Earth-Friendly, Corn-Based Plastics Take the Heat

Vacuum Sealing
The process of vacuum sealing not only saves money, but also keeps food
fresh while greatly reducing the risk of microorganisms or bacteria from
entering the preserved foods. Foods can be placed in plastic bags or
containers before putting it through a machine to suck all of the air from
the container to store in the refrigerator or freezer. Vacuumed sealed
plastic products keep their flavor for a longer period of time, and are less
likely to dry out the food. Unlike many other types of food packaging
containers, vacuum-sealed foods have a low likeliness of obtaining freezer
burn. Most food vacuum bags are designed using high-graded safe plastic
materials.

Food Standards Agency

Bisphenol A and Consumer Safety

Using Plastics in Food Packaging

Advanced Plastics Packaging Aiding Food Delivery

6.5 Effect of Plastic Debris in the Environment and on Wildlife

There are some accounts of effects of debris from terrestrial habitats, for
example ingestion by the endangered California condor, Gymnogyps
californianus (Mee et al. 2007). However, the vast majority of work
describing environmental consequences of plastic debris is from marine
settings and more work on terrestrial and freshwater habitats is needed.
Plastic debris causes aesthetic problems, and it also presents a hazard to
maritime activities including fishing and tourism (Moore 2008; Gregory
2009). Discarded fishing nets result in ghost fishing that may result in
losses to commercial fisheries (Moore 2008; Brown & Macfadyen 2007).
Floating plastic debris can rapidly become colonized by marine organisms
and since it can persist at the sea surface for substantial periods, it may
subsequently facilitate the transport of non-native or alien species

(Barnes 2002; Barnes et al. 2009; Gregory 2009). However, the problems
attracting most public and media attention are those resulting in ingestion
and entanglement by wildlife. Over 260 species, including invertebrates,
turtles, fish, seabirds and mammals, have been reported to ingest or
become entangled in plastic debris, resulting in impaired movement and
feeding, reduced reproductive output, lacerations, ulcers and death (Laist
1997; Derraik 2002; Gregory 2009). The limited monitoring data we have
suggest rates of entanglement have increased over time (Ryan et al. 2009).
A wide range of species with different modes of feeding including filter
feeders, deposit feeders and detritivores are known to ingest plastics.
However, ingestion is likely to be particularly problematic for species that
specifically select plastic items because they mistake them for their food.
As a consequence, the incidence of ingestion can be extremely high in
some populations. For example, 95 per cent of fulmars washed ashore
dead in the North Sea have plastic in their guts, with substantial quantities
of plastic being reported in the guts of other birds, including albatross and
prions (Gregory 2009). There are some very good data on the quantity of
debris ingested by seabirds recorded from the carcasses of dead birds. This
approach has been used to monitor temporal and spatial patterns in the
abundance of sea-surface plastic debris on regional scales around Europe
(Van Franeker et al. 2005; Ryan et al. 2009).
An area of particular concern is the abundance of small plastic fragments
or microplastics. Fragments as small as 1.6 m have been identified in
some marine habitats, and it seems likely there will be even smaller pieces
below current levels of detection. A recent workshop convened in the USA
by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration concluded that
microplastics be defined as pieces <5 mm with a suggested lower size
boundary of 333 m so as to focus on microplastics that will be captured
using conventional sampling approaches (Arthur et al. 2009). However,
we consider it important that the abundance of even smaller fragments is

not neglected. Plastic fragments appear to form by the mechanical and

chemical deterioration of larger items. Alternative routes for microplastics
to enter the environment include the direct release of small pieces of
plastics that are used as abrasives in industrial and domestic cleaning
applications (e.g. shot blasting or scrubbers used in proprietary hand
cleansers) and spillage of plastic pellets and powders that are used as a
feedstock for the manufacture of most plastic products. Data from
shorelines, from the open ocean and from debris ingested by seabirds, all
indicate that quantities of plastic fragments are increasing in the
environment, and quantities on some shores are substantial (>10% by
weight of strandline material; Barnes et al. 2009). Laboratory experiments
have shown that small pieces such as these can be ingested by small
marine invertebrates including filter feeders, deposit feeders and
detritivores (Thompson et al. 2004), while mussels were shown to retain
plastic for over 48 days (Browne et al. 2008). However, the extent and
consequences of ingestion of microplastics by natural populations are not
known.
In addition to the physical problems associated with plastic debris, there
has been much speculation that, if ingested, plastic has the potential to
transfer toxic substances to the food chain (see Teuten et al. 2009). In the
marine environment, plastic debris such as pellets, fragments and
microplastics have been shown to contain organic contaminants including
polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons,
petroleum hydrocarbons, organochlorine pesticides (2,2-bis(pchlorophenyl)-1,1,1 trichloroethane (DDT) and its metabolites; together
with hexachlorinated hexane (HCH)), polybrominated diphenylethers
(PBDEs), alkylphenols and BPA at concentrations ranging from ng g1 to
g g1. Some of these compounds are added to plastics during manufacture
while others adsorb to plastic debris from the environment. Work in Japan
has shown that plastics can accumulate and concentrate persistent organic

pollutants that have arisen in the environment from other sources. These
contaminants can become orders of magnitude more concentrated on the
surface of plastic debris than in the surrounding sea water (Mato et al.
2001). Teuten et al. (2009) describe experiments to examine the transfer of
these contaminants from plastics to seabirds and other animals. The
potential for transport varies among contaminants, polymers and possibly
also according to the state of environmental weathering of the debris.
Recent mathematical modelling studies have shown that even very small
quantities of plastics could facilitate transport of contaminants from plastic
to organisms upon ingestion. This could present a direct and important
route for the transport of chemicals to higher animals such as seabirds
(Teuten et al. 2007, 2009), but will depend upon the nature of the habitat
and the amount and type of plastics present. For instance, the extent to
which the presence of plastic particles might contribute to the total burden
of contaminants transferred from the environment to organisms will
depend upon competitive sorption and transport by other particulates
(Arthur et al. 2009). The abundance of fragments of plastic is increasing in
the environment; these particles, especially truly microscopic fragments
less than the 333 m proposed by NOAA (see earlier), have a relatively
large surface area to volume ratio that is likely to facilitate the transport of
contaminants, and because of their size such fragments can be ingested by
a wide range of organisms. Hence, the potential for plastics to transport
and release chemicals to wildlife is an emerging area of concern.
More work will be needed to establish the full environmental relevance of
plastics in the transport of contaminants to organisms living in the natural
environment, and the extent to which these chemicals could then be
transported along food chains. However, there is already clear evidence
that chemicals associated with plastic are potentially harmful to wildlife.
Data that have principally been collected using laboratory exposures are
summarized by Oehlmann et al. (2009). These show that phthalates and

BPA affect reproduction in all studied animal groups and impair

development in crustaceans and amphibians. Molluscs and amphibians
appear to be particularly sensitive to these compounds and biological
effects have been observed in the low ng l1 to g l1 range. In contrast,
most effects in fish tend to occur at higher concentrations. Most
plasticizers appear to act by interfering with hormone function, although
they can do this by several mechanisms (Hu et al. 2009). Effects observed
in the laboratory coincide with measured environmental concentrations,
thus there is a very real probability that these chemicals are affecting
natural populations (Oehlmann et al. 2009). BPA concentrations in aquatic
environments vary considerably, but can reach 21 g l1 in freshwater
systems and concentrations in sediments are generally several orders of
magnitude higher than in the water column. For example, in the River
Elbe, Germany, BPA was measured at 0.77 g l1 in water compared with
343 g kg1 in sediment (dry weight). These findings are in stark contrast
with the European Union environmental risk assessment predicted
environmental concentrations of 0.12 g l1 for water and 1.6 g kg1 (dry
weight) for sediments.
Phthalates and BPA can bioaccumulate in organisms, but there is much
variability between species and individuals according to the type of
plasticizer and experimental protocol. However, concentration factors are
generally higher for invertebrates than vertebrates, and can be especially
high in some species of molluscs and crustaceans. While there is clear
evidence that these chemicals have adverse effects at environmentally
relevant concentrations in laboratory studies, there is a need for further
research to establish population-level effects in the natural environment
(see discussion in Oehlmann et al. 2009), to establish the long-term effects
of exposures (particularly due to exposure of embryos), to determine
effects of exposure to contaminant mixtures and to establish the role of
plastics as sources (albeit not exclusive sources) of these contaminants

(see Meeker et al. (2009) for discussion of sources and routes of

exposure).
6.6 Effect on Humans : Epidemological and Experimental Evidence
Turning to adverse effects of plastic on the human population, there is a
growing body of literature on potential health risks. A range of chemicals
that are used in the manufacture of plastics are known to be toxic.
Biomonitoring (e.g. measuring concentration of environmental
contaminants in human tissue) provides an integrated measure of an
organism's exposure to contaminants from multiple sources. This approach
has shown that chemicals used in the manufacture of plastics are present in
the human population, and studies using laboratory animals as model
organisms indicate potential adverse health effects of these chemicals
(Talsness et al. 2009). Body burdens of chemicals that are used in plastic
manufacture have also been correlated with adverse effects in the human
population, including reproductive abnormalities (e.g. Swan et al. 2005;
Swan 2008; Lang et al. 2008).
Interpreting biomonitoring data is complex, and a key task is to set
information into perspective with dose levels that are considered toxic on
the basis of experimental studies in laboratory animals. The concept of
toxicity and thus the experimental methods for studying the health
impacts of the chemicals in plastic, and other chemicals classified as
endocrine disruptors, is currently undergoing a transformation (a paradigm
inversion) since the disruption of endocrine regulatory systems requires
approaches very different from the study of acute toxicants or poisons.
There is thus extensive evidence that traditional toxicological approaches
are inadequate for revealing outcomes such as reprogramming of the
molecular systems in cells as a result of exposure to very low doses during
critical periods in development (e.g. Myers et al. 2009). Research on
experimental animals informs epidemiologists about the potential for

adverse effects in humans and thus plays a critical role in chemical risk
assessments. A key conclusion from the paper by Talsness et al. (2009) is
the need to modify our approach to chemical testing for risk assessment.
As noted by these authors and others, there is a need to integrate concepts
of endocrinology in the assumptions underlying chemical risk assessment.
In particular, the assumptions that doseresponse curves are monotonic
and that there are threshold doses (safe levels) are not true for either
endogenous hormones or for chemicals with hormonal activity (which
includes many chemicals used in plastics) (Talsness et al. 2009).
The biomonitoring approach has demonstrated phthalates and BPA, as
well as other additives in plastics and their metabolites, are present in the
human population. It has also demonstrated that the most common human
exposure scenario is to a large number of these chemicals simultaneously.
These data indicate differences according to geographical location and
age, with greater concentrations of some of these chemicals in young
children. While exposure via house dust is extensive (Rudel et al. 2008), it
would appear that at least for some phthalates (e.g. diethylhexyl phthalate,
DEHP), foodstuffs and to a lesser extent use of oral drugs probably
present major uptake pathways (Wormuth et al. 2006). Exposure data for
BPA are similar but less extensive. While average concentrations of
phthalates in selected populations worldwide appear quite similar, there is
evidence of considerable variability in daily intake rates among
individuals, and even within individuals (Peck et al. 2009). Exposures
through ingestion, inhalation and dermal contact are all considered
important routes of exposure for the general population (Adibi et al. 2003;
Rudel et al. 2003). Koch & Calafat (2009) show that while mean/median
exposures for the general population were below levels determined to be
safe for daily exposure (USA, EPA reference dose, RfD; and European
Union tolerable daily intake, TDI), the upper percentiles of di-butyl
phthalate and DEHP urinary metabolite concentrations show that for some

people daily intake might be substantially higher than previously assumed

and could exceed estimated safe daily exposure levels. Current safe
exposure levels are typically based on the application of traditional
toxicological assumptions regarding acute toxicants to calculate daily
exposures for chemicals in a range of widely used plastic items. The
toxicological consequences of such exposures, especially for susceptible
subpopulations such as children and pregnant women, remain unclear and
warrant further investigation. However, there is evidence of associations
between urinary concentrations of some phthalate metabolites and
biological outcomes (Swan et al. 2005; Swan 2008). For example, an
inverse relationship has been reported between the concentrations of
DEHP metabolites in the mother's urine and anogenital distance, penile
width and testicular decent in male offspring (Swan et al. 2005; Swan
2008). In adults, there is some evidence of a negative association between
phthalate metabolites and semen quality (Meeker & Sathyanarayana) and
between high exposures to phthalates (workers producing PVC flooring)
and free testosterone levels. Moreover, recent work (Lang et al. 2008) has
shown a significant relationship between urine levels of BPA and
cardiovascular disease, type 2 diabetes and abnormalities in liver enzymes,
and Stahlhut et al. (2009) have reported that exposure of adults in the USA
to BPA is likely to occur from multiple sources and that the half-life of
BPA is longer than previously estimated, and the very high exposure of
premature infants in neonatal intensive-care units to both BPA and
phthalates is of great concern (Calafat et al. 2009). These data indicate
detrimental effects in the general population may be caused by chronic
low-dose exposures (separately or in combination) and acute exposure to
higher doses, but the full extent to which chemicals are transported to the
human population by plastics is yet to be confirmed.
Much has been learned about toxicological effects on humans from
experiments using laboratory animals. This approach has been used to

examine component chemicals used in plastic production. A summary of

work on phthalates, BPA and tetrabromobisphenol A (TBBPA) is
presented by Talsness et al. (2009). The male reproductive tract is
particularly sensitive to phthalate exposure. However, most reproductive
effects are not exerted by phthalate diesters themselves, but by their
monoester metabolites, which are formed in the liver. The majority of
these studies have been done using rats as a model organism, with doses at
least an order of magnitude higher than those to which humans are
commonly exposed, but they have resulted in rapid, severe changes in the
rat testis. Reproductive effects have also been described in mice and
guinea pigs. Effects on pre- and early post-natal development are of
particular concern, and recent animal studies have shown exposures to
certain phthalates can result in severe disorders of the developing male
reproductive system. It should be noted that most work on animals has
used phthalate exposures much higher than estimated daily human
exposures (see above), and researchers have only recently started to
investigate possible biological effects within the range of median human
phthalate exposure (Talsness et al. 2009). This is of critical importance
because epidemiological studies have reported associations between
phthalate levels and a number of adverse health effects in humans (Swan
et al. 2005), suggesting that either humans are more sensitive to phthalates
than experimental animals or that the testing paradigm used in traditional
toxicological studies, which examines one phthalate at a time, has not
served to accurately predict adverse effects from the mixture of phthalates
to which humans are exposed (Andrade et al. 2006; NAS 2008).
For BPA, there is an extensive published literature showing adverse effects
of exposure at very low doses, based on administration during
development and to adult experimental animals. In particular, unlike the
case for experimental animal research on phthalates, there are now
hundreds of experiments on laboratory animals using doses within the

range of human exposures (Vandenberg et al. 2007). The rate and extent to
which BPA is metabolized affect the interpretation of these findings, but
even very low doses of BPA have been shown to cause significant
stimulation of insulin secretion followed by insulin resistance in mice, a
significant decrease in sperm production by rats, a decrease in maternal
behaviour in mice and disruption of hippocampal synapses, leading to the
appearance of a brain typical of that seen in senility in both rats and
monkeys. The greatest concerns with exposure to BPA are during
development; BPA appears to affect brain development leading to loss of
sex differentiation in brain structures and behaviour (Talsness et al. 2009).
A further important observation regarding adverse responses to
developmental exposures of animals to very low doses of BPA is that
many relate to disease trends in humans. Less has been published on
effects of the flame retardant TBBPA, but there is evidence of effects on
thyroid hormones, pituitary function and reproductive success in animals
(Talsness et al. 2009).
Despite the environmental concerns about some of the chemicals used in
plastic manufacture, it is important to emphasize that evidence for effects
in humans is still limited and there is a need for further research and in
particular, for longitudinal studies to examine temporal relationships with
chemicals that leach out of plastics (Adibi et al. 2008). In addition, the
traditional approach to studying the toxicity of chemicals has been to
focus only on exposure to individual chemicals in relation to disease or
abnormalities. However, because of the complex integrated nature of the
endocrine system, it is critical that future studies involving endocrinedisrupting chemicals that leach from plastic products focus on mixtures of
chemicals to which people are exposed when they use common household
products. For example, in a study conducted in the USA, 80 per cent of
babies were exposed to measurable levels of at least nine different
phthalate metabolites (Sathyanarayana et al. 2008), and the health impacts

of the cumulative exposure to these chemicals need to be determined. An

initial attempt at examining more than one phthalate as a contributor to
abnormal genital development in babies has shown the importance of this
approach (Swan 2008). Studies of mixtures of chemicals therefore also
need to extend beyond mixtures of the same class of chemical, such as
mixtures of different phthalates or of different PCBs. For example, PVC
(used in a wide range of products in the home including water pipes) may
contain phthalates, BPA, flame retardants such as PBDEs or TBBPA,
cadmium, lead and organotins, all of which have been shown in animal
studies to result in obesity (Heindel & vom Saal 2009). In addition, the
monomer used to manufacture PVC plastic, vinyl chloride, is a known
carcinogen and exposure can cause angiosarcoma of the liver among
factory workers (Bolt 2005; Gennaro et al. 2008). PVC in medical tubing
has also been shown to be a source of high DEHP exposure among infants
in neonatal intensive-care nurseries (Green et al. 2005) and probably
contributes to the high levels of BPA found in these babies since BPA is an
additive in PVC plastic (Calafat et al. 2009).
Examining the relationship between plastic additives and adverse human
effects presents a number of challenges. In particular, the changing
patterns of production and use of both plastics, and the additives they
contain, as well as the confidential nature of industrial specifications
makes exposure assessment particularly difficult. Evolving technology,
methodology and statistical approaches should help disentangle the
relationships between these chemicals and health effects. However, with
most of the statistically significant hormone alternations that have been
attributed to environmental and occupational exposures, the actual degree
of hormone alteration has been considered subclinical. Hence, more
information is required on the biological mechanisms that may be affected
by plastic additives and in particular, low-dose chronic exposures.
Meanwhile we should consider strategies to reduce the use of these

chemicals in plastic manufacture and/or develop and test alternatives (for

example citrates are being developed as substitute plasticizers). This is the
goal of the new field of green chemistry, which is based on the premise
that development of chemicals for use in commerce should involve an
interaction between biologists and chemists. Had this approach been in
place 50 years ago it would probably have prevented the development of
chemicals that are recognized as likely endocrine disruptors (Anastas &
Beach 2007). There is also a need for industry and independent scientists
to work more closely with, rather than against, each other in order to focus
effectively on the best ways forward. For example, contrast comments on
BPA by Bird (2005) with those of vom Saal (2005), and contrast
comments in this volume on the safety of plastic additives by Andrady &
Neal (2009) with those by Koch & Calafat (2009), Meeker et al. (2009),
Oehlmann et al. (2009) and Talsness et al. (2009).
6.7 Adverse Health Effects of Plastics
In addition to creating safety problems during production, many chemical
additives that give plastic products desirable performance properties also have
negative environmental and human health effects. These effects include

Direct toxicity, as in the cases of lead, cadmium, and mercury

Carcinogens, as in the case of diethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP)

Endocrine disruption, which can lead to cancers, birth defects, immune

system supression and developmental problems in children.

Chemical Migration from Plastic Packaging into Contents

People are exposed to these chemicals not only
during manufacturing, but also by using plastic
packages, because some chemicals migrate from

the plastic packaging to the foods they contain. Examples of plastics

contaminating food have been reported with most plastic types, including
Styrene from polystyrene, plasticizers from PVC, antioxidants from
polyethylene, and Acetaldehyde from PET.
Among the factors controlling migration are the chemical structure of the
migrants and the nature of the packaged food. In studies cited in Food
Additives and Contaminants, LDPE, HDPE, and polypropylene bottles
released measurable levels of BHT, Chimassorb 81, Irganox PS 800, Irganix
1076, and Irganox 1010 into their contents of vegetable oil and ethanol.
Evidence was also found that acetaldehyde migrated out of PET and into
water.
Plastic

Common Uses

Adverse Health Effects

Polyvinyl
chloride
(#3PVC)

Food packaging,
plastic wrap,
containers for
toiletries, cosmetics,
crib bumpers, floor
tiles, pacifiers,
shower curtains,
toys, water pipes,
garden hoses, auto
upholstery, inflatable
swimming pools

Can cause cancer, birth

defects, genetic
changes, chronic
bronchitis, ulcers, skin
diseases, deafness,
vision failure,
indigestion, and liver
dysfunction

Phthalates
(DEHP,
DINP,
and others)

Softened vinyl
products
manufactured with
phthalates include
vinyl clothing,
emulsion paint,
footwear, printing
inks, non-mouthing
toys and childrens
products, product
packaging and food
wrap, vinyl flooring,
blood bags and

Endocrine disruption,
linked to asthma,
developmental and
reporoductive effects.
Medical waste with
PVC and pthalates is
regularly incinerated
causing public health
effects from the relese
of dioxins and mercury,
including cancer, birth
defects, hormonal
changes, declining

tubing, IV containers
and components,
surgical gloves,
breathing tubes,
general purpose
labware, inhalation
masks, many other
medical devices

sperm counts,
infertility,
endometriosis, and
immune system
impairment.

Polycarbonate, with Bisphenol A

(#7)

Water bottles

Scientists have linked

very low doses of
bisphenol A exposure
to cancers, impaired
immune function, early
onset of puberty,
obesity, diabetes, and
hyperactivity, among
other problems
(Environment
California)

Polystyrene

Many food
containers for meats,
fish, cheeses, yogurt,
foam and clear
clamshell containers,
foam and rigid
plates, clear bakery
containers,
packaging "peanuts",
foam packaging,
audio cassette
housings, CD cases,
disposable cutlery,
building insulation,
flotation devices, ice
buckets, wall tile,
paints, serving trays,
throw-away hot
drink cups, toys

Can irritate eyes, nose

and throat and can
cause dizziness and
unconsciousness.
Migrates into food and
stores in body fat.
Elevated rates of
lymphatic and
hematopoietic cancers
for workers.

Polyethelyne
(#1 PET)

Water and soda

Suspected human
bottles, carpet fiber, carcinogen
chewing gum, coffee
stirrers, drinking
glasses, food

containers and
wrappers, heatsealed plastic
packaging,
kitchenware, plastic
bags, squeeze
bottles, toys
Polyester

Bedding, clothing,
disposable diapers,
food packaging,
tampons, upholstery

Can cause eye and

respiratory-tract
irritation and acute skin
rashes

Ureaformaldehyde

Particle board,
plywood, building
insulation, fabric
finishes

Formaldehyde is a
suspected carcinogen
and has been shown to
cause birth defects and
genetic changes.
Inhaling formaldehyde
can cause cough,
swelling of the throat,
watery eyes, breathing
problems, headaches,
rashes, tiredness

Polyurethane
Foam

Cushions,
mattresses, pillows

Bronchitis, coughing,
skin and eye problems.
Can release toluene
diisocyanate which can
produce severe lung
problems

Acrylic

Clothing, blankets,
carpets made from
acrylic fibers,
adhesives, contact
lenses, dentures,
floor waxes, food
preparation
equipment,
disposable diapers,
sanitary napkins,
paints

Can cause breathing

difficulties, vomiting,
diarrhea, nausea,
weakness, headache
and fatigue

Tetrafluoroethelyne

Non-stick coating on Can irritate eyes, nose

cookware, clothes
and throat and can
irons, ironing board cause breathing

covers, plumbing
and tools

difficulties

6.8 Prevention

Buy food in glass or metal containers

avoid polycarbonate drinking bottles with Bisphenol A

Avoid heating food in plastic containers, or storing fatty foods in plastic

containers or plastic wrap

Do not give young children plastic teethers or toys

Use natural fiber clothing, bedding and furniture

Avoid all PVC and Styrene products