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Z
V
Z {}={}
{}={0}
{({})}T {d} dV ,
(1)
The specific strain energy (strain energy per unit volume) may be thought of
as the area under the stress-strain diagram up to a certain value of strain .
The work of the external forces w moving through displacements v is the
Duke University - CEE 421L. Uncertainty, Design, and Optimization - Fall 2012 - H.P. Gavin
Z Z =v
S =0
w() d dS
(2)
For linear elastic solids, the areas under the and the w v diagrams
are triangular, and the expressions for the internal strain energy and the
external work simplify to
U=
Z
V
1
{}T {} dV
2
(3)
1
w v dS .
2
(4)
and
W =
Z
S
The work of the external loads w(v), increasing as they pass through
displacements v, on an elastic solid is stored completely as strain energy
within the solid. By itself, the principle of real work has limited potential
CC BY-NC-ND H.P. Gavin
For an elastic system carrying n point forces the strain energy is equal to the
sum of the areas below the individual force-displacement diagrams,
U=
n Z
X
Fi dDi .
(5)
i=1
Differentiating both sides of this expression with respect to a particular displacement Di results in Castiglianos First Theorem,
U
= Fi .
(6)
Di
Duke University - CEE 421L. Uncertainty, Design, and Optimization - Fall 2012 - H.P. Gavin
Now, define the complementary strain energy U as the sum of the areas
to the left of the force-displacement diagrams,
U =
n Z
X
Di dFi .
(7)
i=1
{o } {} dV =
Z
S
wo v dS .
(14)
Duke University - CEE 421L. Uncertainty, Design, and Optimization - Fall 2012 - H.P. Gavin
Define the potential energy function of external forces (Fi and w) acting
through displacements (Di and v) on the surface S of an elastic solid as
V =
n
X
i=1
Fi Di +
Z
S
w v dS .
(15)
Note that the potential energy of the external forces is not the same as the
work of external loads, increasing as they pass through the displacements.
The potential energy of external forces is the work of constant loads w and
Fi passing through displacements v and Di .
Next define the total potential energy as the difference between the strain
energy U and the potential energy of external forces V ,
=U V .
(16)
As an introductory example, consider the strain energy U and the potential energy function V of a linear elastic spring with stiffness k carrying a
tensile load F resulting in a displacement D.
1
= U V = kD2 F D .
2
(17)
Unlike the difference between strain energy and external work (U W ), which
is identically zero in a state of equilibrium, the total potential energy is minimized in a state of equilibrium. This may be seen by plotting the parabola
U = 12 kD2 , the line V = F D, and the parabola = U V with respect to
D.
The principle of minimum potential energy states that the total potential
energy = U V is minimized in a state of stable static equilibrium,
= 0 .
(18)
For linear or nonlinear elastic solids, the minimum value of is the complementary strain energy in the solid. For the special case of linear elastic solids,
V = 2W , so = U V = U 2W . In a condition of static equilibrium,
U = W , and the minimum value of is U (or W ), which is the negative
of the strain energy (and the work done) on the solid.
The external virtual work W can be thought of as a variation of the
potential function of external loads V . Likewise, the internal virtual work
U can be thought of as a variation of the strain energy U .
Duke University - CEE 421L. Uncertainty, Design, and Optimization - Fall 2012 - H.P. Gavin
Assume that the axial displacement along the bar is u(x) = Lx uL where
uL is the unknown displacement at the end of the bar. This assumed displacement satisfies the boundary condition that u(0) = 0.
1Z
(uL ) =
xx xx dV F uL
(19)
2 V
2
1Z ZL
u(x)
dA dx F u
=
E
(20)
L
2 A x=0
x
!
Z L
1
uL 2
= EA
dx F uL
(21)
x=0 L
2
1 EA 2
=
u F uL
(22)
2 L L
EA
=
duL =
uL F = 0
(23)
uL
L
FL
uL =
.
(24)
EA
2
Note that ddu2 = EA/L > 0, so the stationary point is a minimum and the
L
equilibrium point is stable. The minimum value of the potential energy is
1 L
2
2
21 EA
L uL = 2 EA F , which is the negative of the elastic strain energy stored
in the bar. This is the correct solution for the axial displacement of a bar,
and our original assumption was correct.
CC BY-NC-ND H.P. Gavin
(uL ) =
=
duL
uL
uL
(25)
(26)
(27)
1 L
2
2
The minimum value of the potential energy is now 81 EA
L uL = 8 EA F , which
is not as negative as the value of found using the correct assumption for
u(x). In this way two assumptions for u(x) may be compared, and the better
assumption may be retained.
(28)
(29)
v(x = 0) = 0
(30)
v 0 (x = 0) = 0
(31)
CC BY-NC-ND H.P. Gavin
10
Duke University - CEE 421L. Uncertainty, Design, and Optimization - Fall 2012 - H.P. Gavin
2
1ZL
v(x)
dx P v
=
EI
B
2 x=0
x2
!
1ZL
6L 6x 2 2
EI
vB dx P vB
=
2 x=0
2L3
dvB = 0 =
=
vB
1 P L3
vB =
,
3 EI
(32)
(33)
(34)
(35)
(36)
Now assume that the beam takes on the following displaced shape v(x) =
x
vB (1 cos( 2L
)). This assumed shape still meets the conditions imposed by
the fixed end, v(0) = 0 and v 0 (0) = 0. This displacement function results in
an end displacement of
vB =
32 P L3
P L3
0.3285
.
4 EI
EI
(37)
This answer is within 1.5 percent of the correct value. The minimum value
2 3
2 3
of the potential energy is now 164 PEIL which is within 1.5 percent of 16 PEIL .
Note, however, that the incorrect displacement function does not satisfy equi2
v(x)
librium, since M (x) = P (L x) 6= EI d dx
2 .
11
6 References
1. Boresi, Arthur P., Schmidt, Richard J., and Sidebottom, Omar M., Advanced Mechanics of Materials, 5th ed. Wiley, 1993. (TA 405.B66 1993)
2. DaDeppo, Donald A., Introduction to Structural Mechanics and Analysis,
Prentice Hall, 1999.
3. Dym, Clive L., Structural Modeling and Analysis, Cambridge Univ. Press,
1997
4. Reddy, J.N., Energy Principles and Variational Methods in Applied Mechanics, 2nd ed. Wiley, 2002. (TA 350.R39 2002)