Grammar ReferenceDDD

Grammar Reference
Hasham Raza
Grammar Reference
The following grammar reference pages include charts, quizzes and other related
resources. Use these pages to quickly review specific grammar points, or to
introduce yourself to new topics.
Direct (Reported) Speech

Indirect Speech (also referred to as 'reported speech') refers to a sentence
reporting what someone has said. It is almost always used in spoken English.
If the reporting verb (i.e. said) is in the past, the reported clause will be in
a past form. This form is usually one step back into the past from the
original.
For example:
He said the test was difficult.
She said she watched TV every day.
Jack said he came to school every day.
If simple present, present perfect or the future is used in the reporting
verb (i.e. says) the tense is retained.
For example:
He says the test is difficult.
She has said that she watches TV every day.
Jack will say that he comes to school every day.
If reporting a general truth the present tense will be retained.
For example:The teacher said that phrasal verbs are very important.
Changing Pronouns and Time Signifiers
When changing from direct speech to indirect speech, it is often necessary to
change the pronouns to match the subject of the sentence.
For example:
She said, "I want to bring my children." BECOMES She said she wanted to
bring her children.
Jack said, "My wife went with me to the show." BECOMES Jack said his
wife had gone with him to the show.
It is also important to change time words (signifiers) when referring to present,
past or future time to match the moment of speaking.
For example:
She said, "I want to bring my children tomorrow." BECOMES She said she
wanted to bring her children the next day.
Jack said, "My wife went with me to the show yesterday." BECOMES Jack
said his wife had gone with him to the show the day before.
Indirect Questions
When reporting questions, it is especially important to pay attention to sentence
order. When reporting yes/ no questions connect the reported question using 'if'.
When reporting questions using question words (why, where, when, etc.) use the
question word.
For example:
She asked, "Do you want to come with me?" BECOMES She asked me if I
wanted to come with her.
Dave asked, "Where did you go last weekend?" BECOMES Dave asked me
where I had gone the previous weekend.
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He asked,
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"Why are you studying English?" BECOMES She asked me why

I was studying English.
The following chart includes sentences changed from quoted speech to reported
speech using a past form. NoteSimple past, present perfect, and past perfect
allchange to past perfect in the reported form.
Advanced Reporting Verbs
He said, "I live in Paris."
He said he lived in Paris.
He said, "I am cooking dinner."
He said he was cooking dinner.
He said, "I have visted London twice."
He said he had visited London twice.
He said, "I went to New York last week."
He said he had gone to New York the week before.
He said, "I had already eaten."
He said he had already eaten.
He said, "I am going to find a new job."
He said he was going to find a new job.
He said, "I will give Jack a call."
He said he would give Jack a call.
Saying 'No' Nicely
Saying 'No' Nicely

Sometimes you need to say no when someone makes a suggestion, offers
something or asks you to do something for them. Of course, saying just 'no' can be
rather rude. Here are some of the most common ways to say 'no' nicely - or at
least not rudely.
Would you like to see a film tonight?
I'm afraid I can't go out tonight. I've got a test tomorrow.
Why don't we have some chinese food?
Sorry, but I don't particularly like chinese food.
How about taking a nice walk?
I'd really rather not take a walk this afternoon.
Would you like to come to the museum with us?
Thank you, but it's not my idea of a fun afternoon out.
Let's go for a drive
Sorry, I'm not really fond of driving for the fun of it.
Why don't you stay the night?
That's very kind of you, but I really have to get back to the city.
NOTE: Notice how we often say 'thank you' in some way before refusing the offer.
When someone makes an offer it is polite to first thank that person and then say
no, often offering an excuse for not wanting or being able to do something. Just
saying 'no' is considered very rude behavior indeed!
After you study these constructions, take the saying no nicely quiz to check your
understanding.
Construction
Formula
Verb Form
I'm afraid I can't...
Use the base form of the verb without

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'to'
I don't particularly like...
Use the '-ing' form of the verb with the

verb 'like' in the present simple.
I'd (really) rather not...
Use the base form the verb without 'to'

with 'rather'
It's not my idea of...
Use the '-ing' form following a

preposition, or a noun
I'm not (really) fond of...

Thank you (thank you for asking,

thank you very much, etc.) but, I have following the modal form 'have to do'
to...
Stating Preferences
Saying 'No' Nicely

Sometimes you need to say no when someone makes a suggestion, offers
something or asks you to do something for them. Of course, saying just 'no' can be
rather rude. Here are some of the most common ways to say 'no' nicely - or at
least not rudely.
Would you like to see a film tonight?
I'm afraid I can't go out tonight. I've got a test tomorrow.
Why don't we have some chinese food?
Sorry, but I don't particularly like chinese food.
How about taking a nice walk?
I'd really rather not take a walk this afternoon.
Would you like to come to the museum with us?
Thank you, but it's not my idea of a fun afternoon out.
Let's go for a drive
Sorry, I'm not really fond of driving for the fun of it.
Why don't you stay the night?
That's very kind of you, but I really have to get back to the city.
NOTE: Notice how we often say 'thank you' in some way before refusing the offer.
When someone makes an offer it is polite to first thank that person and then say
no, often offering an excuse for not wanting or being able to do something. Just
saying 'no' is considered very rude behavior indeed!
After you study these constructions, take the saying no nicely quiz to check your
understanding.
Construction
Formula
Verb Form
I'm afraid I can't...
Use the base form of the verb without

'to'
I don't particularly like...
Use the '-ing' form of the verb with the

verb 'like' in the present simple.
I'd (really) rather not...

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with 'rather'
It's not my idea of...

I'm not (really) fond of...

Thank you (thank you for asking,

thank you very much, etc.) but, I have following the modal form 'have to do'
to...
Asking for Information
Asking for Information

There are a number of formulas used when asking for information in English. Here
are some of the most common:
Could you tell me...?
Do you know...?
Do you happen to know...?
I'd like to know...
Could you find out...?
I'm interested in...
I'm looking for..
These two forms are used for asking for information on the telephone:
I'm calling to find out...
I'm calling about...
After you study these constructions, take the asking for information quiz to check
your understanding.
Construction
Formula
Question
Example Finish
Word
Could you tell me when
the next train leaves?
Do you know
how much
that vase costs?
Do you happen to where
Tom lives?
know
I'd like to know
what
you think about the
new project.
Could you tell me when
the next train leaves?
Could you find out when
she is going to arrive?
Formula
Gerund (- Example
ing)
Finish
I'm
buying
a boat
interested
in
Formula
Noun
Example
Finish
I'm looking informatio holidays in
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for
n on
Spain.
Formula used only on the Question
telphone
Word
I'm calling to find out...
if
Example Finish
flight AZ098 will leave on
time today.
Making Suggestions
There are a number of formulas used when making suggestions in English. Here
are some of the most common:
Why don't you / we go to the movies tonight?
You / we could visit New York while you're / we're there.
Let's go to the travel agent's this afternoon to book our ticket.
What about asking your brother for help?
How about going to Hawaii for your vacation?
I suggest you / we take all the factors into consideration before we
decide.
After you study these constructions, take the making suggestions quiz to check
your understanding.
Construction
Formula
Verb Form
Why don't you / we go to Use the base form of the verb in a

a movie?
question
We / You could go to a
movie.
Use the base form of the verb in a

statement
Let's go to a movie.
Use the base form of the verb with 'let's'
What about going to a

movie?
Use the '-ing' form of the verb in a

question
How about going to a

movie?
Use the '-ing' form of the verb in a

question
I suggest you / we go to a Use suggest object verb in the base form

movie.
in a statement.
English Tenses Timeline Chart
English Tenses Timeline Chart

This timeline tenses chart provides a handy reference sheet to English tenses and
their relationship to one another and the past, present and future. Conjugated
verbs are highlighted in bold. Tenses which are rarely used in everyday
conversation are marked by an asterik (*).
TIMELINE
SIMPLE
ACTIVE
SIMPLE
PASSIVE
PROGRESSIVE /
CONTINUOUS
PROGRESSIVE /
CONTINUOUS
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ACTIVE
PASSIVE
I had been
waiting for four
hours when he
finally arrived.
The house had been

being painted for
over a month before
they began to
decorate the interior.
*
I was watching
TV when she
arrived.
The problem was

being solved when I
arrived late for class.
She has been

working at
Johnson's for six
months.
The students have

been being taught
for the last four
hours. *
I am working at
the moment.
The work is being

done by Jim.
PAST
TIME
^
|
|
|
|
She had
The painting
already
had been
eaten when I sold twice
arrived.
before it was
destroyed.
^
|
PAST
PERFECT
|
|
I bought a
new car last
week.
The book was

written in
^
1876 by Frank |
Smith.
PAST
|
|
She has lived The company
in California
has been
^
for many
managed by |
years.
Fred Jones for PRESENT
the last two
PERFECT
years.
|
|
He works five Those shoes
days a week. are made in ^
Italy.
|
PRESENT
|
|
|
|
PRESENT
MOMENT
|
|
They are going to The reports are

|
fly to New York
going to be
FUTURE
tomorrow.
completed by the
INTENTIO
marketing
N
department.
|
|
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V
The sun will
shine
tomorrow.
The food will

be brought |
later.
FUTURE
SIMPLE
|
|
V
I will have
The project
completed
will have
|
the course by been
FUTURE
the end of
finished by
PERFECT
next week.
tomorrow
|
afternoon.
|
V
FUTURE
TIME
|
|
|
|
V
She will be
teaching
tomorrow at six
o'clock.
The rolls will be

being baked at two.
*
She will have

been working
here for two years
by the end of next
month.
The house will have

been being built for
six months by the
time they finish. *
Relative Clauses: Defining and Non-Defining Clauses
How To Use a Defining or Non-Defining Relative Clause

Defining Relative Clauses
The information provided in a defining relative clause is crucial in understanding
the meaning of the sentence.
Example: The woman who lives in apartment No. 34 has been arrested.
The document that I need has 'important' written at the top.
The purpose of a defining relative clause is to clearly define who or what we are
talking about. Without this information, it would be difficult to know who or what is
meant.
Example: The house is being renovated.
In this case it is not necessarily clear which house is being renovated.
Non-defining Relative Clauses
Non-defining relative clauses provide interesting additional information which is
not essential to understanding the meaning of the sentence.
Example: Mrs. Jackson, who is very intelligent, lives on the corner.
Correct punctuation is essential in non-defining relative clauses. If the non-defining
relative clause occurs in the middle of a sentence, a comma is put before the
relative pronoun and at the end of the clause. If the non-defining relative clause
occurs at the end of a sentence, a comma is put before the relative pronoun.
NOTE: In defining relative clauses there are no commas.
Relative Clauses: Relative Pronouns in Non-Defining Clauses

How To Use A Relative Clause - The Use of Relative Pronouns in NonDefining Relative Clauses
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Relative Pronouns in Non-Defining Relative Clauses

Person Object
Subject who
which
Object who,
which
whom
Posses whose whose, of
sive
which
Relative Pronouns Used As The Subject of Non-Defining Relative Clauses
Example: Frank Zappa, who was one of the most creative artists in rock 'n roll,
came from California.
Olympia, whose name is taken from the Greek, is the capitol of Washington State.
Relative Pronouns Used As The Object of Non-Defining Relative Clauses
Example: Frank invited Janet, who (whom) he had met in Japan, to the party.
Peter brought his favorite antique book, which he had found at a flee market, to
show his friends.
NOTE That can never be used in non-defining clauses.
Relative Pronouns Used As A Possessive In Non-Defining Relative Clauses
Example: The singer, whose most recent recording has had much success, signing
autographs.
The artist, whose name he could not remember, was one of the best he had ever
seen.
NOTES
In non-defining relative clauses, which can be used to refer to an entire clause.
Example: He came for the weekend wearing only some shorts and a t-shirt, which
was a stupid thing to do.
After numbers and words like many, most, neither, and some, we use of before
whom and which in non-defining relative clauses. Example: Many of those
people, most of whom enjoyed their experience, spent at least a year abroad.
Dozens of people had been invited, most of whom I knew.
Adverb Clauses
Using Adverb Clauses

What is an Adverb Clause?
"He saw Mary when he was in New York" and "They studied hard because they had
a test" are adverb clauses. Adverb clauses express when, why, opposition and
conditions and are dependent clauses. This means that an adverb clause can not
stand by itself - in other words, "When he went to New York." is not a complete
sentence. It needs to be completed by an independent clause. Example: He went
to the Guggenheim museum when he was in New York.
Punctuation
When an adverb clause begins the sentence use a comma to separate the two
clauses. Example: As soon as he arrives, we will have some lunch.. When the
adverb clause finishes the sentence there is no need for a comma. Example: He
gave me a call when he arrived in town.
For more information about how to use these words click on the link for an
explanation of the usage.
List of Words (subordinating conjunctions) Introducing Adverb Clauses
TIME
CAUSE
OPPOSITIO
CONDITION
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after, before,
when, while,
as, by the
time (that),
as soon as,
since, until,
whenever,
the first time
(that), the
next time
(that), the
last time
(that), every
time (that) more
information
on adverb
clauses with
time
expressions
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AND
EFFECT
because,
since, as,
as long as,
so long as,
due to the
fact that more
informatio
n on
adverb
clauses
with
expression
s of cause
and effect
although,
even though,
though,
whereas,
while - more
information
on adverb
clauses with
expressions
of opposition
if, only if,

unless,
whether (or
not), even if,
providing
(that), in case
(that),
provided
(that), in the
event (that) more
information on
adverb
clauses with
condition
expressions
Adverb Clauses Showing Oppostion
Using Adverb Clauses to Show Opposition

These type of clauses show an unexpected or non self-evident result based on the
dependent clause. Example: He bought the car even though it was expensive.
Take a look at the chart below to study the various usages of adverb clauses
showing opposition.
Punctuation
clauses. Example: Even though the it was expensive, he bought the car.. When
the adverb clause finishes the sentence there is no need for a comma. Example:
He bought the car even though it was expensive.
Adverb Clauses Showing Opposition
Even
though,
though,
although
Even though Notice how 'though,

even though' or
it was
expensive, 'although' show a
situation which is
he bought
contrary to the main
the car.
Though he clause to express
opposition. Even
loves
doughnuts, though, though and
although are all
he has
given them synonyms.
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Whereas
, while
up for his
diet.
Although he
course was
difficult, he
passed with
the highest
marks.
Whereas
you have
lots of time
to do your
homework, I
have very
little time
indeed.
Mary is rich,
while I am
poor.
'Whereas' and
'while' show clauses
in direct opposition
to each other. Notice
that you should
always use a comma
with 'whereas' and
'while'.
English Verb Forms
Verb Formation
The following chart shows the positive, negative and interrogative (question) forms
of all the principle tenses in English with a brief description of the principle usage.
Please note that for a better understanding of the tense forms you should follow
the links to pages focusing on the specific tense. This chart is principally for
comparison purposes.
TENSE
POSITIV NEGATIV QUESTIO USE

E
E
N
Simple
Present
I play
They
Does she
tennis on don't (do know
Mondays. not) work him?
in New
York.
Habitual
activities States More
Simple
Past
She went
to Paris
last
week.
Actions
happening
at a defined
moment in
the past.
More
They
Where did
didn't (did she get
not) drive that hat?
to work.
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Simple
Future
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I'll (will)
meet you
at the
airport
tomorrow
.
He won't Will they

(will not) visit us
be able to soon?
come.
Decisions
made at the
moment
about the
future,
future
predictions,
future
promises
More
Present He's (is)

Continuo working
us
at the
moment.
They
What are
aren't (are you
not)
doing?
coming
this
evening.
Actions
happening
at the
present
moment.
Near future
intention
and
scheduling.
More
Past
I was
Continuo watching
us
TV when
you
called.
He wasn't
(was not)
working
when she
arrived.
What
were you
doing
when I
called?
Interrupted
past action,
action
happening
at a specific
moment in
time in the
past. More
Future
I'll (will)
Continuo be
us
cooking
dinner
when
you
arrive.
They
won't (will
not) be
living in
Paris this
time next
year.
What will
you be
doing next
week at
this time?
Future
action at a
specific
moment in
the future.
More
Future
He's (is) They're
Where are
with
going to (are) not you going
Going to fly to
going to to stay?
Boston
invite the
next
Browns.
week.
Future
intent or
planned
action More
Present
Perfect
1)To express
an action
that was
begun in the
past and
I've
(have)
seen
Mick
three
She hasn't How long

(has not) have you
been to
worked at
New York. Smith's?
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times
this
week.
continues
into the
present. 2)
To express
an action
that
happened in
the
UNspecified
past. 3) To
express a
recent
action that
has a
present
effect. More
Past
Perfect
I'd (had)
already
eaten
before
they
came.
She
hadn't
(had not)
been to
Rome
before
that trip.
Had you
ever seen
such a
crazy lady
before
that?
To express
an action
that
happens
before
another
action in the
past. More
Future
Perfect
We'll
(will)
have
lived
here for
twenty
years by
2005.
She won't How long

(will not) will you
have
have lived
finished
in France
her
by the
homework end of
by the
next year?
time we
arrive.
To express
what will
have
happened or
how long
something
will have
happened
up to a
certain point
in the
future. More
Present
Perfect
Continuo
us
She's
(has)
been
waiting
for over
three
hours.
They
haven't
(have not)
been
studying
for long.
To express
the duration
of a
continuous
activity
begun in the
past and
continuing
into the
present.
More
How long
have you
been
working
on that
problem?
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Past
Perfect
Continuo
us
She'd
(had)
been
waiting
for three
hours
when he
finally
arrived.
I hadn't
(had not)
been
sleeping
for long
when I
heard the
doorbell
ring.
How long
had you
been
playing
tennis
when she
arrived?
Future
Perfect
Continuo
us
He'll
(will)
have
been
sleeping
for a few
hours by
the time
we
arrive.
She won't How long

(will not) will you
have been have been
working
driving by
for long
6 o'clock?
by 5
o'clock.
To express
the duration
of a
continuous
activity
begun
before
another
activity in
the past.
More
To express
the duration
of an
activity up
to a point of
time in the
future. More
Adjectives
How to Use Adjectives
An adjective describes how something 'is'. For this reason, we usually use the verb
'to be' when using adjectives. Adjectives are used to describe nouns.
Example: He is a good doctor. Rule: Adjectives describe nouns. The adjective is
always invariable.
Example: beautiful trees, they are happy
Be careful!
Adjectives don't have a singular and plural form OR a masculine, femine
and neuter form.
Adjectives are always the same! Never add a final -s to an adjective.
Adjectives can also be placed at the end of a sentence if they describe
the subject of a sentence. Example: My doctor is excellent.
NOT!!: difficults books
Rule: Adjectives are placed before the noun.
Example: a wonderful book very interesting people
Be careful!
Don't place an adjective after the noun
NOT!!: an apple red
Adjective Placement
Adjective Placement
When using more than one adjective to describe a noun place the adjectives in the
following order before the noun.
NOTE: We usually use no more than three adjectives preceding a noun.
1. Opinion
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Example: an interesting book, a boring lecture

2. Dimension
Example: a big apple, a thin wallet
3. Age
Example: a new car, a modern building, an ancient ruin
4. Shape
Example: a square box, an oval mask, a round ball
5. Color
Example: a pink hat, a blue book, a black coat
6. Origin
Example: some Italian shoes, a Canadian town, an American car
7. Material
Example: a wooden box, a woolen sweater, a plastic toy
Here are some examples of nouns modified with three adjectives in the correct
order based on the list above. Notice that the adjectives are not separated by
commas.
A wonderful old Italian clock. (opinion - age - origin)
A big square blue box. (dimension - shape - color)
A disgusting pink plastic ornament. (opinion - color - material)
Some slim new French trousers. (dimension - age - origin)
Contractions
Using Contractions
In everyday spoken English forms of the verb 'to be' and other auxiliary verbs are
usually contracted:
Example: He's been to London, They aren't our neighbors
Here is a chart of when to use the most common contractions in English.
Auxiliar Contraction Contractio Contractions
y Form s With
ns With
With
Pronouns
Nouns
Question
Words
am
I'm working
this
morning.
is
He's going to John's at

come. work. She's a
Mary's
teacher. - It's playing the
easy!
piano at the
moment.
are
You're a
What'm I
supposed to
say?
(common only
in spoken
English)
Who's on the
telephone? What's he
doing?
The books're What're you

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great friend!
- They're
playing golf
this
afternoon.
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on their way. going to do?

(common
only in
spoken
English)
has
He's been to Mary's gone What's she

Paris twice. - to the store. been doing? It's been
Who's been
such a long
invited?
time! - She's
lived there
all her life.
have
I've finished
my
homework. They've got
two cars.
The
students've
finished
their
homework.
(common
only in
spoken
English)
Where've you
been all day?
(common only
in spoken
English)
had
He'd been
waiting for
three hours.
- We'd better
be going.
Jack'd
worked
there before
he left.
(common
only in
spoken
English)
What'd you
done before
that?
(common only
in spoken
English)
will
I'll get you

something
to eat. We'll be
there soon.
Peter'll catch What'll we do?

the bus to
Where'll you
work.
take us?
would
I'd like some Jane'd love

fish. They'd to come.
love to ask
you some
questions.
Where'd you
like to go?
(common only
in spoken
nglish)
American/British
Differences Between American and British English

While there are certainly many more varieties of English, American and British
English are the two varieties that are taught in most ESL/EFL programs. Generally,
it is agreed that no one version is "correct" however, there are certainly
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preferences in use. The most important rule of thumb is to try to be consistent in

your usage. If you decide that you want to use American English spellings then be
consistent in your spelling (i.e. The color of the orange is also its flavour - color is
American spelling and flavour is British), this is of course not always easy - or
possible. The following guide is meant to point out the principal differences
between these two varieties of English.
Use of the Present Perfect
In British English the present perfect is used to express an action that has occurred
in the recent past that has an effect on the present moment. For example:
I've lost my key. Can you help me look for it?
In American English the following is also possible:
I lost my key. Can you help me look for it?
In British English the above would be considered incorrect. However, both forms
are generally accepted in standard American English. Other differences involving
the use of the present perfect in British English and simple past in American
English include already, just and yet.
British English:
I've just had lunch
I've already seen that film
Have you finished your homework yet?
American English:
I just had lunch OR I've just had lunch
I've already seen that film OR I already saw that film.
Have your finished your homework yet? OR Did you finish your homework yet?
Possession
There are two forms to express possession in English. Have or Have got
Do you have a car?
Have you got a car?
He hasn't got any friends.
He doesn't have any friends.
She has a beautiful new home.
She's got a beautiful new home.
While both forms are correct (and accepted in both British and American English),
have got (have you got, he hasn't got, etc.) is generally the preferred form in
British English while most speakers of American English employ the have (do you
have, he doesn't have etc.)
The Verb Get
The past participle of the verb get is gotten in American English. Example He's
gotten much better at playing tennis. British English - He's got much better at
playing tennis.
Vocabulary
Probably the major differences between British and American English lies in the
choice of vocabulary. Some words mean different things in the two varieties for
example:
Mean: (American English - angry, bad humored, British English - not generous,
tight fisted)
Rubber: (American English - condom, British English - tool used to erase pencil
markings)
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There are many more examples (too many for me to list here). If there is a
difference in usage, your dictionary will note the different meanings in its definition
of the term. Many vocabulary items are also used in one form and not in the other.
One of the best examples of this is the terminology used for automobiles.
American English - British English hood
bonnet
American English - British English trunk
boot
American English - British English truck
lorry
Once again, your dictionary should list whether the term is used in British English
or American English.
For a more complete list of the vocabulary differences between British and
American English use this British vs. American English vocabulary tool.
Prepositions
There are also a few differences in preposition use including the following:
American English - British English - at
on the weekend
the weekend
American English - British English - in
on a team
a team
American English - British English please write me
please write to
soon
me soon
Past Simple/Past Participles
The following verbs have two acceptable forms of the past simple/past participle in
both American and British English, however, the irregular form is generally more
common in British English (the first form of the two) and the regular form is more
common to American English.
Burn
Burnt OR burned
Dream
dreamt OR dreamed
Lean
leant OR leaned
Learn
learnt OR learned
Smell
smelt OR smelled
Spell
spelt OR spelled
Spill
spilt OR spilled
Spoil
spoilt OR spoiled
Spelling
Here are some general differences between British and American spellings:
Words ending in -or (American) -our (British) color, colour, humor, humour, flavor,
flavour etc.
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Words ending in -ize (American) -ise (British) recognize, recognise, patronize,

patronise etc.
The best way to make sure that you are being consistent in your spelling is to use
the spell check on your word processor (if you are using the computer of course)
and choose which variety of English you would like. As you can see, there are really
very few differences between standard British English and standard American
English. However, the largest difference is probably that of the choice of
vocabulary and pronunciation. For further information concerning these areas
please refer to the following links below.
Irregular Verbs Reference List
Reference: Irregular Verbs

One of the more frustrating things about learning English is learning the irregular verbs by heart (by
memory). As you know regular verbs end in -ed or d, however irregular verbs just need to be learnt. To
help you with this task I've provided a list of the most important irregular verbs. Thanks to Elias Rosado
for suggesting that I include this important resource at esl.about.com!
Past
Simple
Infinitive
Past
participle
be
was/were
been
beat
beat
beaten
become
became
become
begin
began
begun
bend
bent
bent
bet
bet
bet
bite
bit
bitten
blow
blew
blown
break
broke
broken
bring
brought
brought
build
built
built
burst
burst
burst
buy
bought
bought
catch
caught
caught
choose
chose
chosen
come
came
come
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cost
cost
cost
cut
cut
cut
deal
dealt
dealt
dig
dug
dug
do
did
done
draw
drew
drawn
drink
drank
drunk
drive
drove
driven
eat
ate
eaten
fall
fell
fallen
feed
fed
fed
feel
felt
felt
fight
fought
fought
find
found
found
fly
flew
flown
forbid
forbade
forbidden
forget
forgot
forgotten
freeze
froze
frozen
get
got
got
give
gave
given
go
went
gone
grow
grew
grown
hang
hung
hung
have
had
had
hear
heard
heard
hide
hid
hidden
hit
hit
hit
hold
held
held
hurt
hurt
hurt
keep
kept
kept
know
knew
known
lay
laid
laid
lead
led
led
leave
left
left
lend
lent
lent
let
let
let
lie
lay
lain
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light
lit
lit
lose
lost
lost
make
made
made
mean
meant
meant
meet
met
met
pay
paid
paid
put
put
put
read
read
read
ride
rode
ridden
ring
rang
rung
rise
rose
risen
run
ran
run
say
said
said
see
saw
seen
seek
sought
sought
sell
sold
sold
send
sent
sent
set
set
set
sew
sewed
sewn/sewed
shake
shook
shaken
shine
shone
shone
shoot
shot
shot
show
showed
shown
shrink
shrank
shrunk
shut
shut
shut
sing
sang
sung
sink
sank
sunk
sit
sat
sat
sleep
slept
slept
speak
spoke
spoken
spend
spent
spent
split
split
split
spread
spread
spread
spring
sprang
sprung
stand
stood
stood
steal
stole
stolen
stick
stuck
stuck
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sting
stung
stung
stink
stank
stunk
strike
struck
struck
swear
swore
sworn
sweep
swept
swept
swim
swam
swum
swing
swung
swung
take
took
taken
teach
taught
taught
tear
tore
torn
tell
told
told
think
thought
thought
throw
threw
thrown
understand
understood
understood
wake
woke
woken
wear
wore
worn
win
won
won
write
wrote
written
Intonation and Stress: Keys to Understanding
Say this sentence aloud and count how many seconds it takes.
The beautiful Mountain appeared transfixed in the distance.
Time required? Probably about 5 seconds. Now, try speaking this sentence aloud.
He can come on Sundays as long as he doesn't have to do any homework in the
evening.
Time required? Probably about 5 seconds.
Wait a minute the first sentence is much shorter than the second sentence!
The beautiful Mountain appeared transfixed in the distance
He can come on Sundays as long as he doesn't have to do any homework in the
evening
You are only partially right!
This simple exercise makes a very important point about how we speak and use
English. Namely, English is considered a stressed language while many other
languages are considered syllabic. What does that mean? It means that, in English,
we give stress to certain words while other words are quickly spoken (some
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students say eaten!). In other languages, such as French or Italian, each syllable
receives equal importance (there is stress, but each syllable has its own length).
Many speakers of syllabic languages don't understand why we quickly speak, or
swallow, a number of words in a sentence. In syllabic languages each syllable has
equal importance, and therefore equal time is needed. English however, spends
more time on specific stressed words while quickly gliding over the other, less
important, words.
Let's look at a simple example: the modal verb "can". When we use the positive
form of "can" we quickly glide over the can and it is hardly pronounced.
They can come on Friday . (stressed words underlined)
On the other hand, when we use the negative form "can't" we tend to stress the
fact that it is the negative form by also stressing "can't".
They can't come on Friday .
As you can see from the above example the sentence, "They can't come on Friday"
is longer than "They can come on Friday" because both the modal "can't" and the
verb "come" are stressed.
So, what does this mean for my speaking skills?
Well, first of all, you need to understand which words we generally stress and
which we do not stress. Basically, stress words are considered CONTENT
WORDSsuch as
Nouns e.g. kitchen, Peter
(most) principal verbs e.g. visit, construct
Adjectives e.g. beautiful, interesting
Adverbs e.g. often, carefully
Non-stressed words are considered FUNCTION WORDSsuch as
Determiners e.g. the, a, some, a few
Auxiliary verbs e.g. don't, am, can, were
Prepositions e.g. before, next to, opposite
Conjunctions e.g. but, while, as
Pronouns e.g. they, she, us
Let's return to the beginning example to demonstrate how this affects speech.
The beautifu l Mountain appeared transfixe d in the distance . (14 syllables)
He can come on Sunday s as long as he doesn't have to do any homework in the
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evening . (22 syllables)

Even though the second sentence is approximately 30% longer than the first, the
sentences take the same time to speak. This is because there are 5
stressedwords in each sentence. From this example, you can see that you
needn't worry about pronouncing every word clearly to be understood (we native
speakers certainly don't). You should however, concentrate on pronouncing the
stressed words clearly.
Now, do some listening comprehension or go speak to your native English speaking
friends and listen to how we concentrate on the stressed words rather than giving
importance to each syllable. You will soon find that you can understand and
communicate more because you begin to listen for (and use in speaking) stressed
words. All those words that you thought you didn't understand are really not crucial
for understanding the sense or making yourself understood. Stressed words are
the key to excellent pronunciation and understanding of English.
I hope this short introduction to the importance of stress in English will help you to
improve your understanding and speaking skills.
Irregular Verbs - Interactive Quiz/Learning Tool
Future Forms
Listed below are examples, uses and formation of Future Forms followed by a quiz.
Examples
Usage
Will Verb (base

form)
It will snow
tomorrow.
She won't win the
election.
Used for predictions
Will Verb (base

Used for scheduled events
form)
The concert will
begin at 8 o'clock.
When will the train
leave?
Will Verb (base
Used for promises
form)
Will you marry me?
I'll help you with
your homework
after class
Will Verb (base
form)
I'll make you a
sandwich.
They'll help you if
Used for offers
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you want.
Will Verb (base
form)
He will telephone
as soon as he
arrives.
Will you visit me
when you come
next week?
Used in combination with time clauses (as soon as, when,

before, after)
Be going to Verb
(base form)
Frank is going to
study Medicine.
Where are they
going to stay when
they come?
She isn't going to
buy the new house
afterall.
The future with 'going to' is used to express planned events or

intentions. These events or intentions are decided on before
the moment of speaking.
NOTE
'Going to' or '-ing' are often both correct for planed events.
'Going to' should be used for distant future intentions
(example: He's going to study Law)
Be going to Verb Used for future predictions based on physical (usually visual)
(base form)
evidence.
Oh no! Look at
those clouds. It's
going to rain.
Be careful! You're
going to drop those
dishes!
Present
Continuous (be 'ing')
He's coming
tomorrow
afternoon.
What are we
having for dinner?
I'm not seeing the
doctor until Friday.
Used for planned or personally scheduled events. Usually used

with principle verbs such as: come, go, begin, start, finish,
have, etc.
NOTE
'Going to' or '-ing' are often both correct for planed events.
'Going to' should be used for distant future intentions
(example: He's going to study Law)
Simple Present
Used for scheduled public events such as train and plane
The class begins at schedules, course schedules, etc.
11.30.
The plane leaves at
6 o'clock.
Common future
next (week, month, year), tomorrow, in X's time (amount of
time expressions time, i.e. two week's time), in year, time clauses (when, as
include:
soon as, before, after) simple present (example: I will telephone
as soon as I arrive.) soon, later
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Structure
Future with Will
S will verb (base form) positve
S will not (won't) verb (base form) negative
will S verb (base form) question
I
will ('ll) help you immediately.
You
won't leave soon.
He
She
It
We
You
They
Will
it rain tomorrow?
Future with 'going to'
Conjugate the helping verb "be" 'going to' verb (base form).
I'm going to (I am)
work this evening.
You're going to (You are)
He's going to (He is)
She's going to (She is)
It's going to (It is)
We're going to (We are)
You're going to (You are)
They're going to (They are)
Conjugate the helping verb "be" not going to verb (base form)
I'm not going to (I am not)
come this evening.
You aren't going to (You are not)
He isn't going to (He is not)
She isn't going to (She is not)
It isn't going to (It is not)
We aren't going to (We are not)
You aren't going to (You are not)
They aren't going to (They are not)
Question word conjugate the helping verb 'be' subject going to verb (base
form)
What
am I going to
do tomorrow?
are you going to
is he going to
is she going to
is it going toare we going to
are you going to
are they going to
Future with '-ing' (present continuous)
Conjugate the helping verb "be" and verb -ing.
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I'm (I am)
You're (You are)
He's (He is)
She's (She is)
It's (It is)
We're (We are)
You're (You are)
They're (They are)
Hasham Raza
working next week.
Conjugate the helping verb "be" not verb -ing.

I'm not (I am not)
coming this evening.
You aren't (You are not)
He isn't (He is not)
She isn't (She is not)
It isn't (It is not)
We aren't (We are not)
You aren't (You are not)
They aren't (They are not)
Question word conjugate the helping verb 'be' subject verb -ing
What
am I
doing this afternoon?
are you
is he
is she
is itare we
are you
are they
Future with Simple Present
In the positive form add an 's' to the base form of the 3rd person singular.
If the verb ends in -y preceded by a consonant, change the -y to -ies.
I
arrive
at noon.
You
We
They
He
arrives
at noon.
She
It
Conjugate the helping verb 'do' not (don't and doesn't) the base form of
the verb to make negatives.
I
don't leave
at noon.
You
We
They
He
doesn't leave
at noon.
She
It
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Conjugate the helping verb 'do' (do or does) the base form of the verb in
question forms.
Do
I
leave at noon?
You
We
They
Does
He
leave at noon?
She
It
Modal Forms Overview

Modal Forms
Listed below is a general outline of modal forms and their possible time reference.
Examples
Form
Time
Referenc
e
He can answer MODAL Simple

your question. Verb
They should
leave early
tomorrow.
He had to leave
at 7 this
morning.
Present
Future
Past
He might be
joking!
Modal Continuous
Form
Present
She can't have

been serious!
Modal Verbs
Present Perfect
Past
They might
have gone to
the country.
They might
Modal Present
Past
have been
Perfect Continuous
working at that Verb
time
Can / Be Able To
Listed below are examples and uses of can / could / be able to for ability and
permission
Examples
Usage
He can play tennis Use 'can' or 'be able to' to

well.
express an ability or possibility
She is able to speak NOTE: The future of 'be able to' is
five languages.
'will be able to
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They can come on

Friday.
Jack will be able to
come next week.
He could swim
when he was five.
Could in the past means the

general ability to do something.
They were able to IMPORTANT: If someone was in

get tickets for the the position to do something, or
concert.
managed to do something, we
I was able to finish use 'was/were able to instead of
before 6.
'could'
I couldn't come last In the negative,' wasn't able to'
night, sorry. OR I
OR 'couldn't' are both correct.
wasn't able to come
last night, sorry.
Must / Have To - Mustn't / Don't Have to
Listed below are examples and uses of must / have to / mustn't / not have to
Examples
Usage
We have to
get up early.
She had to
work hard
yesterday.
They will
have to
arrive early.
Does he
have to go?
Use 'have to' in the past, present and

future to express responsibility or
necessity. NOTE: 'have to' is conjugated
as a regular verb and therefore requires
an auxillary verb in the question form or
negative.
I must finish
this work
before I
leave.
Must you
work so
hard?
Use 'must' to express something that

you or a person feels is necessary. This
form is used only in the present and
future.
You don't
The negative form of 'have to' expresses
have to
the idea that something is not required.
arrive before It is however, possible if so desired.
8.
They didn't
have to work
so hard.
She mustn't The negative form of 'must' expresses
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horrible
this form is very different in meaning
language.
than the negative of 'have to'!
Tom. You
mustn't play
with fire.
Did he have IMPORTANT: The past form of 'have to'
to leave so and 'must' is 'had to'. Must does not
early?
exist in the past.
He had to
stay
overnight in
Dallas.
Modal Verbs of Probability
Listed below are examples and uses of modal verbs of probability. Modal verbs of
probability are used to express an opinion of the speaker based on information that
the speaker has. Example: He must be at work, it's 10 o'clock. In this case, the
speaker is 100 % sure that the person is at work based on the speaker's knowledge
that the person in question usually works at during the day.
Examples
Usage
They must be Use 'must' plus the verb when you are
in Spain by
100% (or almost 100%) sure that
now.
something is the case.
She must
have done
well on the
test.
She might
Use 'might' or 'may' to express an
come this
opinion that you think has a good
evening.
possibility of being true.
David may
invite Jesica to
the match.
Jack might
have gone to
France.
Jane could be
at work.
Peter could
have arrived
late.
Use 'could' to express a possibilty

which is one of many. This form is not
as strong as 'might' or 'may'. It is just
one of a number of possibilities.
You can't be
serious!
They can't
have worked
until late.
Use 'can't' to express an opinion that

you are 100% sure is NOT true.
Notice that the past form remains
'can't have done'
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Structure
In the present: Subject Modal Base Form
Objects
I
must be
at work.
You
might be
He, She
could be
We
can't be
They
In the past: Subject Modal Perfect Form
Objects
I
must have left
early.
You
might have left
He, She
could have left
We
can't have left
They
Modal Verbs of Probability Quiz
Use must, might, may, could or can't plus the correct form of the verb.
Where is David? He
She
(think) that it is a good idea. It's crazy!
I'm absolutley sure!. They

Courses
(arrive) yesterday, I saw their ticket.

(begin) the fifth of September.
Are you joking! David

enough money.
They
(be) at school. Classes begin at 8.
(go) to Paris last week. He doesn't have
(live) in New York, but I'm not sure.
The concert
(be) wonderful last night. Fiore is a great conductor.
Reported Speech
Indirect Speech (also referred to as 'reported speech') refers to a sentence
reporting what someone has said. It is almost always used in spoken English.
If the reporting verb (i.e. said) is in the past, the reported clause will be in
a past form. This form is usually one step back into the past from the
original.
For example:
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He said the test was difficult.

She said she watched TV every day.
Jack said he came to school every day.
present, present perfect or the future is used in the reporting
verb (i.e. says) the tense is retained.
For example:
He says the test is difficult.
She has said that she watches TV every day.
Jack will say that he comes to school every day.
If reporting a general truth the present tense will be retained.
For example:The teacher said that phrasal verbs are very important.
Changing Pronouns and Time Signifiers
When changing from direct speech to indirect speech, it is often necessary to
change the pronouns to match the subject of the sentence.
For example:
She said, "I want to bring my children." BECOMES She said she wanted to
bring her children.
Jack said, "My wife went with me to the show." BECOMES Jack said his
wife had gone with him to the show.
It is also important to change time words (signifiers) when referring to present,
past or future time to match the moment of speaking.
For example:
She said, "I want to bring my children tomorrow." BECOMES She said she
wanted to bring her children the next day.
Jack said, "My wife went with me to the show yesterday." BECOMES Jack
said his wife had gone with him to the show the day before.
Indirect Questions
When reporting questions, it is especially important to pay attention to sentence
order. When reporting yes/ no questions connect the reported question using 'if'.
When reporting questions using question words (why, where, when, etc.) use the
question word.
For example:
She asked, "Do you want to come with me?" BECOMES She asked me if I
wanted to come with her.
Dave asked, "Where did you go last weekend?" BECOMES Dave asked me
where I had gone the previous weekend.
He asked, "Why are you studying English?" BECOMES She asked me why
I was studying English.
The following chart includes sentences changed from quoted speech to reported
speech using a past form. NoteSimple past, present perfect, and past perfect
allchange to past perfect in the reported form.
Check your understanding with this reported speech quiz:
Advanced Reporting Verbs
He said, "I live in Paris."
He said, "I am cooking dinner."
He said, "I have visted London
twice."
He said he lived in Paris.

He said he was cooking dinner.
He said he had visited London twice.
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He said,
week."
He said,
He said,
job."
He said,
Hasham Raza
"I went to New York last
He said he had gone to New York the week

before.
"I had already eaten."
He said he had already eaten.
"I am going to find a new He said he was going to find a new job.
"I will give Jack a call."
He said he would give Jack a call.
Beginners: How are you? The verb "to be"
Passive Voice
The passive voice is used when focusing on the person or thing affected by an
action.
The Passive is formed: Passive Subject To Be Past Particple
It is often used in business and in other areas where the object of the
action is more important than those who perform the action. For
Example: We have produced over 20 different models in the past two
years. Changes to: Over 20 different models have been produced in the
past two years.
If the agent (the performer of the action) is important, use "by" For
Example: Tim Wilson wrote "The Flight to Brunnswick" in 1987.
Changes to:"The Flight to Brunnswick" was written in 1987 by Tim
Wilson.
Only verbs that take an object can be used in the passive.
The following chart includes sentences changed from the active to the passive in
the principal tenses.
Active
Passive
Time
Referenc
e
They make
Fords in
Cologne.
Fords are made in

Cologne.
Present
Simple
Susan is
Dinner is being
cooking dinner. cooked by Susan
Present
Continuou
s
James Joyce
wrote
"Dubliners".
"Dubliners" was
written by James
Joyces.
Past
Simple
They were
painting the
house when I
arrived.
The house was

being painted
when I arrived.
Past
Continuou
s
They have
produced over
20 models in
the past two
years.
Over 20 models
have been
produced in the
past two years.
Present
Perfect
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They are going

to build a new
factory in
Portland.
A new factory is
Future
going to be built in Intention
Portland.
with
Going to
I will finish it
tomorrow.
It will be finished
tomorrow.
Future
Simple
Passive Voice
Passive Voice
The passive voice is used when focusing on the person or thing affected by an
action.
The Passive is formed: Passive Subject To Be Past Particple
It is often used in business and in other areas where the object of the
action is more important than those who perform the action. For
Example: We have produced over 20 different models in the past two
years. Changes to: Over 20 different models have been produced in the
past two years.
If the agent (the performer of the action) is important, use "by" For
Example: Tim Wilson wrote "The Flight to Brunnswick" in 1987.
Changes to:"The Flight to Brunnswick" was written in 1987 by Tim
Wilson.
Only verbs that take an object can be used in the passive.
The following chart includes sentences changed from the active to the passive in
the principal tenses.
Active
Passive
Time
Referenc
e
They make
Fords in
Cologne.
Fords are made in

Cologne.
Present
Simple
Susan is
Dinner is being
cooking dinner. cooked by Susan
Present
Continuou
s
James Joyce
wrote
"Dubliners".
"Dubliners" was
written by James
Joyces.
Past
Simple
They were
painting the
The house was

being painted
Past
Continuou
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house when I
arrived.
when I arrived.
They have
produced over
20 models in
the past two
years.
Over 20 models
have been
produced in the
past two years.
Present
Perfect
They are going

to build a new
factory in
Portland.
A new factory is
Future
going to be built in Intention
Portland.
with
Going to
I will finish it
tomorrow.
It will be finished
tomorrow.
Future
Simple
Contrasting Ideas
There are a number of formulas used when contrasting ideas in English. Here are
some of the most common:
We'd love to stay for dinner, but we have got to get going.
They decided to stay in the area, in spite of their problems with the local
residents.
Despite the difficulties of a long journey, Peter decided to visit India.
Getting a good job is hard work, however, most people eventually find
one with patience.
There were a number of people who came, although the hotels were not
equipped to handle them all.
After you study these constructions, take the contrasting ideas quiz to check your
understanding.
Construction
Formula
Example
Explanation
main statement,
but contrasting
statement
I'd really like to come to the

film, but I have to study
tonight.
Use a comma or semi colon

(;) with 'but'. 'But' is the
most common way to show
contrasting ideas.
main statement, in
spite of
contrasting
statement OR in
spite of
contrasting
statement, main
statement
They continued on their

Use 'in spite of' plus a
journey, in spite of the pouring noun, noun phrase or
rain. OR In spite of the pouring gerund
rain, the continued on their
journey.
main statement,
They continued on their
despite contrasting journey, despite the pouring
Use 'despite' plus a noun,

noun phrase or gerund
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statement OR
Despite
contrasting
statement, main
statement
rain. OR Despite the pouring

rain, the continued on their
journey.
main statement,
however,
contrasting
statement OR main
statement.
However,
contrasting
statement
She is a very intelligent girl,

however, her tendency to not
pay attention in class causes
her problems. OR She is a very
intelligent girl. However, her
tendency to not pay attention
in class causes her problems.
main statement,
although
contrasting
statement OR
Although
contrasting
statement, main
statement
We wanted to buy a sports car, Use 'although' with a

although we knew that fast cars subject and a verb.
can be dangerous. OR Although
we knew that fast cars can be
dangerous, we wanted to buy a
sports car.
Use 'however' preceded

and followed by a comma
(,). You can also contrast
ideas in two sentences by
beginning the contrasting
sentence with 'However'.
Giving Warning
Giving Warnings
There are a number of formulas used when Giving Warnings in English. Here are
some of the most common:
Don't push so hard on that toy, or you might / will break it!
Watch out! Be careful!
Work hard otherwise you'll fail your exam.
After you study these constructions, take the giving warnings quiz to check your
understanding.
Construction
Formula
Verb Form
Don't..., or you
might / will...
Use the imperative followed by might or will in a

statement
Watch out! Be
Careful
Use the imperative
Work hard,
Use the imperative otherwise you will / might plus the
otherwise you'll... base form of the verb to show consequenses
Offering Help
Offering Help
There are a number of formulas used when offering help in English. Here are some
of the most common:
May I help you?
Can I help you?
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Are you looking for something?
Would you like some help?
Do you need some help?
What can I do for you today?
Hasham Raza
After you study these constructions, take the offering help quiz to check your
understanding.
Construction
Formula
Verb Form
May I help you?
Use 'May I' or 'Can I' the base form of the verb in a
statement.
Are you looking for

something?
Use 'Are you looking for' something OR anything in

particular OR specific object
Would you like some Use 'Would you like' some help OR some advice OR a
help?
recommendation
Do you need some
help?
Use 'Do you need' some help OR some advice OR a

recommendation
What can I do for you Use 'What can I do for' you, her, him, etc. today OR this
today?
morning, this afternoon, this evening
Giving Advice
Giving Advice
There are a number of formulas used when Giving Advice in English. Here are some
of the most common:
I don't think you should work so hard.
You ought to work less.
You ought not to work so hard.
If I were you, I'd work less.
If I were in your position, I'd work less.
If I were in your shoes, I'd work less.
You had better work less.
You shouldn't work so hard.
Whatever you do, don't work so hard.
After you study these constructions, take the giving advice quiz to check your
understanding.
Construction
Formula
Verb Form
I don't think you

should work so hard.
Use 'I don't think you should' the base form of the verb in a
statement.
You ought to work

less.
Use 'You ought to' the base form of the verb in a statement.
You ought not to

work so hard.
Use 'You ought not to' the base form of the verb in a
statement.
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If I were you,
Use 'If I were' 'you' OR 'in your position' OR 'your shoes' 'I
If I were in your
wouldn't' OR 'I would' base form of the verb in a statement
position,
(A form of the conditional 2).
If I were in your
shoes, I wouldn't work
so hard.
You had better work
less.
Use 'You had better' (you'd better) the base form of the
verb in a statement.
You shouldn't OR You Use 'You should' OR 'You shouldn't' the base form of the
should work less.
verb in a statement.
Whatever you do,
don't work so hard.
Use 'Whatever you do' the imperative.
Relative Clauses: Introduction
How To Use A Relative Clause

Use relative clauses to provide extra information. This information can either
define something (defining clause), or provide unnecessary, but interesting, added
information (non-defining clause).
Relative clauses can be introduced by:
a relative pronoun: who (whom), which, that, whose
no relative pronoun, .
where, why and when instead of a relative pronoun
You need to consider the following when deciding which relative pronoun to use:
Is the subject or object or possessive of a relative clause?
Does it refers to a person or an object?
Is the relative clause a defining or non-defining relative clause?
NOTE: Relative clauses are often used in both spoken and written English. There is
a tendency to use non-defining relative clauses mostly in written, rather than in
spoken, English.
Relative Clauses: Relative Pronouns in Defining Clauses
How To Use A Relative Clause - The Use of Relative Pronouns in Defining

Clauses
Relative Pronouns in Defining Relative Clauses
Person
Object
Subject who that
which,
that
Object
, that, who,
whom
, which,
that
Posses
sive
whose
whose, of
which
Relative Pronouns Used As The Subject of Defining Relative Clauses

Example: Children who (that) play with fire are in great danger of harm.
The man who bought all the books by Hemingway has died.
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Generally, who and which are more usual in written English whereas that is more
usual in speech when referring to things.
Relative Pronouns Used As The Object of Defining Relative Clauses
Example: That's the boy ( , that, who, whom) I invited to the party.
There's the house (, that, which) I'd like to buy.
Relative Pronouns Used As A Possessive In A Defining Relative Clauses
Example: He's the man whose car was stolen last week.
They were sure to visit the town whose location (OR the location of which) was
little known.
NOTE: It is preferable to use that (not which) after the following words: all,
any(thing), every (thing), few, little, many, much, no(thing), none, some(thing),
and after superlatives. When using the pronoun to refer to the object, that can be
omitted.
Example: It was everything (that) he had ever wanted.
There were only a few (that) really interested him.
Relative Clauses: Prepositions, Where, When and Why
The Use Of Where, Why And When - Relative Clauses and Preposition Use
Where, referring to a place, why, referring to a reason, and when, referring to a
time, can be used instead of a relative pronoun after a noun.
In defining relative clauses why and when, unlike where can be omitted.
Example: I'd like to know the reason (why) he decided not to come.
February is the month (when) many of my colleagues take skiing holidays.
BUT! She always had wanted to go to a place where she could speak her native
tongue.
When, where and why are not omitted in non-defining relative clauses.
Example: I come from the Seattle area, where many successful companies such
as Microsoft and Boeing are located, and I often go home during the summer.
He likes shopping between one and three, when most people are at home,
because of the relative calm.
NOTES:
When speaking, we often omit the relative pronoun.
Whom is formal and most often used when writing.
Relative clauses and prepositions
In formal English prepositions can come before the relative pronoun. However, it
much more common to place prepositions at the end of the relative clause,
especially in informal spoken English.
Example: John Robbins, whom I spoke to by telephone, instructed me to buy 200
shares of WAKO. Formal
The Ritz, which was stayed at in New York, was extremely expensive.
Defining Relative Clauses
Form Inform
al
al
Pers who
on
m
Obje whic
ct
h
Example: The banker to whom I gave my check was quite friendly. - formal
The woman I talked to was very pleasant indeed. - informal
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The book which I received for my birthday was excellent. - formal

The car he drove was really fast. - informal
Non-Defining Relative Clauses
Form Inform
al
al
Pers who who
on
m
Obje whic which
ct
h
Example: The bank manager, to whom he addressed his complaints, was very
unhelpful. - formal.
The local branch manager, who I talked to about my problems, was very helpful. informal
Grammar Terminology Reference
Recognizing key grammar vocabulary

Understanding grammar terminology is necessary to follow grammar instruction.
This is especially true in upper level ESL and EFL classes. This understanding is
sometimes taken for granted and students who are not familiar with this
terminology can have a hard time following the lesson. In order to help with this
problem, this feature presents an extract with a follow-up guide giving examples of
the most important terminology. By quickly reviewing this reference sheet, you can
quickly brush-up your or your class' understanding of key grammar terminology,
while at the same time reviewing some basic grammar concepts.
Each grammar terminology reference is presented in bold followed by a number.
Explanations of these reference numbers follow at the end of the extract.
Extract: Frank Sinatra's Sublimely Ironic Crooning Style
Frank Sinatra (1) was one of the (2) most important representatives of the
'crooning' style of singing. When played in the background (3), this style of
singing stirs an extremely emotional response. (4) However (5), on closer
listening, Frank Sinatra's sublime (6) artistry not only triggers this emotional
response, but (7) also brings about a sly smile as the listener recognizes the
subtler ironies of his (8) delivery.
It is this (9) often unique presentation which (10) calls for repeated listening. (11)
Indeed, (12) Sinatra's perfect (13) mastery of vocal colors rewards careful
listening with many surprises! (14) It can be rather (15) surprising to detect this
ironic quality while Sinatra declares his love during one of his ballads.
What was the secret to Sinatra's depth of expression? (16) As my friend Jack told
me. " (17) Sinatra's style may have been as smooth as silk on the surface, but it
also carried the scars left by a life lived to the fullest." (17)
Terminology
1. Capital letter - use capital letters:
to begin sentences
with the first person subject pronoun "I"
for all proper nouns including names, days of the week, month,
names of institutions, etc.
nationality adjectives (i.e., Italian)
for the first letter in direct speech
Determiner: type - definite article
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Subordinate clause - cannot stand alone
Main clause - can stand alone
Connective adverb - other examples include: firstly, finally, etc.
Adjective - modifying following noun
Connective conjunction - other examples include: and, or, etc.
Determiner: type - possessive adjective (also known as possessive
pronoun)
Determiner: type - demonstrative adjective (including this, that, these,
those)
Connective: relative pronoun
Period (US English), full stop (British English)
Comma
Ungradable adjective - these adjectives are already 'very' (Example:
'wonderful' means 'very good'. These adjectives can only be used with
'extreme' modifiers like absolutely, extremely, etc.)
Exclamation mark - used for emphasis
Modifier - adverb. Other examples include: pretty, very, quite, etc.
Question mark - used when asking questions
Quotation marks - used when employing direct speech
Sentence Rewriting - 1
Sentence Transformation #1
The ability to rewrite sentences so that they have the same meaning as the
original is often required for many English ESL EFL Exams such as Cambridge's
First Certificate, CAE and Proficiency. This skill can also help you prepare for the
TOEFL examination (Test of English as a Foreign Language). It is also an important
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skill which can help you improve your understanding of similar English expressions
and vocabulary.
Rewrite the second sentence so that it has a similar meaning to the first.
Use no more than 5 words.
You must never take your helmet off while you are riding a motorcycle.
all
Helmets must be worn
when riding a motorcycle.
They wanted to apologize for their behavior: that's why they paid for dinner.
order
They paid for dinner
for their behavior.
It isn't necessary to bring skis as they are included in the package.
have
You
bring skis as they are included in the package.
I thought parking was allowed here.
under the impression
I
that parking was allowed here.
Tom said, "I will be playing tennis when you arrive."
he
Tom said
tennis when I arrived.
When I was a child, we would go to the local park every Saturday afternoon.
used
When I was a child,
the park every Saturday.
His daughter continued to cry until he could not be seen any longer.
sight
She continued to cry until he
I'm afraid that car is just too expensive.
means
That car is
.
They moved to this suburb in 1997.
lived
They
in this suburb since 1997.
One other thing before I forget - Jack is coming to visit next weekend.
by
, Jack is coming to visit next weekend.
and vocabulary.
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1. They managed to finish the project in time for the presentation.
succeeded
They
the project in time for the presentation.
2. Maurice didn't come to the meeting yesterday. Perhaps he was ill.
might
Maurice
yesterday.
3. Jane allows her children to stay up to midnight on Saturday evenings.
let
Jane
late on Saturdays.
4. Luckily, Peter wasn't charged with an offense when the police caught him
stealing the first time.
off
Peter was very lucky because he
5. Can I accompany you to the party?
mind
Do you
to the party?
6. I wish you didn't drive so fast.
only
If
so fast.
7. I think Tom needs to see a doctor. His cough is terrible.
ought
With that terrible cough, Tom
a doctor.
8. You should feel horrible! Why did you say that to Jack?
shame
! Why did you say that to Jack?
9. The authorities said she wasn't responsible for the accident.
fault
The accident
.
10. "Why don't you take a holiday?", said Peter.
suggested
Peter
a holiday.
and vocabulary.
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1. I haven't seen Tom for ages.

since
It's been a long time
Tom.
2. They were still playing tennis after three hours.

been
They
for three hours.
3. He didn't want to join in the celebrations.
take
He didn't want
the celebrations.
4. What a shame he wasn't able to come.
wish
I wish
come.
5. I took a sweater but it wasn't necessary.
taken
I
a sweater.
6. If you don't know how to spell the word, why don't you check in the
dictionary?
up
Why don't you
7. Somebody should tell him.
told
in the dictionary?
He needs
by someone.
8. The concert was horrible.
time
The concert was a complete
9. He couldn't find me at the exhibition.
find
He wasn't able
me at the exhibition.
10. She let her son go to New York for the weekend.
allowed
She
to New York
and vocabulary.
1. I haven't seen her for ages.
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time
The
was 15 years ago.
2. I didn't understand what he was saying because I hadn't read his book.
would
If I had read his book I
what he was saying.
3. As the class representative I would like to welcome you.

behalf
I'd like to welcome you
the class.
4. They believe the students were educated in Canada.
believed
The students
5. He escaped using a disguise.
means
He escaped
6. Remind me to call Jack.
forget
educated in Canada.
a disguise.
Don't let
Jack.
7. This pasta is a new experience for me.
time
It is
I have tried this pasta.
8. She has probably found a new job.
likely
It
a new job.
9. I don't agree with prohibiting smoking in bars.
favor
I'm not
prohibiting smoking in bars.
10. It doesn't need to be finished this afternoon.
finish
It
this afternoon.
and vocabulary.
1. Pittsburgh is less exciting than New York.
as
Pittsburgh
New York.
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2. He couldn't read the cup because it was too high.

low
He cup wasn't
for him to reach.
3. She didn't accept his marriage proposal.
down
She
.
4. We were told to wait here by the director.
who
It was the director
to wait here.
5. Can you look after the kids this afternoon?
of
Can you
the kids this afternoon?
6. "Why don't you take a day off?" asked Jim.
should
Jim suggested
a day off.
7. He acts like a poor man even if he has a lot of money.
fact
Even though he acts like a poor man, he
8. I didn't mean to break that vase.
on
I didn't break that vase
9. Jack says Jenny is responsible.
according
has a lot of money.
It's Jenny's
Jack.
10. I was so bored by his lecture I left.
boring
His lecture was
I left.
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Adverb Clauses with Time Expressions
Using Adverb Clauses with Time Expressions

These type of clauses are often called "time clauses" in English grammar books
and follow specific patterns. Take a look at the chart below to study the various
usage of different time expressions.
Punctuation
clauses. Example: As soon as he arrives, we will have some lunch.. When the
adverb clause finishes the sentence there is no need for a comma. Example: He
gave me a call when he arrived in town.
Adverb Clauses with Time
When
Before
After
While, as
He was talking
on the phone
when I arrived.
When she
called, he had
already eaten
lunch.
I washed the
dishes when
my daughter
fell asleep.
We'll go to
lunch when
you come to
visit.
'When' means 'at that moment, at that

time, etc.'. Notice the different tenses
used in relationship to the clause
beginning with when. It is important to
remember that 'when' takes either the
simple past OR the present - the
dependent clause changes tense in
relation to the 'when' clause.
We will finish
before he
arrives.
She (had) left
before I
telephoned.
'Before' means 'before that moment'. It is

important to remember that 'before' takes
either the simple past OR the present.
We will finish
after he
comes.
She ate after I
(had) left.
'After' means 'after that moment'. It is

important to remember that 'after' takes
the present for future events and the past
OR past perfect for past events.
She began
cooking while I
was finishing
my homework.
As I was
finishing my
'While' and 'as' mean 'during that time'.

'While' and 'as' are both usually used with
the past continuous because the meaning
of 'during that time' which indicates an
action in progess.
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homework, she
began cooking.
By the time
Until, till
By the time he
finished, I had
cooked dinner.
We will have
finished our
homework by
the time they
arrive.
'By the time' expresses the idea that one

event has been completed before another.
It is important to notice the use of the past
perfect for past events and future perfect
for future events in the main clause. This
is because of the idea of something
happening up to another point in time.
We waited
until he
finished his
homework.
I'll wait till you
finish.
'Until' and 'till' express 'up to that time'.

We use either the simple present or simple
past with 'until' and 'till'. 'Till' is usually
only used in spoken English.
Since
I have played
tennis since I
was a young
boy.
'Since' means 'from that time'. We use the

present perfect (continuous) with 'since'.
'Since' can also be used with a specific
point in time.
As soon as
He will let us
know as soon
as he decides
(or as soon as
he has
decided).
'As soon as' means 'when something

happens - immediately afterwards'. 'As
soon as' is very similar to 'when' it
emphasizes that the event will occur
immediately after the other. We usually
use the simple present for future events,
although present perfect can also be used.
Whenever,
every time
Whenever he
comes, we go
to have lunch
at "Dick's".
We take a hike
every time he
visits.
'Whenever' and 'every time' mean 'each

time something happens'. We use the
simple present (or the simple past in the
past) because 'whenever' and 'every time'
express habitual action.
The first time I

went to New
York, I was
intimidated by
the city.
I saw Jack the
last time I
went to San
Francisco.
The second
time I played
tennis, I began
The first, second, third, fourth etc., next,

last time means 'that specific time'. We
can use these forms to be more specific
about which time of a number of times
something happened.
The first,
second,
third, fourth
etc., next,
last time
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to have fun.
Adverb Clauses Expressing Conditions
Using Adverb Clauses to Express Conditions

These type of clauses are often called "if clauses" in English grammar books and
follow conditional sentence patterns. Take a look at the chart below to study the
various usage of different time expressions.
Punctuation
clauses. Example: If he comes, we will have some lunch.. When the adverb clause
finishes the sentence there is no need for a comma. Example: He would have
invited me if he had known.
More information on the correct tense usage for the

conditionals
If
If we win,
we'll go to
Kelly's to
celebrate!
She would
buy a
house, if
she had
enough
money.
'If' clauses express the

conditions necessary
for the result. If clauses
are followed by
expected results based
on the condition. More
information on the
correct tense usage for
the conditionals
Even if
Even if
she saves
a lot, she
won't be
able to
afford that
house.
In contrast to
sentences with 'if'
sentences with 'even if'
show a result that is
unexpected based on
the condition in the
'even if' clause.
Example: COMPARE: If
she studies hard, she
will pass the exam
AND Even if she
studies hard, she won't
pass the exam.
Whether
or not
They
won't be
able to
come
whether
or not
they have
enough
'Whether or not'
expresses the idea that
neither one condition
or another matters; the
result will be the same.
Notice the possibility of
inversion (Whether
they have money or
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Grammar Reference
Unless
In case
(that),
in the
event
(that)
Only if
Hasham Raza
money.
not) with 'whether or
Whether not'.
they have
money or
not, they
won't be
able to
come.
Unless
she
hurries
up, we
won't
arrive in
time.
We won't
go unless
he arrives
soon.
'Unless' expresses the

idea of 'if not'
Example: Unless she
hurries up, we won't
arrive in time. MEANS
THE SAME AS: If she
doesn't hurry up, we
won't arrive in time.
'Unless' is only used in
the first conditional.
In the
case you
need me,
I'll be at
Tom's.
I'll be
studying
upstairs in
the event
he calls.
'In case' and 'in the

event' usually mean
that you don't expect
something to happen,
but if it does... Both are
used primarily for
future events.
We'll give
you your
bicycle
only if you
do well on
your
exams.
Only if
you do
well on
your
exams will
we give
you your
bicycle.
'Only if' means 'only in

the case that
something happens and only if'. This form
basically means the
same as 'if'. However,
it does stress the
condition for the result.
Note that when 'only if'
begins the sentence
you need to invert the
main clause.
Plural Formation
English Plurals
Rule: In general, the plural is formed by adding an -s to
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Example: a tree - trees, a girl - girls

Rule: Nouns that end with an -s, -sh, -ch and -x have a
Example: dish - dishes, bus - buses, peach - peaches
Be Careful!
Some of the most common exceptions are: man - men, child - children,
woman - women, person - people
Many animals do not have a plural form: Example: fish - fish, deer - deer
Adjective Placement Quiz
Adjective Placement Quiz

Place the three adjectives in the correct order before the noun. When you have
decided on the correct order, click on the arrow to see if you have answered
correctly.
book interesting - small - Spanish
picture modern - ugly - rectangular
opinion old - boring - American
apple ripe - green - delicious
suit woolen - large - black
house beautiful - modern - small
magazine German - slender - strange
cap cotton - funny - green
Adverbs
Using Adverbs
Adverbs modify verbs. They tell you How something is done.
Example: How does he she sing? - She sings beautifully.
Rule: Adverbs are often formed by adding -ly to an adjective
Example: beautiful - beautifully, careful - carefully
Be Careful!
Some adjectives don't change in the adverb form. The most important of
these are: fast - fast, hard - hard
Good is probably the most important exception. The adverb form of
'good' is 'well'. Unfortunately, this is a common mistake that many
Americans make!
NOT!!: He plays tennis good.
Rule: Adverbs can also modify an adjective. In this case, the adverb is placed
before the adjective.
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Example: She is extremely happy. They are absolutely sure.

Be Careful!
Do not use 'very' with adjectives that express an increased quality of a
basic adjective Example: good - fantastic
NOT!!: She is a very beautiful woman.
Rule: Adverbs of frequency (always, never, sometimes, often, etc.) usually come
before the main verb
Example: He is often late for class. Do you always eat in a restaurant?
They don't usually travel on Fridays.
Be Careful!
Adverbs of frequency expressing infrequency are not usually used in the
negative or question form. NOT!!: Does she rarely eat fish? They don't
seldom go to the cinema.
Adverbs of frequency are often placed at the beginning of a sentence.
Example: Sometimes, he likes to go to museums.
Adverbs of frequency follow - come after - the verb 'to be'. Example: He
is sometimes late for work.
Simple vs. Progressive
Simple vs. Simple Progressive

This week we are going to take a look at a comparison between simple and simple
progressive tenses. As a rule of thumb please remember that any form of the
progressive can only be used with an action verb. Nonprogressive verbs include:
COMMON NONPROGRESSIVE VERBS
Mental States
know believe imagine want realize feel doubt need understand suppose remember
prefer recognize think forget mean
Emotional State
love hate fear mind like dislike envy care appreciate
Possession
possess have own belong
Sense Perceptions
taste hear see smell feel
Other Existing States
seem cost be consist of look owe exist contain appear weigh include
The following exceptions apply to the above:
(As an activity)
think -- I am thinking about this grammar
have -- She is having a good time.
taste -- The chef is tasting the sauce
smell -- He is smelling the flowers.
see -- I am seeing the doctor this afternoon.
feel -- Peter isn't feeling very well today.
look -- They are looking at the picture.
appear -- The big star is appearing at the local theater.
weigh -- The butcher is weighing the steak.
be -- Sally is being stupid.
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Keeping these verbs in mind, look at the following chart to review the use of the
simple progressive tenses (past, present, and future) and the simple tenses (past
present, and future).
Simple Progressive Tenses (past,
Simple Tenses (past, present, and
present, and future)
future)
1) CONTINUOUS ACTIVITY Used to
emphasize the continuous nature of any
given activity. examples I was watching
television at 8 o'clock last night. Fred is
speaking on the telephone at the
moment. They will be eating lunch at
Harold's tomorrow.
1) HABITUAL ACTIVITY Used to talk

about repeated, regular or habitual
activities. examples I went to school
at 8 o'clock when I was a child. I
usually take the bus to work He'll
commute to work after he moves.
2) ACTIVITY IN PROGRESS
2) NON-CONTINUOUS ACTIVITY
INTERSECTED BY A NONTexamples he boys bought some new
CONTINUOUS ACTIVITY I was watching coats yesterday. They will arrive at 7
television when Susan telephoned.
o'clock
exampleThey will be working in the
garden when you arrive.
3) TWO CONTINUOUS ACTIVITIES
3) TWO HABITUAL
OCCURING AT THE SAME TIME
EVENTSexample> She kept the
examplePeter was cooking dinner while I books and he advised the clients at
was working at the computer.
their last job.
Reference list of most common phrasal verbs
Phrasal Verbs Reference

The following table is an alphabetical reference chart of the most commonly used
English phrasal verbs with following explanations. You should remember that
native speakers of English tend to use phrasal verbs in everyday conversation and
generally reserve one-word verbs (i.e. "investigate" instead of "look into") for more
formal occasions such as business letters etc.
Please note that all phrasal verbs marked by an asterisk (*) are NON-separable
verbs (i.e. the preposition MUST follow the main verb. For example: I called on Dan
NOT I called Dan on!). Verbs that are not marked by an asterisk (*) are separable
verbs (i.e. the preposition may or may not follow the main verb. For example: I
brought the children up OR I brought up the children).
IMPORTANT
Remember that separable phrasal verbs using a pronoun as the object of the verb
MUST be separated (I brought them up NOT I brought up them)
A Ask out
Ask someone to go on a date
B Bring about cause
Bring up
1) rear children 2) mention or introduce a topic
C Call back
Return a telephone call
Call in
Ask to come to an official place for a special
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reason
cancel
1) visit 2) ask a student a question in class
Call on the telephone
Reach the same position or level as someone
Call off
Call on*
Call up
Catch up
(with)*
Check in*
Register at a hotel
Check into* investigate
Check out
1) borrow a book from a library 2) investigate
Cheer up
Make (someone) feel happier
Clean up
Make clean and orderly
Come
Find by chance
across*
Cross out
Draw a line through
Cut out
Stop an annoying activity
Do over
repeat
Drop by*
Visit informally
Drop in (on)* Visit informally
Drop off
Leave something/someone somewhere
Drop out
Stop going to school or class
(of)*
Figure out
Find the answer by logic
Fill out
Complete a form
Find out
Discover information
Get along
To have a good relationship with
(with)*
Get back
1) return from somewhere 2) receive again
(from)
Get in, get 1) enter a car 2) arrive
into*
Get off*
Leave any vehicle
Get on*
Enter any vehicle
Get out of* 1) leave a car 2) avoid some unpleasant activity
Get over*
Recover from an illness
Get through* finish
Get up*
Arise from bed, a chair etc.
Give back
Return something to someone
Give up
Stop doing something
Go over*
Review or check
Grow up*
Become an adult
Hand in
Submit an assignment
Hang up
1) Stop a telephone conversation 2) put up
clothes on a line or a hook
Have on
Wear
Keep out (of) Not enter
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Keep up
(with)*
Kick out (of)
L Look after*
Look into*
Look out
(for)*
Look over
Look up
M Make up
N Name after
P Pass away*
Pass out
Pick out
Pick up
Point out
Put away
Put back
Put off
Put on
Put out
Put up with*
R Run into
Run across
Run out (of)
S Show up*
Shut off
T Take after*
Take off
Hasham Raza
Stay at the same position or level

Force (someone) to leave
Take care of
Investigate
Be careful
Review or check
Look for information in a reference book
1) invent 2) do past work
Give a baby the name of someone else
Die
1) distribute 2) lose consciousness
Select
1) go to get someone 2) take in one's hand
Call someone's attention to
Remove to an appropriate place
Return to original position
Postpone
Dress
Extinguish a cigarette, fire
Tolerate
Meet by chance
Find by chance
Finish a supply of something
Appear, come to
Stop a machine, equipment, light etc.
Resemble
1) remove clothing 2) leave on a trip 3) leave the
ground (aeroplane)
Take out
1) take someone on a date 2) remove
Take over
Take control
Take up
Begin a new activity
Tear down
Demolish, reduce to nothing
Tear up
Tear into many little pieces
Think over Consider
Throw away Discard; get rid of
Throw out
Discard; get rid of
Throw up
Vomit
Try on
Put on clothing to see if it fits
Turn down
Decrease volume
Turn in
1) submit classwork 2) go to bed
Turn off
Stop a machine, equipment, light etc.
Turn on
Start a machine, equipment, light etc.
Turn out
Extinguish a light
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Turn up
Hasham Raza
Increase volume or intensity
Introduction to Phonetics with Reference Chart
Reference Guide to Phonetic Symbols

As you probably know, phonetic symbols are a great help when it comes to
learning to pronounce English words correctly. Any time you open a dictionary, you
can find the correct pronunciation of words you don't know by looking at the
phonetic pronunciation that follows the word. Unfortunately, learning the phonetic
alphabet is not always the easiest thing to do.
This week's feature includes a phonetic chart with the majority of basic sounds in
English. In English, as you certainly know, many words can have the same
pronunciation but be written differently with different meanings. For example "to,
two, and too" which all have the phonetic transcription /tu/. Sometimes, words can
be written similarly but have different pronunciations as in the "ough"
combinations thought, though, bough, and through. Another factor in
pronunciation is the how the word is stressed. Understanding the phonetic
alphabet can greatly simplify the learning process, especially for students who do
not have the opportunity to work with a teacher.
Following the chart is an example of a text that has been transcribed in to
phonetics. Notice how the text, as it would be spoken, differs from how each word
might be transcribed individually. This is principally due to two factors; elision and
unstressed syllables. I will discuss these two factors in an upcoming feature. For
now, becoming familiar with the phonetic alphabet is plenty
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This text is the following:

There is a police message for motorists in the
Barnet area of London. A lorry has shed its load
at the Apex Corner roundabout on the A1. You
are asked to avoid the area as much as possible.
South-bound traffic will be diverted for the next
two hours. That is the end of the message.
As you can see, the phonetic alphabet seems
like another language entirely, however, with
patience, it can serve you well in improving your pronunciation.
Conditionals 0, 1, 2, 3
Listed below are examples, uses and formation of Conditionals followed by a quiz.
Conditional 0
Situations that are always true if something happens.
NOTE
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This use is similiar to, and can usually be replaced by, a time clause using 'when'
(example: When I am late, my father takes me to school.)
If I am late, my father takes me to school.
She doesn't worry if Jack stays out after school.
Conditional 0 is formed by the use of the present simple in the if clause followed by
a comma the present simple in the result clause. You can also put the result clause
first without using a comma between the clauses.
If he comes to town, we have dinner.
OR
We have dinner if he comes to town.
Conditional 1
Often called the "real" conditional because it is used for real - or possible situations. These situations take place if a certain condition is met.
NOTE
In the conditional 1 we often use unless which means 'if ... not'. In other words,
'...unless he hurries up.' could also be written, '...if he doesn't hurry up.'.
If it rains, we will stay at home.
He will arrive late unless he hurries up.
Peter will buy a new car, if he gets his raise.
Conditional 1 is formed by the use of the present simple in the if clause followed by
a comma will verb (base form) in the result clause. You can also put the result
clause first without using a comma between the clauses.
If he finishes on time, we will go to the movies.
OR
We will go to the movies if he finishes on time.
Conditional 2
Often called the "unreal" conditional because it is used for unreal - impossible or
improbable - situations. This conditional provides an imaginary result for a given
situation.
NOTE
The verb 'to be', when used in the 2nd conditional, is always conjugated as 'were'.
If he studied more, he would pass the exam.
I would lower taxes if I were the President.
They would buy a new house if they had more money.
Conditional 2 is formed by the use of the past simple in the if clause followed by a
comma would verb (base form) in the result clause. You can also put the result
If they had more money, they would buy a new house.
OR
They would buy a new house if they had more money.
Conditional 3
Often referred to as the "past" conditional because it concerns only past situations
with hypothetical results. Used to express a hypothetical result to a past given
situation.
If he had known that, he would have decided differently.
Jane would have found a new job if she had stayed in Boston.
Conditional 3 is formed by the use of the past perfect in the if clause followed by a
comma would have past participle in the result clause. You can also put the result
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If Alice had won the competition, life would have changed OR Life would have
changed if Alice had won the competition.
Adverb Clauses Showing Cause and Effect
Using Adverb Clauses with Expressions of Cause and Effect

These type of clauses explain the reasons for what happens in the main clause.
Example: He bought a new home because he got a better job.. Take a look at the
chart below to study the various usages of different expressions of cause and
effect. Note that all of these expressions are synonyms of 'because'.
Punctuation
clauses. Example: Because he had to work late, we had dinner after nine o'clock..
When the adverb clause finishes the sentence there is no need for a comma.
Example: We had dinner after nine o'clock because he had to work late.
Adverb Clauses of Cause and Effect
Because
Since
They
received a
high mark
on their
exam
because
they had
studied
hard.
I'm
studying
hard
because I
want to
pass my
exam.
He works a
lot of
overtime
because
his rent is
so
expensive
Notice how
because can be
used with a
variety of tenses
based on the
time relationship
between the two
clauses.
Since he
loves
music so
much, he
decided to
go to a
conservato
ry.
They had
'Since' means
the same as
because. 'Since'
tends to be used
in more informal
spoken English.
Important
note: "Since"
when used as a
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to leave
early since
their train
left at
8.30.
conjunction is
typically used to
refer to a period
of time, while
"because"
implies a cause
or reason.
As long
as
As long as
you have
the time,
why don't
you come
for dinner?
'As long as'

means the same
as because. 'As
long as' tends to
be used in more
informal spoken
English.
As
As the test
is difficult,
you had
better get
some
sleep.
'As' means the

same as
because. 'As'
tends to be used
in more formal,
written English.
Inasamu
ch as
Inasmuch
as the
students
had
succesfully
completed
their
exams,
their
parents
rewarded
their
efforts by
giving
them a trip
to Paris.
'Inasmuch as'
means the same
as because.
'Inasmuch as' is
used in very
formal, written
English.
Due to
the fact
that
We will be
staying for
an extra
week due
to the fact
that we
haven not
yet
finished.
'Due to the fact

that' means the
same as
because. 'Due to
the fact that' is
generally used
in very formal,
written English.
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Grammar Reference

Direct (Reported) Speech

"Why are you studying English?" BECOMES She asked me why

Saying 'No' Nicely

Saying 'No' Nicely

I'm afraid I can't...

Use the base form of the verb without

Use the '-ing' form of the verb with the

I'd (really) rather not...

Use the base form the verb without 'to'

It's not my idea of...

Use the '-ing' form following a

I'm not (really) fond of...

Use the '-ing' form following a

Thank you (thank you for asking,

Saying 'No' Nicely

I'm afraid I can't...

Use the base form of the verb without

I don't particularly like...

Use the '-ing' form of the verb with the

I'd (really) rather not...

Use the base form the verb without 'to'

Use the '-ing' form following a

I'm not (really) fond of...

Use the '-ing' form following a

Thank you (thank you for asking,

Asking for Information

Asking for Information

Why don't you / we go to Use the base form of the verb in a

Use the base form of the verb in a

Use the base form of the verb with 'let's'

What about going to a

Use the '-ing' form of the verb in a

How about going to a

Use the '-ing' form of the verb in a

I suggest you / we go to a Use suggest object verb in the base form

English Tenses Timeline Chart

English Tenses Timeline Chart

The house had been

The problem was

She has been

The students have

The work is being

The book was

They are going to The reports are

The food will

The rolls will be

She will have

The house will have

Relative Clauses: Defining and Non-Defining Clauses

How To Use a Defining or Non-Defining Relative Clause

Relative Clauses: Relative Pronouns in Non-Defining Clauses

Relative Pronouns in Non-Defining Relative Clauses

Using Adverb Clauses

if, only if,

Adverb Clauses Showing Oppostion

Using Adverb Clauses to Show Opposition

Even though Notice how 'though,

English Verb Forms

POSITIV NEGATIV QUESTIO USE

He won't Will they

Present He's (is)

She hasn't How long

She won't How long