Lecture notes Numerical Hydraulics

2-1

2 Calculation of pipe networks

2.1 Kirchhoffs rules
A network consists of several pipes, which are hydraulically connected to each other at junctions,
see Fig. 2-1.

Fig. 2-1: Pipe network

Definitions:
Branches = pipes (of number n)
Nodes = junctions (of number k)
Meshes = flow paths with possible flow circulations (of number m)
For the case of a ramification network (tree) no meshes exist and we have:
n=k1

(2-1)

For a meshed network at a particular junction more than one flow direction is possible. Then we can
write:
n>k1

(2-2)

and

(2-3)

m = n - (k - 1) respectively.

For steady-state conditions mass conservation implies that

1. Kirchhoffs rule: Qi = 0 at the nodes (node equation)
2. Kirchhoffs rule:

=0

over the meshes (mesh equation)

Using Kirchhoffs rules, in a network with k nodes and n branches one obtains a set of
k-1 independent node equations and
m = n k + 1 independent mesh equations,
so that altogether n equations are obtained to solve for n unknowns.
The unknowns are:
all Qs in n branches
or
Q in x branches and h in n-x branches

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Lecture notes Numerical Hydraulics

Sign convention
The numeration of the single branches of a mesh is done clockwise.
Conditions at the nodes
In- and outflows are known
Pressure heads are unknown
or
Pressure heads are known
Q are unknown
Hydraulic properties of network elements
Pipe branches:
h = aQ2 (for turbulent flows)
Pump/turbine:
h = f(Q) (characteristic pump curve)
Reservoir:
h = const (fixed pressure head as boundary condition)

2.2 Pressure losses in a pipeline

Given:
Diameter d [m]
Equivalent sand roughness k [m]
Length l [m]
Using two well-known relations (Hydraulik I), namely the Darcy-Weissbach equation and the
uniform flow formula of Prandtl-Colebrook-White, we can write:

1 v2
16 I Q 2
h =
=
d 2g
2g 2 d 5

(2-4)

To account for the different flow directions and obtain the corresponding positive or negative
pressure losses, the discharge must be written with a sign. It is inserted into the equation as follows:
h =

8 I
Q Q = ai Q Q
g 2 d 5

(2-5)

In analogy to the terminology used in electrical engineering, the term ai is called resistance of the
pipe. The inverse 1/ ai is the hydraulic conductivity.

2.3 Laws for the connection of flow resistances

2.3.1

Series connection

For the series connection we know that: Q1 = Q2 = Q3 (Fig. 2-2)

Fig. 2-2: Series connection

The pressure losses are obtained as:

Lecture notes Numerical Hydraulics

hges = hi = (ai Q Q ) = ( ai ) Q Q
and taking ages =

(2-6)

it follows that:

hges = a ges Q Q
2.3.2

2-3

(2-7)

Parallel connection

For the parallel connection we can write: Qges = Q1 + Q2 + Q3 (Fig. 2-3).

Fig. 2-3: Parallel connection

taking: h = ai Qi Qi
h
a ges

=> Qi =

(2-8)

hges = ai Qi Qi
h
a ges

Qi =

Taking:

(2-10)

h
=
ai

(2-9)

= Qges it follows that:

h
a ges

(2-11)

and so:

1
ai

1
a ges

For combinations of connections in parallel and series the above laws hold accordingly.

(2-12)

2-4

Lecture notes Numerical Hydraulics

2.4 Hardy-Cross-Method
The Hardy-Cross-Method is a method for the calculation of steady-state flows in pipe networks
(Fig. 2-4):

Fig. 2-4: Hardy-Cross-Method

The procedure is as follows. First, for each mesh in the pipe network an initial distribution of the
discharges is assumed. For example, let the initial distribution of the discharges for the mesh shown
in Fig. 2.4 be:
1
Q13 = Q12 = Qe1
2

(2-13)

In a second step, for each mesh a cyclic flow Q (positive when clock-wise) is added to the initial
discharge distribution. This correction makes sure that the sum of all pressure losses around the
mesh will be zero. Note that the correction does not affect the water balance at the nodes. With
nm = number of pipes in the mesh
for each mesh the following relation holds:
2

ai (Qi + Qi ) = ai (Qi2 + 2Qi Qi + Qi2 ) = 0

nm

i =1

nm

(2-14)

i =1

The corrections Q are so small (at least close to the solution, i.e. the correct discharge
distribution), that their squares, Q2, can be neglected. Therefore, one can write:

a (Q
nm

i =1

2
i

+ 2Qi Qi ) = 0

(2-15)

Solving this relation for the discharge correction leads to:

nm

Q =

ai Qi2
i =1
nm

a
i =1

where:

(2-16)
i

Qi

Lecture notes Numerical Hydraulics

a=

8 I
g 2 d 5

2-5

(2-17)

For the calculation, starting from the initial discharge distribution, the discharge distribution of all
meshes is improved by the respective discharge corrections. This procedure is iterated for the whole
network, until for each mesh the sum of all pressure losses is smaller than a given convergence
criterion. During the iteration it may happen that in some branches the deviation from the true
solution temporarily increases. However, after additional iterations these errors decrease again. It is
possible to make the method faster, e.g. by using the friction loss formula for fully turbulent flows
during the initial iterations, so that the iterative calculation of is avoided. Only towards the final
iterations the exact formula for the calculation of is then used to fine-tune the pressure losses.

2.5 Including network elements

2.5.1

Characteristic curves of network elements

We distinguish between active and passive network elements. In active network elements the slope
of the energy line is positive, i.e. mechanical energy is added. In passive network elements
mechanical energy is transformed into different forms of energy, the slope of the energy line is
negative. The function that relates the slope of the energy line with the discharge flowing through
the network element is the characteristic curve.
The main network elements are:
Passive network
Pipe
Pressure reducing valve
elements
Non-return valve
Active network
Centrifugal pump (increases the pressure head)
elements
Reservoir
Typical characteristic curves for these network elements are shown in Fig. 2-5:

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Lecture notes Numerical Hydraulics

Fig. 2-5: Characteristic curves

2.5.2

Including reservoirs into the network

Reservoirs require a special consideration in the network model. Due to the free water surface level
in the reservoir, the pressure head is approximately constant. In order to include reservoirs into the
network, a fictitious node is added with fictitious connections to all reservoirs. This node 0
represents the reference level with zero pressure head. For each additional pipeline a characteristic
line of type h = const. = hReservoir is provided. The figure below shows a network, into which the
reservoirs are integrated in this way.

Fig. 2-6: Reservoirs in the network