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Lecture no.

5
Beowulf Further Analysis, Themes, and Symbols
Beowulf is the earliest long secular poem in English. The story is simple to
follow:
When Hrothgar, a successful king of the Danes, builds a splendid hall
the malignant humanoid Grendel is aroused to active hostility and for
many years the Danes suffer horribly from his assaults and can do nothing
to protect themselves.
Far away a young champion, Beowulf the Geat, comes in their help,
crosses the sea to Denmark and in single combat in the hall tears an arm
off Grendel who flees to his retreat in the wastes to die.
The ceremonious rejoicing in the hall turns to grief again when another
monster, the mother of Grendel, comes for her revenge and carries off
another Dane to devour. Beowulf follows the tracks, dives into an infested
mere (a lake), finds the she-monster in the underwater cave and slays her
with an old sword hanging there which melts down to its hilts (the handle
of a sword) in the poison of her blood.
On his triumphant return to the hall, Beowulf is acclaimed, rewarded and
encouraged by King Hrothgar to persevere in a life of virtue.
Beowulf leaves Denmark for home and there recounts his adventures to
Hygelac King of the Geats. Time passes and Beowulf has himself
become King of the Geats and rules for many years, until a firespitting/belching dragon sleeping on his treasure-hoard is incensed
(inflamed with wrath, made angry) by the theft of a precious cup to visit the
land of the Geats with fire and destruction.
In his old age Beowulf prepares to defend his people, and with twelve
companions seeks out the dragons lair. There alone he fights the dragon,
is himself mortally wounded but succeeds in slaying the dragon. A young
warrior, Wiglaf, who had rallied to Beowulfs assistance in the last fight,
rejects the treasure and prophesies doom to the Geat people. Beowulf is
splendidly cremated on a headland (promontory extending into a large body
of water) and his praises are sung by his proud and sorrowing people.
At its simplest the poem is about three fights, and all monsters are very much
alike as opponents. Beowulf tells much the same story three times over. It is
essentially an old fairy-tale. There are all sorts of marvels in it:
Grendel, and Grendels mother,
the old dragon,
the monsters of the mere,
memories of the ancient giants,
a dreadful cave with supernatural lights and weapons,
charms and curses and
prodigious feats of strength and endurance.
And Beowulf himself falls under suspicion. Is he bee-wulf, the honeyeater, the
bear who kills by hugging, as Beowulf crushes the ribs of Grendel? What sort of human
hero is it who
boasts of swimming seven nights on end,
who fights underwater a daylong battle with ancient demons,
who carries thirty suits of armour in his arms when swimming from Frisia
to Skne?
Beowulf is one of the wonders of the North. Beowulf is as much a part of the
fantasy as Grendel, a fairy-tale hero set against a fairy-tale villain. As Kingsley Amis
notes, only with Grendel (and his like) is Beowulf really man-to-man: their encounters
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are remarkably direct and matter-of-fact. Beowulf, once he has caught Grendel, uses
the holds of a professional wrestler, technically described.
In fighting the dragon Beowulf has a special iron shield made to protect him from
fire; and in the final encounter the dragon bites Beowulf in the neck.
Nothing in the poem can be plainly related to the known history of the
English or of England. Though there is an impressive scatter of names and events
relating to Sweden, few Swedish historians nowadays think that an accurate account
of Sweden in the sixth or seventh centuries can be constructed from them or round
them. There is, however, one event in Beowulf, the raid by Hygelac on Frisia, the raid
from which in the poem Beowulf carries off his thirty suits of armour, which seems to
be corroborated by the Frankish historian Gregory of Tours (c.540-94) who would place
the raid somewhere about 520, but speaks of Hygelac as a king of the Danes not of the
Geats.
Of course there is a lot of historical information in Beowulf. It appears to deal
directly in the language and thoughts of a historic society Anglo-Saxon society
with strict court and military etiquette, with kin-structures and family obligations and
with personal and social values. It also refers constantly to the material objects of the
culture, to halls, arms, ships, equipment and furnishings (accessories: furniture,
carpeting, and dressing).
Beowulf is a fairy-story/tale wrapped up quite confidently in an inexplicit
Christian philosophy. At the very points in monster-killing stories where magic is
brought into play for example when the gift sword Hrunting should be put to use
the poet substitutes and emphasizes instead the efficacy of human virtue and divine
providence. There are marvels in the world of Beowulf but no magic. To many readers
of fiction this seems irrational, perhaps even disappointing. We would prefer a stronger
paganism, we might even be satisfied by a more up-to-date Christianity. As it is we often
try to remythologize the narrative, or allegorize it and wonder whether Beowulf the
dragon slayer with his twelve men is not to be related to Christ and the disciples.
Beowulf is no genuine oral composition out of one tribes memory. It draws on
many pasts. It recalls the Flood and the curse of Cain, the names of lost tribes, halfforgotten distant dynasties, scraps of stories floating in the dark backward over
continents. It looks as if Beowulf is the reflective composition of a Christian man,
aristocratic and traditionalist in sympathies, well practised in fitting English words
together, acquainted with some Latin, pretty certainly with service books, probably a
cleric, possibly a layman.
The society, on the whole, as displayed in the poem, is healthy: there is no
selfishness and no bondage: people, the women included, are not things but persons in
full possession of every juridical right; the Kings are never tyrants, their main
preoccupation is the welfare of their subjects.
When dying, Beowulf demands that his successor to the crown should care for
the peoples needs. On the same occasion he confesses: I sought no treachery,
sworn no false oath, though wounded to death, I have joy, for I have done no wrong to
my kinsmen. Freedom is the emblem of the young state, the principal refrains are
loyalty, bravery and strength.
An In-Depth Plot Summary
A monster called Grendel has created havoc in the kingdom of Scyld, ruled by
Hrothgar. Hrothgar is old and unable to stop the atrocities of Grendel, as are his
warriors, and Grendels menace continues for twelve years as he attacks and kills
Danish warriors in the Hall of Heorot.
Beowulf, a thane at the court of Hygelac, the king of the Geats, is famous for this
prowess (exceptional valour, bravery, or ability, especially in combat or battle) and upon
hearing of Hrothgars distress (great pain, trouble), decides to sail to Scyld in order to
fight Grendel.
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Beowulf is welcomed by Hrothgar and his wife Wealhtheow and is granted


permission to fight Grendel. Beowulf sleeps that night in the Hall of Heorot and, when
Grendel makes his nightly raid, fights with Grendel in a hand-to-hand combat and
mortally injures him. Grendel escapes to the marshes and dies soon after.
Grendels mother, who lived with him in the marshes decides to revenge her
sons death, and when the warriors are asleep in the Hall after a days revelry
(merrymaking, festivity) over Grendels death, she attacks them and carries away one
of Hrothgars favourite warriors, Aeschere.
Hrothgar implores Beowulf to kill Grendels mother too, in exchange for a rich
reward and Beowulf accepts. He seeks Grendels mother in her underwater lair, which
she inhabits with sea-monsters and sea-beasts. After a long fight, during which his own
sword (lent to him by Hrothgars thane Unferth) fails him, and he has to take the help
of a sword hanging in the lair, he succeeds in killing Grendels mother. He carries back
the hilt (the handle of the sword) of the same sword (its blade having melted from the
heat of Grendels mothers blood) and Grendels head to Hrothgar, and is richly
rewarded by the latter. With oaths of friendship on both sides, Beowulf takes leave of
Hrothgar, and sails for home.
In Geatland, he is welcomed warmly by Hygelac and his queen Hygd. Beowulf
presents the gifts given to him to his king and queen, and in turn is rewarded with gifts
and an estate. Hygelac is killed in a war with the Frisians, and Hygd offers the throne
to Beowulf, as her son, Heardred, is too young. Beowulf declines the offer and offers to
serve as liege/vassal to the young prince till he comes of age. Heardred becomes the
king in time, and he is then killed in battle. Beowulf succeeds to the throne and rules
peacefully for fifty years. Beowulf is now old, and he hears of a fire-breathing/spitting
dragon, which has created havoc in his kingdom by burning houses and circling
Geatland in a wall of fire. For three hundred years, the dragon had been guarding a
treasure that had been buried in the earth by a nobleman, and the dragons
anger/wrath had been roused when a thief stole a goblet of gold from his treasure.
Beowulf feels a premonition of disaster, but resolves to fight the fire dragon.
Armed with a shield of iron to counter the fire of the dragon, he sets out with twelve
warriors. He reaches the dragons lair, issues a challenge, and a fight follows. Fate is
against Beowulf this time, however, and both his sword and shield are unable to
withstand the heat of the dragons fire. The dragon digs his claws into his throat,
making him bleed abundantly. Seeing Beowulf on the verge of defeat, all but one of the
warriors abandon the king and flee into the forest. Wyglaf, however, remains and comes
to the aid of Beowulf, and together they kill the dragon, with Beowulf dealing him the
final blow that cuts him in two.
Beowulf is mortally wounded and after having a glimpse of the treasure that
Wyglaf brought to him, and giving instructions for his burial, he dies. There is
widespread grief at his death, as well as a foreboding that Geatland will be assailed by
disasters in the form of invasions by the Frisians and Franks 1, who had so far been held
in abeyance because of Beowulfs might. Beowulf is cremated and as per his
instructions, a massive mound is built on the Cape of the Whales, where Beowulfs
ashes are buried along with the treasure captured from the dragon.
Beowulf the Hero Character
Beginning and ending with the funeral of a great king, and composed against a
background of impending disaster, the heroic epic poem describes the deeds of a
Scandinavian cultural hero, Beowulf, in destroying the monster Grendel, Grendels
mother, and a fire-breathing dragon.
In these sequences Beowulf is shown not only as a glorious hero but as a saviour
of the people. The Old Germanic virtue of mutual loyalty between leader and
1

Frank - a member of a group of ancient Germanic peoples dwelling in the regions of the Rhine, one
division of whom, the Salians, conquered Gaul about A.D. 500, founded an extensive kingdom, and gave
origin to the name France.

followers is evoked effectively and touchingly in the aged Beowulfs sacrifice of his life
and in the reproaches accumulated by the retainers who desert him in this climactic
battle.
The idea of the hero as the saviour of his people is fundamental to the subject
matter of this heroic epic made up of four lays:
Beowulfs fight with Grendel;
Beowulfs fight with Grendels mother;
Beowulfs return to his country and his rule as a wise, respected king for
50 years;
Beowulfs fight with the fire-breathing dragon and his consequent death.
His exceptional moral portrait is drawn with the help of a multitude of
epithets and metaphorical compounds (kennings) which also describe his
evolution from the impetuosity of youth to the quiet wisdom of old age:
great among Geats; the mightiest man of valour; the bold one (III); he who of
men in might was strongest (XI); hardy and wise (XII); no other more valiant; none
more worthy to rule; kind (XIII); hero; of heroes best (XIV); brave (XVII); famed (XVIII);
hero (XXI); lord of rings; warrior; fiercest of fighting men (XXII); most excellent of the
sons of men (XXVII); the hardy one (XXVIII); remarked for mighty deeds and acts of
honour (XXXI); wise in his thought; winsome lord (XXXVII); famous chief; wise old man
(XXXVIII); bold-in-battle (XL); man of might and valour; king beloved; wise old man;
worthiest warrior; man beloved (XLII); master dear; master friend (XLIII). (Levichi,
1973, 36)
Themes and Motifs
As Beowulf is essentially a record of heroic deeds, the concept of identity of
which the two principal components are ancestral heritage and individual reputation
is clearly central to the poem. The opening passages introduce the reader to a world in
which every male figure is known as his fathers son.
Characters in the poem are unable to talk about their identity or even introduce
themselves without referring to family lineage. This concern with family history is so
prominent because of the poems emphasis on kinship bonds. Characters take pride in
ancestors who have acted valiantly, and they attempt to live up to the same standards
as those ancestors
Much of Beowulf is devoted to articulating and illustrating the Germanic heroic
code, which values:
strength, courage, and loyalty in warriors;
hospitality, generosity, and political skill in kings;
ceremoniousness in women;
good reputation in all people.
Traditional and much respected, this code is vital to warrior societies as a means
of understanding their relationships to the world and the menaces lurking beyond their
boundaries.
All of the characters moral judgments stem from the codes mandates. Thus,
individual actions can be seen only as either conforming to or violating the code.
The poem highlights the codes points of tension by recounting situations that
expose its internal contradictions in values. The poem contains several stories that
concern divided loyalties, situations for which the code offers no practical guidance
about how to act.
For example, the poet relates that the Danish Hildeburh marries the Frisian king.
When, in the war between the Danes and the Frisians, both her Danish brother and her
Frisian son are killed, Hildeburh is left doubly grieved.
The code is also often in tension with the values of medieval Christianity. While
the code maintains that honour is gained during life through deeds, Christianity asserts
that glory lies in the afterlife. Similarly, while the warrior culture dictates that it is
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always better to retaliate (turn like for like, or evil for evil) than to mourn, Christian
doctrine advocates a peaceful, forgiving attitude toward ones enemies.
Throughout the poem, the poet strains to accommodate these two sets of values.
Though he is Christian, he cannot deny the fundamental pagan values of the story.
Beowulf as a character matures from a valiant combatant into a wise leader. His
transition demonstrates that a differing set of values accompanies each of his two roles.
The difference between these two sets of values manifests itself early on in the outlooks
of Beowulf and King Hrothgar. Whereas the youthful Beowulf, having nothing to lose,
desires personal glory, the aged Hrothgar, having much to lose, seeks protection for his
people. Though these two outlooks are somewhat oppositional, each character acts as
society dictates he should given his particular role in society.
Glory is actually the most cherished dream of every warrior. When Hrothgar asks
Beowulf to go after Grendels mother and take revenge for the death of his most
trusted counsellor and friend, the latter replies that It is better for us all/To avenge
our friends, not mourn them forever. /Each of us will come to the end of this life/On
earth: he who can earn it should fight/For the glory, of his name ; fame after death/Is
the noblest of goals.
Fame, which is but an earlier hypostasis of glory an earthly glory one might
say is the most precious of all treasures. And, the warrior comments, fame/Comes to
the men who mean to win it/ And care about nothing else! Beowulf himself is so
deserving of praise because he never ceases to worship this god. I am old, now,/ But I
will fight again, seek fame still, he says before his last battle.
Battle, come to think of it, is a way of life, the task of the worthiest members of a
male-centred society in which swords have a name and a personality of their own.
Motifs and symbols
Monsters
In Christian medieval culture, monster was the word that referred to birth
defects, which were always understood as an ominous sign from Goda sign of
transgression or of bad things to come.
The monsters that Beowulf must fight in this Old English poem shape the poems
plot and seem to represent an inhuman or alien presence in society that must be
exorcised for the societys safety. They are all outsiders, existing beyond the boundaries
of human realms.
To many readers, the three monsters that Beowulf slays all seem to have a
symbolic or allegorical meaning. For instance, since Grendel is descended from the
biblical figure Cain, who slew his own brother, Grendel often has been understood to
represent the evil in Scandinavian society of marauding (raiding for plunder) and killing
others. A traditional figure of medieval folklore and a common Christian symbol of sin,
the dragon may represent an external malice that must be conquered to prove a heros
goodness. Because Beowulfs encounter with the dragon ends in mutual destruction,
the dragon may also be interpreted as a symbolic representation of the inevitable
encounter with death itself.
The Mead-Hall
The poem contains two examples of mead-halls: Hrothgars great hall of Heorot,
in Denmark, and Hygelacs hall in Geatland. Both function as important cultural
institutions that provide light and warmth, food and drink, and singing and revelry.
Historically, the mead-hall represented a safe shelter for warriors returning from battle,
a small zone of refuge within a dangerous and precarious external world that
continuously offered the threat of attack by neighbouring peoples. The mead-hall was
also a place of community, where traditions were preserved, loyalty was rewarded, and,
perhaps most important, stories were told and reputations were spread.

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