Analyzing Hydrocarbons in the Borehole

A rapid evaluation of hydrocarbon uid composition is now available with a new

uid-sampling tool. The quality of samples taken for later analysis can be determined
before lling the sampling cylinder. The tool is sufciently sensitive to determine
compositional gradients within a formation.

Soraya Betancourt
Go Fujisawa
Oliver C. Mullins
Ridgeeld, Connecticut, USA

Near-infrared radiation

Andrew Carnegie
Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates (UAE)
Chengli Dong
Andrew Kurkjian
Sugar Land, Texas, USA
Kre Otto Eriksen
Statoil
Stavanger, Norway
Mostafa Haggag
Antonio R. Jaramillo
Abu Dhabi Company for Onshore Oil
Operations
Abu Dhabi, UAE

Absorption
and
excitation

Harry Terabayashi
Fuchinobe, Kanagawa, Japan
CFA (Composition Fluid Analyzer), LFA (Live Fluid Analyzer
for MDT tool), MDT (Modular Formation Dynamics Tester)
and PVT Express are marks of Schlumberger.
For help in preparation of this article, thanks to Sylvain
Jayawardane and Jiasen Tan, Edmonton, Alberta,
Canada; Sudhir Pai, Rosharon, Texas, USA; Ibrahim
Shawky, Abu Dhabi, UAE; and Tsutomu Yamate,
Fuchinobe, Kanagawa, Japan.

54

Understanding crude oil composition early in the

development process helps optimize resource
exploitation. Such information is now available
from a wireline tool, giving results in real time
that allow optimization of uid sampling based
on the measured in-situ composition.

An early determination of gas composition

and gas/oil ratio (GOR) may be necessary to
decide whether to complete a well, or even
whether to develop a eld at all. For example, the
economics of developing elds that contain a
rich hydrocarbon gas and those that contain a

Oileld Review

Analyzing Oil and Gas

The terms gas and oil describe the state of a
hydrocarbon as vapor or liquid, but do not
specify the chemical composition. A detailed
measurement of the constituents of a hydrocarbon, as determined in a surface laboratory,
can be used to predict the constituents of the gas
and oil phasesas well as other physical
properties like density and viscosityat various
temperatures and pressures. These detailed
laboratory measurements can take a long time to
obtain. The new CFA tool, in conjunction with
other modules on an MDT assembly, provides a
quick determination of some of the components
and indicates the degree of drilling-mud
contamination before samples are taken for
further analysis.
Hydrocarbon uids comprise a multitude of
constituents ranging from single-carbon methane
to very long-chain carbon compounds, as well as
cyclic, aromatic and other complex molecules
such as asphaltenes and waxes. These constituents determine the phase behavior of a given
reservoir uid, which is often indicated using a
pressure-volume-temperature (PVT) phase diagram (above right).3 A hydrocarbon uid is in single phase if the pressure and temperature are
outside the phase envelope. At conditions within
this envelope, two phases coexist. However, the
phase composition changes within this two-phase
region. Near the bubblepoint curve, the gas phase

Autumn 2003

Reservoir depletion
Dewpoint curve
Critical point

Pressure

high percentage of carbon dioxide [CO2] in the

gas are markedly different. CO2 is highly corrosive, so its presence can change requirements for
owlines and surface equipment. In addition,
commingling prospects with incompatible
compositions may need to be avoided. Flow
assurance also is impacted by problems with
asphaltene, wax, hydrate and organic scale
buildup in owlines.1 The uid composition can
restrict allowable drawdown pressures and ow
rates to prevent uid dropout.
This article update presents recent developments in uid analysis available with the MDT
Modular Formation Dynamics Tester.2 A new
module, the CFA Composition Fluid Analyzer,
provides a measurement of uid composition
from samples drawn directly from the formation.
It discriminates the fractions of methane, light
hydrocarbons, heavy hydrocarbons, carbon
dioxide and water present in a sample. The tool
makes this determination based on light absorption and uorescence of the uids; results are
transmitted to surface in real time. Case studies
from the Middle East and the North Sea demonstrate the effectiveness of this new module.

Bubblepoint curve

Cricondentherm

Temperature

> A hydrocarbon phase envelope for a retrograde condensate. Between the

bubblepoint and dewpoint curves, hydrocarbon uids are in two phases. The
lines of constant liquid mole fraction (dashed) meet at the critical point. Fluids
that enter the two-phase region to the right of the critical point are termed
retrograde condensates. Fluids at temperatures greater than the cricondentherm remain single phase at all pressures. If the initial reservoir condition of
temperature and pressure is above the phase envelope and between the critical temperature and the cricondentherm, the uid goes through a dewpoint
and liquid drops out of the gas phase as the reservoir pressure declines. This
condition (vertical line) starts at initial reservoir condition, shown here at an
arbitrarily chosen temperature and pressure.

is predominantly methane, but further into the

two-phase region, more light and intermediate
components enter the gas phase.
Similarly, the rst liquid components to drop
out after passing the dewpoint are the heavier
components; lighter components go into the
liquid phase at conditions further from the dewpoint curve. This phenomenon is important when
sampling gas-condensate fluids: once a fluid
enters the two-phase region, heavy components
are lost into the liquid phase. This behavior is
used in the CFA design to determine when a uid
crosses the dewpoint.
The pressure and temperature condition at
which the bubblepoint and dewpoint curves
meet is called the critical point. At that point,
the density and composition of the liquid and
gas phases are identical. The maximum temperature at which two phases can coexist is termed
the cricondentherm.
Reservoir temperature is usually almost
constantunless cold or hot uids are injected
into the reservoirso most depleting reservoirs
follow a downward vertical path on a pressuretemperature phase diagram. If reservoir temperature is between the critical temperature and
the cricondentherm, liquid can drop out of the
gas phase within the reservoir. These are termed

gas-condensate, or retrograde-condensate, reservoirs. Gas in a reservoir with a temperature

greater than the cricondentherm is termed a wet
gas if liquid drops out because of pressure and
temperature decreases in the production system,
or a dry gas if no liquid falls out in either the
reservoir or production system.
Economic decisions early in an exploration
project often hinge upon characterizing the type
of hydrocarbon in a reservoir. This determination
is particularly true offshore, where an expensive
platform infrastructure or subsea tiebacks may
need to be designed to handle reservoir uids.
Early hydrocarbon typing is also needed in
remote areas where satellite elds may not be
1. Wasden FK: Flow Assurance in Deepwater
Flowlines/Pipelines, Deepwater Technology, World Oil
Magazine Supplement (October 2003): 3538.
2. Andrews RJ, Beck G, Castelijns K, Chen A, Cribbs ME,
Fadnes FH, Irvine-Fortescue J, Williams S, Hashem M,
Jamaluddin A, Kurkjian A, Sass B, Mullins OC,
Rylander E and Van Dusen A: Quantifying
Contamination Using Color of Crude and Condensate,
Oileld Review 13, no. 3 (Autumn 2001): 2443.
3. For more on phase diagrams and pseudouids:
Composing Pseudouids in: Alaka JO, Bahamaish J,
Bowen G, Bratvedt K, Holmes JA, Miller T, Fjerstad P,
Grinestaff G, Jalali Y, Lucas C, Jimenez Z, Lolomari T,
May E and Randall E: Improving the Virtual Reservoir,
Oileld Review 13, no. 1 (Spring 2001): 4445.

55

Miscible ood programs, such as reinjection of

separator gases, can change the composition and
phase behavior of the mixture of formation and
injected uids. Capturing reservoir uid samples
may be necessary to understand this process also.

2.0
Methane
Ethane
N-heptane
Carbon dioxide

Optical density

1.5

1.0

0.5

0.0
1600

1700

1800
Wavelength, nm

1900

2000

2100

Medium-weight oil

Optical density

Water
2

Hydrocarbons

Condensate

0
500

1000

1500

2000

Wavelength, nm

> Visible and near-infrared absorption spectrum. As the wavelength increases, hydrocarbon optical
densityor light absorptionis due to successively heavier and more complex molecules (bottom).
Gas condensates and oils have different responses in the visible region. Hydrocarbon molecularexcitation bands appear at about 1700 nanometers (nm), where light interacting with hydrocarbon
bonds induces molecular vibrations (top). Methane has a peak at the CH4 vibrational mode, and
ethane peaks at the CH3 mode. Longer-chain hydrocarbons, such as n-heptane, have many CH2
bonds, but also have CH3 bonds at the ends of chains. The carbon dioxide excitation wavelength is
longer than the hydrocarbon mode wavelengths. Water has two strong, broad absorption peaks,
which can interfere with detection of the hydrocarbon excitation peaks (bottom).

economic to produce unless a tieback conguration or additional facilities are built to market
the gas.
Sound production practices also require
knowledge of uid-phase behavior. If reservoir
pressure drops below the dewpoint, liquid condensate drops out in the formation. At low
saturation, liquid in the pore spaces is not mobile

56

and decreases the gas relative permeability. Two

negative economic impacts result: productivity
declines and valuable condensate liquids are left
behind in the reservoir. Pressure support through
gas or water injection often is required to keep
reservoir pressure above the dewpoint. Similar
practices can be followed to keep an oil reservoir
above the bubblepoint to avoid gas breakout.

Fluid Sampling
For many years, the industry has evaluated uids
by collecting samples from a formation, bringing
them to surface, and analyzing them in a laboratory that may be far from the wellsite. This
process can be time-consuming and is subject to
errors in collection, handling or sample degradation during transport.
The PVT Express onsite well-uid analysis
service is a recent advance in uid-property
determination. This system can deliver detailed
uid-analysis data a few hours after samples
reach the surface. A unique minicell for PVT
property determination allows onsite measurement of dewpoint pressure on gas-condensate
samples. The compact, modular, mobile laboratory can be transported to any geographic
location. Delays associated with sample shipment are eliminated. Fluid quality and uid
properties can be determined while the opportunity to obtain additional samples is still
available. Decisions relating to additional wireline formation testing or drillstem testing operations can be made more quickly with the PVT
Express service.
Taking the next step, Schlumberger makes
some uid properties evaluations downhole. The
LFA Live Fluid Analyzer for the MDT tool provides a means to analyze in-situ fluids to
determine when contamination from drilling
mud has decreased sufciently to obtain a uid
sample with acceptable quality.4 This minimizes
the time required to collect fluid samples,
decreasing both rig costs and the risk of the tool
becoming stuck because it was on the formation
for too long.
The LFA module includes a channel specically tuned to record the presence of methane,
providing a means to obtain GOR.5 Downhole GOR
measurements help identify whether different
formations are compartmentalized. A sampling
program can be directed to reveal compositional
variation within a given compartment, helping to
optimize completion programs. Agreement
between downhole, wellsite and laboratory crudeoil property measurements engenders condence
in the derived uid properties.
The LFA channels also measure the oils
color, which usually changes as drilling mud is
ushed out of the formation. A sophisticated
algorithm indicates the cleanup time required to

Oileld Review

obtain a representative formation-uid sample in

the MDT sample modules.6 This evaluation prequalifies fluid samples for more extensive
analysis at the surface, provides basic uidproperty data such as GOR and helps dene uid
variability at different depths. These measurements are critical for adjusting a sampling and
analysis plan while the MDT tool is in the borehole, which helps an operator realize maximum
benet of a logging run.
Gas-condensate reservoirs present special
challenges for uid-sample collection. A sampling tool must apply a pressure differential to
pull uid out of the formation into its sampling
chambers. If this drawdown is too large, the pressure can drop below the dewpoint and the separated liquid phase may be trapped in the
reservoir. As a result, the sample collected will
not be representative. Even if the phase transition occurs outside the formation, that is, the
uid becomes multiphase within the tools probe
and pumpout modules or in the owlines leading
to the sampling chamber, differences in uid
density and viscosity and phase segregation
within the tool can lead to an unrepresentative
sample composition. This problem of a reservoir
uid breaking into two phases is even more
severe when the samples are obtained at surface
during a drillstem test, which uses a larger pressure drawdown than a sampling tool on wireline.
The new CFA modulea joint development of
Schlumberger-Doll Research Center, Ridgeeld,
Connecticut, USA; Schlumberger Kabushiki
Kaisha Technology Center, Fuchinobe, Kanagawa,
Japan; and Schlumberger Sugar Land Product
Center, Sugar Land, Texas, USAwas designed
specically to detect dew formation as a second
hydrocarbon phase using a fluorescence
detector. This is the rst downhole tool with
dew-detection capabilities. With this capability,
the module can differentiate between single- and
multiple-phase ow and can show when pressure
in the tool drops below the dewpoint pressure.
Used in combination with an LFA module, a CFA
tool indicates the proper time and conditions for
obtaining a uid sample, even in the difcult
environment of gas-condensate reservoirs.
In addition to the uorescence detector, the
CFA tool incorporates absorption spectrometers
that measure the opacity, or optical density, of a
uid at several wavelengths. These measurements distinguish several components of hydrocarbon uids, not only enhancing dew detection,
but also providing a compositional analysis.
This compositional analysis capability will be
discussed first, with fluorescence detection
described later in the article.

Autumn 2003

Evaluating Gas Composition

Hydrocarbon molecules interact with light in the
visible and near-infrared wavelength band that is
sampled by the CFA spectrometers. Interaction
with electronic energy bands gives oils their
color, with complex molecules absorbing more
light than simple ones (previous page).7 Oils with
a signicant quantity of resins and asphaltenes
are darker than oils containing primarily parafns.8 Gas condensates tend to be relatively clear,
with little electronic absorption.
A different type of interaction occurs in
the near-infrared region, where light absorption
excites molecular vibration. The type of
molecular bond between carbon [C] and
hydrogen [H] atoms determines the frequency of
absorbed light. The dominant vibrational
absorption interactions occur in three types of
molecular congurations:9
a carbon atom surrounded by four hydrogen
atoms, that is, CH4
a carbon atom with three hydrogen atoms,
CH3
a carbon atom with two hydrogen atoms,
CH2.
Methane is the unique example of the rst
mode. Ethane is an example of the second case,
because it contains two carbon atoms that are
each connected to three hydrogen atoms.
However, longer-chain hydrocarbons are predominantly CH2 but also have the CH3 group at
each end of a chain. The CH2 group dominates
light absorption by such long-chain compounds,
but there also is some CH3 absorption. For
example, 77% of the carbon-hydrogen bonds of
n-dodecane, a common parafn with 12 carbon
atoms in a linear chain, are in CH2 groups.
There is a complication in the analysis of
hydrocarbon spectra: the absorption spectra
overlap. Spectral interpretation requires proper
accounting for this overlap. These complexities
are overcome in the CFA analysis by employing a
technique called principal component regression. This mathematical procedure extracts maximal information content in any dataset, in this
case the vibrational spectra.
The CFA interpretation algorithm incorporates
ve detectors to determine four components:10
methane, which is termed C1 in the
CFA analysis 11
other hydrocarbon gases, termed C2-C5
hydrocarbon liquids, termed C6+
carbon dioxide, CO2.
Distinct spectral signatures can distinguish
both methane and carbon dioxide. The other
hydrocarbon gases are dominated by CH3, and
CH2 groups dominate hydrocarbon liquids. Thus,

the principal component regression results are

interpretable in terms of spectral characteristics.
In the same part of the infrared spectrum,
water has a broad and strong absorption peak.
The presence of water can swamp the other signals, particularly the CO2 signal. The CFA module
has a detector tuned to the water vibrational
mode, indicating when the responses from the
other detectors are inuenced by water.
The CFA tool is recommended for uids with
a GOR exceeding 1000 scf/bbl [180 m3/m3],
because uids with a lower GOR have a color
signal that is strong enough to interfere with the
vibrational-mode absorption peaks. This recommended range includes gases, gas condensates,
volatile oils and some black oils.12
The following sections show how these compositional measurements were used to detect
injected gas in a monitoring well and to discover
a compositional gradient within the oil leg of a
reservoir with a gas cap.
4. Andrews et al, reference 2.
5. Mullins OC, Beck GF, Cribbs ME, Terabayashi T and
Kegasawa K: Downhole Determination of GOR on
Single-Phase Fluids by Optical Spectroscopy,
Transactions of the SPWLA 42nd Annual Logging
Symposium, Houston, Texas, USA, June 1720, 2001,
paper M.
Dong C, Hegeman PS, Elshahawi H, Mullins OC,
Fujisawa G and Kurkjian A: Advances in Downhole
Contamination Monitoring and GOR Measurement of
Formation Fluid Samples, Transactions of the SPWLA
44th Annual Logging Symposium, Galveston, Texas,
USA, June 2225, 2003, paper FF.
6. Mullins OC, Schroer J and Beck GF: Real-Time
Quantication of OBM Filtrate Contamination During
Openhole Wireline Sampling by Optical Spectroscopy,
Transactions of the SPWLA 41st Annual Logging
Symposium, Dallas, Texas, June 47, 2000, paper SS.
7. For more on visible and near-infrared light interactions
with crude oil: Andrews et al, reference 2.
8. Nonhydrocarbon compounds found in oil, such as those
containing nitrogen, oxygen and sulfur, also contribute
to color. Dark oils can contain large amounts of these
components.
9. The dashes indicate a connection to other carbon
atoms: CH3 connects to one carbon atom, and CH2
connects to a carbon atom on each side of the indicated
carbon atom.
10. Van Agthoven MA, Fujisawa G, Rabbito P and
Mullins OC: Near-Infrared Spectral Analysis of Gas
Mixtures, Applied Spectroscopy 56, no. 5 (2002): 593598.
Fujisawa G, van Agthoven MA, Jenet F, Rabbito PA and
Mullins OC: Near-Infrared Compositional Analysis of
Gas and Condensate Reservoir Fluids at Elevated
Pressures and Temperatures, Applied Spectroscopy
56, no. 12 (2002): 16151620.
11. In this terminology, the number following the letter C
indicates the number of carbon atoms in the compound.
Thus, C1 is methane, with molecular formula CH4.
12. A standard correlation of oil type to GOR is that black oil
GOR is less than 2000 scf/bbl [360 m3/m3]; volatile oils
range from that value to 3300 scf/bbl [594 m3/m3]; then
gas condensates extend to 50,000 scf/bbl [9006 m3/m3];
and gases have GOR greater than 50,000 scf/bbl.

57

Composition
percent

100

Water Flag

CO2
Quality

Low

Water
Volume
Fraction

Medium 0 percent 100

Elapsed
Time, s

High

C6+
C2C5

Tool GOR

C1

Laboratory GOR

Highly Scattering Fluid

10,260
10,215
10,170
10,125
10,080
10,035
9990
9945
9900
9855

Gas/Oil Ratio

scf/bbl

7500

A
Lab result

8145
8100
8055
8010
7965
7920
7875
7830
7785
7740

B
Lab result

8145
8100
8055
8010
7965
7920
7875
7830
7785
7740

C
Lab result

8145
8100
8055
8010
7965
7920
7875
7830
7785
7740

D
Lab result

> CFA uid composition in a UAE carbonate reservoir. The CFA result indicated that the upper zone, A, was unswept. The second station, B, had the
greatest concentration of the gas components, C1 and C2-C5, and the highest
gas/oil ratio (GOR), indicating that the injected gas had swept this zone. The
two lower stations also had been partly swept by injected gas. Results from
samples collected during this logging run were analyzed in a laboratory, conrming the composition and GOR values measured by the CFA module.

58

Detecting Injection Gas

The CFA module was used in a gas-injection pilot
project that had been in operation for several
years in an onshore carbonate reservoir in the
United Arab Emirates (UAE). As part of an ongoing evaluation program, the operator, Abu Dhabi
Company for Onshore Oil Operations (ADCO)
drilled a new monitoring well to determine the
progress of the injected gas.13 An MDT sampling
string containing the CFA tool was equipped with
a dual-packer module, a pumpout module, an
LFA module and 18 single-phase multisample
chambers. Single-phase samples of sufficient
quality for later, detailed laboratory analyses
were obtained from six different stations.
The CFA tool provided uid compositional
information prior to sample collection at the rst
four stations. The drilling uid was a water-base
mud, so some water was detected during the
analysis. The characteristics of the pumpout
moduledescribed in Detecting a Multiphase
Condition, page 60caused the water to appear
as slugs passing the CFA window. The tool monitored the cleanup of the drilling uid prior
to sampling.
The upper zone sample was virtually all oil
(left). The second sample station clearly showed
a high concentration of gas coming from the formation. The two lowest zones produced some gas.
This indicated that, at the monitor well, the top
zone was unswept, and the second zone had been
swept the most by the injected gas. The results
demonstrated that these two upper zones were
not in communication.
The CFA results were obtained after about
two hours of pumping to clean out drilling mud.
After an additional two to three hours at each
station, changes in the LFA color channels indicated that the uid had cleaned up enough to
take a sample in a single-phase sampling cylinder. These samples were analyzed in a laboratory,
and the results match reasonably well with the
real-time CFA data. These results helped ADCO
understand the ow characteristics and gasinjection efciency of their eld.
Discovering a Compositional Gradient
Statoil, the operator of a Norwegian Sea
appraisal well, wanted to establish the gas/oil
contact (GOC) and oil/water contact (OWC) and
obtain uid samples for laboratory analysis. A
drillstem test in a discovery well had not provided conclusive uid-phase property data. This
was the only appraisal well drilled before
developing facilities to process a complex, nearcritical reservoir-uid system. Statoil felt it was

Oileld Review

C1
Formation Resistivity
0.01

Bulk Density
0.6

Gamma Ray
XX60

20

g/cm3

Neutron Porosity

API 140 1.7

p.u.

C2C5

ohm-m 10,000

C6+

Invaded-Zone Resistivity
0 0.1

in.

Laboratory GOR
scf/bbl 8000

385 0

Tool GOR
scf/bbl 8000

Water

ohm-m 10,000

Invaded-Zone Diameter

2.7 0

Optical Density

60 375

MDT Pressure
Gas
bar

Oil
Water

2
Gas/oil
contact

XX80
3

XY00

4
Oil/water
contact

XY20

XY40

XY60

XY80

> Compositional gradient in a North Sea well. Gamma ray (Track 1), bulk density and neutron porosity
(Track 2), and formation resistivity (Track 3) logs indicate a relatively featureless zone of about 100 m
[328 ft]. A thin, possibly impermeable zone exists at about XY30. The invaded-zone resistivity (Track 3)
implies a water zone up to XY10, with a transition zone up to about XX95 and perhaps a third zone
above XX75. The pressure measurements (Track 4) conrm three gradients, with a gas/oil contact at
XX75 and an oil/water contact at XY10. Both optical density from the CFA color channel and gas/oil
ratio (GOR) (Track 5) show a gradient in composition, which is also seen in the CFA compositional
analysis (Track 4). The numbers to the left of the CFA compositions indicate the sampling order in the
wellbore. The thin bars below each CFA result are later laboratory results, which were scaled to
exclude the water fraction measured by the CFA tool, allowing direct comparison of the hydrocarbon
components. Laboratory GOR measurements (Track 5) also conrm the compositional gradient,
although the magnitude is somewhat different from the CFA result.

important to obtain a good description of the

uid properties within the reservoir.
A wireline triple combo log indicated 100 m
[328 ft] of relatively featureless reservoir, except
for a possibly impermeable streak at about
XY30 m (above). The density and neutron porosity logs did not indicate a crossover. Crossover is
normally a sign of a gas zone, but the formation
and uid properties in this reservoir were such
that no separation was seen, probably because of
high gas density, low oil density and invasion by
water-base mud ltrate. The formation resistivity
was uniform, but the resistivity due to the waterbase mud in the invaded region indicated a prob-

Autumn 2003

able change in the ushed-zone water saturation,

with a likely OWC at XY10.
Statoil next obtained pressure gradients in
the formation using an MDT tool to nd the different uid sections. The MDT logging system
comprised a probe module, a pumpout module,
a CFA module, an LFA module and multiple
sample-chamber modules. The probe module had
a high-grade quartz pressure gauge.
Within the 100-m span identied by the wireline logs, the operator obtained 25 pressure measurements. These data identied three different
pressure gradients corresponding to gas, oil and
water, all in hydraulic communication. However,

the pressure gradient alone was inadequate to

resolve a compositional gradient in the hydrocarbon zone. Statoil had investigated compositional
grading at other locations around the world and
wanted to study this oil leg in greater detail.14
Once the pressures were obtained, the operator repositioned the tool string to analyze the
formation uids using the CFA module and to collect samples in high-pressure sample bottles
from an area in the lower part of the oil leg. The
CFA module obtained a quick reading of sample
composition before filling each sampling
cylinder. The results, transmitted to surface in
real time, indicated that the uid composition
stabilized within 1000 to 2000 seconds, or 17 to
33 minutes. The CFA compositional measurements typically were taken after an hour of
cleanup time. However, slugs of water-base mud
continued to pass through the apparatus, and it
typically took more than two additional hours for
the mud contamination to become acceptably
low to obtain each sample for surface analysis.
Next, the probe was positioned in the gas cap.
The GOR was high, with large concentrations of
C1 and C2C5 components. The optical density
at the color channel was almost zero in the gas
cap, consistent with the presence of a very
light hydrocarbon system.
After obtaining a uid sample in the gas cap,
the tool was repositioned to obtain a second sample 14 m [46 ft] above the rst oil sample. The
operator suspected there might be a compositional
gradient in the oil zone. The CFA results from the
two oil stations indicated a signicantly higher
GOR at the upper position. The color optical
density also was less at the upper station, indicating a greater content of gas components at the
higher position.
With this information, the operator was able
to change the logging plan immediately. The
probe module was placed as close to the
oil/water contact as possible, then as close to the
gas/oil contact as possible. The CFA readings
over the full extent of the oil column conrmed
the existence of a uid compositional gradient
and more than a 60% increase in GOR over about
13. Fujisawa G, Mullins OC, Dong C, Carnegie A,
Betancourt SS, Terabayashi T, Yoshida S, Jaramillo AR
and Haggag M: Analyzing Reservoir Fluid Composition
In-Situ in Real Time: Case Study in a Carbonate
Reservoir, paper SPE 84092, presented at the SPE
Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, Denver,
Colorado, USA, October 58, 2003.
14. Hier L and Whitson CH: Compositional Grading
Theory and Practice, paper SPE 63085, presented at
the SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition,
Dallas, Texas, USA, October 14, 2000.
For another compositional-gradient example: Metcalfe
RS, Vogel JL and Morris RW: Compositional Gradients
in the Anschutz Ranch East Field, paper SPE 14412,
SPE Reservoir Engineering 3, no. 3 (August 1988):
10251032.

59

Subtle changes in composition can be easily

obscured if the uid passing through the detectors has separated into two phases. This can
occur if the drawdown pressure is too great. The
use of uorescence is key to detecting when a
uid passes through its dewpoint.

Excitation

Fluorescence intensity

Fluorescence channel 1

Gas condensate

Light oil

Fluorescence
channel 2

Wavelength

Fluorescence Fluorescence
channel 2
channel 1
Blue light
Reflection
source
detector
Lamp

Water

Fluid flow

Fluorescence
detection unit

Spectrometer

> Detecting uorescence. The uorescence detector and spectrometer are

about 7 cm [3 in.] apart along the CFA owline (bottom). In the uorescence
detection unit, a blue light source reects from a sampling window into a
detection channel tuned to the same wavelength. The excitation beam is
reemitted at longer wavelengths. Two other channels are tuned to detect this
hydrocarbon uorescence over two broad ranges of wavelengths. Most of the
signal from condensates occurs in the rst of these two detectors (top).

a 32-m [105-ft] interval within the oil column.

Fluid samples taken at each of these points and
later analyzed in a laboratory confirmed a
compositional gradient.
Finding this gradient without the real-time
CFA analysis would be unlikely. First, small differences between samples in a laboratory often
are interpreted as reecting sampling difculties
rather than uid-property variations. Second, a
company would not be likely to position a tool at
four separate heights in this oil leg without some
prior evidence of the presence of a gradient.
For Statoil, the important point was that the
existence of a compositional gradient within the
oil leg was noticed and conrmed in real time.
This allowed the operator to adjust the MDT
sampling program to identify appropriate uid
sampling depths and collect sufcient quantities
of samples for complete reservoir uid description.

60

Knowing that there was a compositional gradient

in the formation and knowing the expected range
of GOR helped the company develop a wellbore
drawdown strategy to optimize production.
Because the operator planned to develop the
eld using horizontal wells, placement of the
wells in relation to the gas/oil and water/oil contacts was crucial. An MDT permeability test performed during this testing sequence provided
additional information for well placement.
The in-situ properties determination provided by the combination of the CFA and LFA
modules assured that quality samples were
obtained in the sampling cylinders. Since the
produced uids from this eld will be tied in to
other elds, a quality uid compositional analysis and determination of compatibility with the
other uids were important for ow assurance.

An Aromatic Afterglow
Aromatic hydrocarbons uoresce. The distinguishing characteristic of uorescence is that
there is a brief time delay between light absorption and its reemission, and that the reemission
occurs at a lower energythat is, a longer wavelengththan the absorbed light (left).15
The CFA module incorporates a uorescence
detection unit (FDU) along the owline, about
7 cm [3 in.] from the absorption spectrometer.
Since they are close together, the two types of
detector sample essentially the same uid. This
allows the two measurements to be used simultaneously to evaluate uids.
The FDU shines blue light onto a window in
the ow tube. One detector tuned at the source
wavelength is placed at the reection angle.
This provides a measure of direct reection of
light, reducing the possibility of false-positive
uorescence detection. Two other detectors in
the FDU record the intensity and spectrum of
the uorescence.
The FDU is particularly sensitive to uorescence from uid on the surface of the ow-tube
window. Dew formation often causes a liquid
coating on the ow-tube surfaces. When the uid
is in a single phase, the detector measures the
properties of the uid owing near the window.
Once the pressure drops below the dewpoint,
liquid drops out of solution and condenses. The
condensed liquid phase wets the detector window, so the uorescence detector is most sensitive to the properties of the liquid phase. Since
the heavy ends are enriched in the liquid phase,
the FDU is sensitive to the presence of a liquid
phase dropping out from a gas condensate. This
makes it an excellent tool for detecting when a
uid drops below its dewpoint.
Detecting a Multiphase Condition
The rst use of an FDU in the eld showed that
the drawdown pressure being used at that
sampling station was too large, generating a twophase condition. The operator moved to another
location a few centimeters away and resampled,
this time obtaining a good sample. This section
describes how the fluids separated in the
pumpout module and how the FDU detected this
two-phase condition caused by excessive drawdown at the rst location.

Oileld Review

15. One way for a molecule to decay from an excited state

is by emitting a photon. If some of the excitation energy
has dissipated, for example through collision, the reemitted light is at a lower energy than the absorbed light.

Autumn 2003

Downstroke

Gas
Oil
Water
Hydraulic oil

Upstroke

To flowline

From reservoir

From reservoir

To flowline

Upstroke

Downstroke

Fluorescence intensity, volt

Water apparent density, g/cm3
Ratio of C1 to C6+, dimensionless

During an MDT logging run, a probe seals

against the formation, then the pump pulls uid
from the formation into the tool. Ideally, the
drawdown will be sufcient to remove the uid
from the formation, but not so much as to drop
the uid below its dewpoint pressure. However,
both the formation permeability and the differential between dewpoint pressure and formation
pressure are unknown or poorly known before
most MDT jobs in exploration wells begin. In fact,
determining the dewpoint is one of the main reasons for obtaining uid samples. Without knowing
permeability and dewpoint pressure, establishing
a proper drawdown pressure to keep a gas in
single phase is difcult. The FDU on the CFA tool
provides a check of this condition in situ.
When water may be present in the owline,
the CFA unit should be placed downstream of the
pumpout module to avoid continuous swamping
of the longer wavelength absorption spectrometers by the strong water-absorption peak. The
water is still present in the owlines in this conguration, but the residence time in the pump is
sufcient for phase segregation to occur. Thus,
the water, oil and gas phases will ow through
the spectrometers separately (right). On the
downstroke, the lower part of the pump lls from
the formation, and the upper part discharges to
the owline. The discharge point is at the bottom
of the upper pump chamber, so the rst uid
pumped out is water, followed by oil, then gas. On
the upstroke, the chambers reverse function.
Now, the lower chamber discharges to the owline, but this time does so from the upper part
of the chamber. The rst uid expelled is gas,
followed by oil, then water.
The CFA tool clearly distinguishes owing
phases using the water and hydrocarbon vibrational-energy absorption peaks and the main
FDU fluorescence channel. The hydrocarbon
vibrational channels provide an indicator of the
amount of gas passing through the owline when
the ratio of C1 to C6+ is high. The FDU is sensitive to the presence of a liquid hydrocarbon
phase. Thus, a plot of these three quantities
water absorption, C1/C6+ ratio and the main
uorescence channelshows the three phases
passing through the owline.
This procedure indicated three-phase ow
during sampling of a gas cap in a North Sea well.
In this case, the operator suspected that the gas

1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0

20

40

60
Elapsed time, s

80

100

120

> Detecting multiple phases downstream of the pumpout module in a North Sea well. The pumpout
module is a reciprocating pump with two separate chambers sharing one piston. When the pumpout
module strokes down (top left), a multiplex valve directs uid from the formation into the lower chamber
and from the upper chamber into the owline. On the upstroke, the multiplex valve switches the inlet
and outlet sources (top right). The CFA module, which is downstream of the pump, detects three
phases. The chart (middle) compares signals from the water vibrational channel, from the main
uorescence channel that indicates liquid oil, and from the C1/C6+ ratio that indicates gas. On the
downstroke, water is expelled rst, followed by oil, then gas (assuming all are present, as they are
here). On the upstroke, the order is reversed. The color bar indicates the primary ow contributor
(bottom). This uid sample came from a gas-condensate zone, and the separation of the uid into gas
and liquid phases indicated the drawdown was too large.

cap might contain a retrograde condensate. The

gas was near a saturated condition, and the
pumpout unit drew the pressure down to about
25 bar [370 psi] below formation pressure.
Because a large drawdown was used to pump the
uids out of the formation, two hydrocarbon
phases were observed; a sample taken from this
depth would be invalid because of a high likelihood of formation-uid damage at this point.
After moving the MDT string a few centimeters to
obtain an unaffected uid sample, the operator
found this new sample contained more liquid
than the rst. Detecting the inappropriate sampling condition and moving to a new location was
possible because of the real-time CFA results.

Real-Time Advantages
Capabilities provided by the FDU are being
incorporated into real-time CFA services,
increasing the sensitivity for detecting phase
transitions and providing additional information
about in-situ uid compositions.
The ability to distinguish methane and light
hydrocarbons from heavier hydrocarbons greatly
increases the amount of information available in
real time from gas-condensate reservoirs. This
determination allows an operator to quickly
make important economic decisions about a
reservoir. The operator can then follow up with
more extensive measurements in a surface
laboratory, using samples whose quality has
been assuredbefore collectionusing these
innovative downhole sampling tools.
MAA

61