Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Gifted students perceptions of the desired characteristics of teachers of the gifted were
assessed from a sample comprised of 404 elementary- and junior highschool Israeli Jewish
and Arab students studying in pullout centers. Perceptions were measured using a questionnaire
comprising teachers cognitive, personal, and pedagogical dimensions. Personal characteristics
were perceived by both Jewish and Arab students as the most important. Significant effects of
culture, gender, and grade level were detected for all three dimensions. We suggest that differences stem from collectivist/individualist cultural orientations and girls status aspirations.
Thus, students perceptions of teachers desired characteristics have to be discussed in relation to their cultural background and schooling. A new lens for examining teaching of gifted
students is offered, along with practical implications for teacher-certification programs.
Keywords: cultural orientations, gifted students perceptions, pullout programs, teachers
desired characteristics
Studies have emphasized the importance of designing learning environments that respond to gifted students needs
(Johnsen & Goree, 2005; Rogers, 2002; Van Tassel-Baska &
Stambaugh, 2006). They have examined the effectiveness
of various composites such as curriculum and placement
in these environments, from educators points of view.
However, research concerning various learning aspects as
seen and perceived from gifted students eyes, based on their
own experiences, is scarce.
Another important issue insufficiently addressed by
research is gifted students cultural backgrounds, their wider
context of growing up and learning. Cultural context may
play a significant role in shaping students perceptions concerning learning experiences. Literature directly relating to
learning styles in this perspective was insufficient. Culturally
relevant pedagogy, on the other hand, has been proposed by
Ladson-Billings (1995) as a practice for reaching learners of
diverse cultural backgrounds and engaging them in meaningful learning processes. This pedagogy involves environments
Received 18 August 2008; accepted 21 March 2010.
Address correspondence to Billie Eilam, Faculty of Education,
University of Haifa, Mount Carmel, Haifa 31905, Israel. E-mail: beilam@
construct.haifa.ac.il
students are provided the choice of a variety of enrichment topics offered in a weekly pullout program at one of
the 53 centers for gifted education located in their districts
(36 centers in the Jewish and 17 in the Arab culture;
Arabs comprise about 20% of the Israeli population). Other
programs available for talented students include separate
classrooms and summer programs offered by universities
(Division for Gifted and Excellent Students, 20082009).
Participants of this study were gifted students studying at
Jewish and Arab pullout centers. These Israeli pullout centers allow for bicultural comparison, which constitutes the
focus of this study.
PULLOUT PROGRAMS
Enrichment programs expose students to increased breadth
and depth of content (Schiever & Maker, 1997). Enrichment
can take many forms, from in-class enrichment for gifted
students in regular classrooms, to pullout programs, to outof-school programs. The present study addressed gifted
students learning in pullout programs. Schiever and Maker
identified three kinds of pullout programs: (a) processoriented programs that focus on creative problem solving
and critical thinking, often domain independent; (b) contentoriented approaches, offering minicourses or mentorship in a
specific subject domain; and (c) product-oriented approaches
involving students in projects, reports, and presentations,
which combine process and content elements.
Empirical studies from earlier years concerning pullout
programs (as cited in Moon, Feldhusen, & Dillon, 1994)
revealed positive effects for achievement (Aldrich & Nills,
1989; Kulik & Kulik, 1992), critical thinking (Beckwith,
1982; Carter, 1986; Neilsen, 1984), creativity (Kollof &
Feldhusen, 1984; Starko, 1988), or promoting interest in
various domains and interaction with students (Humes &
Campbell, 1980). Moreover, studies show long-term positive
effects of pullout programs on elementary-school students
(Feldhusen & Moon, 1992; Moon, 1991). For example,
Moon et al. (1994) found that most students loved the pullout programs because they were significantly different from
regular school, which at times reflected the perception that
schoolwork was boring.
A questionnaire administered to gifted elementary- and
middle-school students revealed that pullout programs were
the most common practice in gifted education (40%;
Swiatek & Lupkowski-Shoplik, 2003), a result that is consistent with past research findings (see Winner, 1997). Some
experts stated that these ineffective programs for gifted
students are often worse than having no exposure to programs at all (e.g., Davidson, Davidson, & Vanderkam, 2004).
According to many current analyses, pullout programs in
schools are more age dependent than interest and ability
dependent (Davidson et al., 2004); that is, the gifted are rarely
grouped according to interest in mixed-age classrooms. Other
critics noted that even the most exciting curriculum cannot
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should exhibit the following characteristic qualities: (a) content mastery, (b) a passionate personality dedicated to the
teaching profession and to students, and (c) a flexible and
adventurous spirit in practicing instruction. The top three
essential skills required for working with the gifted included
(a) the knowledge and effective use of teaching techniques,
(b) strong communication skills, and (c) the ability to understand and to address students needs. These studies examined
best competencies and practices from teachers perspectives
alone, neglecting the gifted students comprising the target
population.
Students Perceptions
A study by Mills (2003) that examined the characteristics of effective teachers of gifted students supported J. F.
Feldhusens findings (1997) and elaborated on them. Mills
indicated that the successful teachers personality types were
in many ways similar to those of gifted students, suggesting that teachers who are judged to be highly effective in
working with gifted students prefer abstract themes and concepts, are open and flexible concerning different or new
ideas, and value logical analysis and objectivity. However,
though Feldhusen stressed the acquisition of knowledge and
competencies in teachers professional development over
the consideration of teachers personal characteristics, Mills
suggested that teachers personalities and cognitive styles
may play an important role in their instructional effectiveness. These findings, however, are still insufficient for
guiding teachers of the gifted.
Data concerning students preferences for personality
or cognitive strengths in their teachers are also inconclusive. A study of gifted and nongifted elementary students
in Israel demonstrated a strong preference for intellectual
cognitive qualities of teachers over other personal dimensions like creativity and also over teachers approaches to
areas such as classroom organization and presentation of
material (Milgram, 1979). On the other hand, Maddux,
Samples-Lachmann, and Cummings (1985) found that their
students preferred personal and social characteristics of their
teachers over intellectual and creative qualities.
An Australian study reported that students preferred the
more open climate established by trained teachers of the
gifted and those undertaking training, compared to untrained
teachers of the gifted (Rowley, 2002). Students also reported
these teachers greater emphasis on higher-level thinking
(analysis and synthesis) rather than on retention, on discussion rather than on lecturing, and on feelings (the affective
dimension). Data regarding gender and grade level (i.e., elementary, junior high, or high school) as related to students
perceptions of teachers characteristics are still insufficient.
In summary, experts recommend that teachers of gifted
students should possess many of the characteristics attributed
to gifted students. For addressing the needs of gifted students, these teachers are expected to possess high-level
cognitive abilities and pedagogical competencies, along with
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TABLE 1
Study Population: Number of Students by Culture,
Grade Level, and Gender
Jews, No. (%)
130 (32.2)
74 (18.3)
204 (50.5)
102 (25.2)
98 (24.3)
200 (49.5)
232 (57.4)
172 (42.6)
404 (100)
143 (35.4)
61 (15.1)
204 (50.5)
108 (26.7)
92 (22.8)
200 (49.5)
251 (62.1)
153 (37.9)
404 (100)
Grade level
Elementary
Junior high
Total
Gender
Male
Female
Total
Instrumentation
A questionnaire for measuring students perceptions of
desired teacher characteristics was administered to each
group in their native language. Translation was performed
by three Arab educators. An expert in gifted education validated the content. The questionnaire was comprised of two
parts: The first part consisted of 42 statements, requiring
students respondes to them on a 6-point Likert-type scale
from 1 (completely incorrect) to 6 (completely correct),
reflecting gifted students evaluation of the extent to which
gifted teachers should possess the characteristics stated (see
Appendix).
A factor analysis with Varimax rotation performed on
responses of 217 teachers (see Table 2) yielded three
scales of teachers characteristics, each describing a different dimension: (a) teachers cognitive characteristics
(13 items, Cronbachs alpha = .78) (b) teachers personal characteristics (17 items, Cronbachs alpha = .86),
and (c) teachers pedagogical characteristics (13 items,
Cronbachs alpha = .81), with the 43-item instruments
internal consistency yielding a reliability of Cronbachs
alpha = .85.
Reliability calculated for students responses yielded
results similar to that obtained for teachers only on the personal and pedagogical dimensions but much lower reliability
for the cognitive dimension as follows: (a) teachers personal characteristics, related to teaching, attitudes toward
students, and nurturing creativity (17 items, Cronbachs
alpha = .84), including statements such as, Teachers
respect the students, or Teachers are aware of differences among students; (b) teachers pedagogical characteristics concerning teaching modes and classroom activities
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TABLE 2
Factor Analysis Results According to Teachers Perceptions of
Various Dimensions
TABLE 2
(Continued)
Dimension
Dimension
Alpha
Not assign research projects
Present diverse modes of solving a
problem
Encourage students to always think in
the same way
Show a single mode of solving a
problem
Not assign the building of models
Focus on the subject and not get
carried away
Lecture most of the time
Teach a subject with no connection to
other subjects
Be knowledgeable in subjects he or she
does not teach
Teach each subject in a single way
Be able to make meaningful
connections among ideas originating
in different subjects
Teach the same topic from different
points of view
Assign independent research projects
Encourage the presentation of research
and creative projects in the
classroom
Use movies, songs, objects, and games
for illustration
Create good personal relations with
students
Encourage students self-evaluation
Assign cooperative work during class
Be aware of differences among
students
Stimulate students curiosity
Assign creative work
Respect the students
Be aware of students different
learning modes
Use rich language
Organize visits to museums and labs
Present the use of acquired knowledge
in new situations
Motivate students to learn
Occasionally have a personal
conversation with each student
Be creative
Not reject students opinions
Send students to regional and national
competitions
Hold science competitions among
students
Strive for outstanding achievements
Assign homework almost every lesson
Test students orally by calling them to
the board
Ask students to memorize and recite
the material
.86
.81
.53
.52
.51
.50
.47
.45
.43
.38
.38
.37
.35
.71
.65
.64
.61
.56
.53
.52
.52
.52
.50
.46
.46
.46
.45
.44
.41
.41
.70
.67
.64
.62
.59
.56
(Continued)
.53
.49
.49
.48
.45
15.0
5.22
(.47)
17.30
5.56
(.38)
.41
.36
10.70
4.10
(.68)
Cognitive
Personal
Pedagogical
Note. N = 404.
p < .001.
Cognitive
Personal
Pedagogical
.604
.275
.517
91
pedagogical, 4.85 (.62) > 4.31 (.59) > 3.59 (.76), respectively. Pearson correlation for the various dimensions of
teachers characteristics yielded significant main effects for
all possible pairs of characteristics dimensions (p .001),
suggesting that they are related in students minds. However,
the personal dimension is more strongly related to the
cognitive one in students minds than it is to the pedagogical dimension, whereas the cognitive and the pedagogical
dimension are perceived by students as related to a smaller
degree. The three dimensions were examined by background
variables to determine their effect, as seen in Table 4.
Significant main effects were detected for grade level,
F(1,394) = 3.78, p .05, Effect Size (ES) = .028;
gender, F(1,394) = 2.77, p .05, ES = .021; culture,
F(1,394) = 25.35, p .001, ES = .16; and the interaction
of gender by culture, F(1,394) = 3.76, p .05, ES = .028.
TABLE 4
Results of MANOVA for All Students Ratings on Teachers
Characteristics in the Three Dimensions by Culture, Grade Level,
Gender, and Gender by Culture, Presented in F Values and
Significance Levels
Dimensions
(df = 394)
Cognitive
Personal
Pedagogical
Multivariate
F (df = 3)
Culture
Grade level
Gender
Gender Culture
.84
13.72
16.32
25.35
10.89
2.04
.67
3.78
4.14
4.19
.10
2.77
10.46
4.73
.31
3.76
92
(.64), respectively, whereas Arab girls tended to rate teachers cognitive characteristics significantly higher than Arab
boys did, 4.43 (.62) and 4.13 (.60), respectively.
These findings show opposite gender-related trends
among Jewish and Arab students regarding preferred cognitive characteristics of teachers of gifted.
Paired sample t-tests showed a significant difference
between Arab boys and Arab girls, t(198) = 3.47, p .001,
Mean Difference (MD) = .30, but not between Jewish boys
and girls. Namely, Arab girls, who rated the desired cognitive characteristics of the teacher of the gifted significantly
higher than Arab boys did, perceived cognitive characteristics as more important for their personal development. In
contrast, Jewish boys and girls equally perceived teachers
cognitive characteristics to be important. In addition, Jewish
boys rated teachers cognitive characteristics significantly
higher than Arab boys did, 4.36 (.50) > 4.13 (.60) respectively, t(249) = 3.36, p .001, MD = .23. It seems that
Arab boys perceived teachers cognitive characteristics as
less important than Jewish boys did.
The Personal Dimension
Significant differences in students perceptions of the
desired personal characteristics of the teachers of gifted
were detected in gender and culture but not in grade level.
Analysis according to gender indicated that girls rated the
personal dimension higher than boys, 4.90 (.63) > 4.81 (.61),
respectively, F(1,396) = 4.19, p .05, ES = .010.
According to culture, Jewish students tended to rate
this dimension higher than their Arab counterparts did,
4.96 (.49) > 4.72 (.70), respectively, F(1,396) = 13.72,
p .001, ES = .033. t-Test results show a significant difference between Arab gifted boys and girls,
4.63 (.71) < 4.83 (.69), respectively, t = 1.98, p .05,
MD = .30, in perception of the importance of teachers
personal characteristics.
The Pedagogical Dimension
A significant difference according to culture alone was
found on the pedagogical dimension, indicating Jewish
students tendency to rate such characteristics lower than
their Arab counterparts did, 3.44 (.72) < 3.73 (.77),
respectively, F(1,396) = 16.32, p .001, ES = .040.
Differences were detected between both Jewish and Arab
gifted boys, 3.46 (.73) < 3.73 (.83), respectively, t = 2.75,
p .05, MD = .27, and Jewish and Arab gifted girls,
3.39 (.69) < 3.73 (.69), respectively, t = 2.97, p . 005,
MD = .34.
In summary, an examination of teachers characteristics
according to the three different dimensions revealed that both
Jewish and Arab gifted students valued the personal and cognitive over pedagogical characteristics. Differences between
the groups according to the various dimensions exhibit
recurrent patterns in the cognitive and personal dimensions,
showing that Jewish boys and girls and Arab girls tended
to rate these dimensions higher than Arab boys. An opposite trend was detected on the pedagogical dimension, where
Arab girls and boys tended to rate this higher than their
Jewish counterparts did.
DISCUSSION
Dimensions of Teachers Characteristics
Examination of teachers characteristics according to the
three dimensions revealed that all gifted students valued
the personal and cognitive dimensions more than they valued the pedagogical, consistent with recent research (Mills,
2003) but not with past research in Israel (Milgram, 1979).
This inconsistency with Israeli past findings may result
from the many changes that have occurred in the education of gifted students over these last 30 years. Findings
suggest that background variables may influence students
perceptions of the cognitive and personal dimensions of
teachers desired characteristics. In our discussion here, we
emphasize gender-related cultural orientations and the general cultural-orientation perspective, because these may have
a strong effect on students perceptions of teachers desired
characteristics.
The Cognitive Dimension
Grade-level or age-related differences regarding the rating of characteristics on the cognitive dimension may be
expected due to older students emphasis on the intelligence
domain, which is more associated with the conventional
goals of education (Milgram, 1979, p. 128). The similar
perceptions found for Jewish students, expressed in their
relatively higher rating of teachers cognitive characteristics, suggest their acknowledgement of the importance of
the cognitive dimension. Arab girls higher ratings of the
cognitive dimension compared with Arab boys reflect their
aspirations for higher education and career, consistent with
literature relating to nongifted students in Israel (Seginer &
Mahajna, 2004). The authors cited here reported a recent
trend, expressed by Arab females, of valuing higher education as a means for breaking the traditional path destined
for them by society. On the other hand, gifted Arab boys
attributing less importance to the cognitive characteristics is
consistent with past research relating to nongifted Arab boys
(Seginer, 1988, 2001), suggesting that due to their already
secure status in society, given societal perceptions that boys
are the privileged gender, they feel less motivated to achieve
academically.
The Personal Dimension
Gender-related perceptions of the personal dimension
are consistent with literature emphasizing girls stronger
desire for personalsocial relations. Culture-related perceptions of the personal dimension may suggest that Jewish
gifted students are more sensitive to teachers personal characteristics and the current outcome-learning climate. Arab
gifted students attributed less importance to the teachers
personal characteristics, whereas their Jewish counterparts
acknowledged the importance of these characteristics and
noticed teachers exhibiting unique qualities when attending pullout programs. The finding related to Arab gifted
girls, compared with Jewish gifted girls and boys, supports
our previous explanations concerning the value these girls
attach to teachers personal characteristics as a means for
improving their societal status. However, girls from both cultural orientations equally value the personal characteristics
of teachers of the gifted.
The Pedagogical Dimension
ArabJewish differences in perceiving the teaching
learning situation may be explained by their cultural background; namely, students being exposed to collectivist
norms, as translated into instructional practices, are discouraged from expressing opinions and are expected to respect
adults authority (Al-Haj, 1995, 1996, as cited in Eilam,
2002). These behaviors may influence their perceptions
of the teachinglearning situation at pullout centers. Arab
teachers of gifted students in the pullout centers may continue their educational traditions, rather than fostering creativity, problem solving, group work, and individual projects.
Individualistic Jewish teachers are likely more aware of
student-centered practices promoting active learning and
enhancing creativity and apply them more than Arab teachers do in the centers. Jewish students high expectations for
such instructional modes, as found here, may constitute an
additional pressure for applying them.
93
STUDY LIMITATIONS
This study raises some crucial issues with respect to the education of gifted students in a multicultural society. Because
participants of the present study were representative of the
pullout programs in the Jewish and Arab cultures sanctioned by the Ministry of Education in the northern and
central regions of Israel, we recommend only cautious generalization to other gifted populations and other types of
programs. Data collected were self-reported and not triangulated with parents or teachers perceptions. A deeper
examination of perceptions and preferences of students from
diverse cultures and of teachers of gifted students might
contribute to a better understanding of education of gifted
students. Semistructured interviews would likely provide a
more comprehensive view of students notions regarding the
characteristics of their teachers, and indirectly of pullout
94
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Teachers will:
Completely incorrect
Incorrect
Not so correct
Quite correct
Correct
Completely correct
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AUTHOR BIOS
Billie Eilam is a professor in the Faculty of Education at the University of Haifa, Israel. Her research focuses on
visualization in learning, instruction and curriculum, emphasizes cognitive skills, and treats aspects of contextual
and cultural factors. Many of her studies examine the application of theories in authentic learning situations. E-mail:
beilam@edu.haifa.ac.il
Hava E. Vidergor, PhD, is a pedagogical coordinator and lecturer in a certification program for teachers of gifted
students at Oranim Academic Teachers College, Israel, where she has designed a number of courses related to
effective pedagogies and curriculum planning for gifted and talented students. She is an invited lecturer in certification
programs for teachers of gifted, as well as a large number PD programs for teachers of high achievers. She is an
experienced teacher in both general and gifted education frameworks, where she has designed and taught courses on
leadership, and creativity in English as a second language to middle school gifted students. She is the initiator and
co-editor of The Handbook for Teaching Gifted and Able Learners (2011). She has published a number of refereed
journal articles, and has given presentations and workshops in national and international conferences. She has recently
established the HV Gifted Expertise Center supported by a team of world renowned scholars www.hvgifted.com. Her
research interests are instruction, teacher education and policy. E-mail: hava@hvgifted.com; vidergor@bezeqint.net
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