Sheet-forming Operations

High SA/V
Sheet - thickness < 5 (6) mm, above 6 mm - plate
Sheet metal processes involve plane stress loadings and lower forces than
bulk forming
Almost all sheet metal forming is considered to be secondary processing

Stress Induced
Shearing

Tension
Compression
Tension and
Compression

Operations
Shearing, Blanking, Piercing,
Trimming, Shaving, Notching,
Nibbling
Stretch-Forming
Ironing, Coining, Sizing, Hobbing
Drawing, Spinning, Bending,
Embossing, Forming

Classification of Presses
Primary tool for sheet metal working is some form of press
and successful manufacture depends on using right kind of
equipment
Capacity required
Type of power (manual, mechanical, or hydraulic) or drive
Number of slides or drives
Type of frame
Speed of operation

Press drive mechanisms

Classification of Presses Drive Mechanism

Very light work - manually operated presses (foot operated or
kick presses)
Heavier work mechanical drives
Fast motion and positive control of displacement
Limited flexibility (length of stroke is set by design of
drive)
Force varies with position
Preferred for operations like cutting, up to 10 cm
drawing (maximum pressure near bottom of stroke)
Capacity 9000 metric tons

Classification of Presses Drive Mechanism

Mechanical drives types:
Crank-driven
Simple
Piercing, blanking, drawing
Double crank (multiple action dies)

Eccentric or cam drives

Used for smaller ram stroke
Dwell at bottom of stroke
Deep drawing

Knuckle-joint drives
High mechanical advantage alongwith fast action
Coining

Classification of Presses Drive Mechanism

Mechanical drives types:
Toggle mechnism
Drawing
Screw-type drives
Mechanical action resembling drop hammer

Classification of Presses Drive Mechanism

Hydraulic presses
Motion as a result of piston movement
Stroke can be programmed (2.5 m)
Accurate controlled on forces and pressure
Availability of full pressure throughout the stroke
Speeds can be programmed to either vary or remain constant
Slower than mechanical presses in general (exception 600
strokes per minute for high speed blanking)

Classification of Presses Drive Mechanism

Hydraulic presses
Reproducibility of position will have greater variation than a
mechanical press
Capacity - exceeding 50,000 metric tons
Preferred for operations
requiring a steady pressure throughout a substantial stroke (deep
drawing)
requiring wide variation in stroke length
requiring high or widely variable forces.

Classification of Presses Frame

Considerations capacity, accessibility and stiffness
limitations on size and type of work that can be
accommodated
Work loading and unloading
Press setup time e.g., time required for changing dies

 Arch-frame
Screw-drives for coining
Seldom used
Gap-frame (C shaped)
Versatile
Good accesability from three directions
Permit large workpieces
1 metric ton to 300 metric tons

Classification of Presses Frame

Inclinable press
Tilted
Ejection can be assited by gravity or compressed air jet

Open-back presses
Opening in back
Easy ejection of products/scraps

Inclinable gap-frame press

Turret press
Multiple holes/slots with varying shaps/size
Upper and lower turret (muliple punches and dies)
Horn press
Cylindrical shaft (horn) in place of bed
Curved workpieces
Seaming, punching, riveting

Horn press

Classification of Presses Frame

Straight-sided press
Accesibility from front and rear (from sides as well)

A 200-ton straight-sided press.

Sheet Metalworking
1.
2.
3.
4.

Cutting Operations
Bending Operations
Drawing
Other Sheet Metal Forming Operations

Sheet and Plate Metal Products

Sheet and plate metal parts for consumer and
industrial products such as
Automobiles and trucks
Airplanes
Railway cars and locomotives
Farm and construction equipment
Small and large appliances
Office furniture
Computers and office equipment

Advantages of Sheet Metal Parts

High strength
Good dimensional accuracy
Good surface finish
Relatively low cost
Economical mass production for large
quantities

Sheet Metalworking Terminology

Punch-and-die - tooling to perform cutting, bending, and

drawing
Stamping press - machine tool that performs most sheet
metal operations
Stampings - sheet metal products

Basic Types of Sheet Metal Processes

1. Cutting
Shearing (simple shearing) to separate large sheets
Blanking to cut part perimeters out of sheet metal
Punching/ Piercing to make holes in sheet metal
Slitting
2. Bending
Straining sheet around a straight axis
3. Drawing
Forming of sheet into convex or concave shapes

Shearing, Blanking, and Punching

Principal operations in pressworking that cut sheet metal:
Shearing
Blanking
Punching
Piercing

Shearing
Shearing is a process for cutting sheet metal to size out of a
larger stock such as roll stock
Shears are used as the preliminary step in preparing stock for
stamping processes, or smaller blanks for CNC presses
The shearing process produces a shear edge burr, which can be
minimized to less than 10% of the material thickness. The burr
is a function of clearance between the punch and the die, and
the sharpness of the punch and the die.

Shearing
Fracture and tearing begin at the weakest point and proceed
progressively or intermittently to the next-weakest location
Results in a rough and ragged edge
Punch and die must have proper alignment and clearance
Sheared edges can be produced that require no further
finishing

Sheet Metal Cutting - Shearing

Shearing of sheet metal between two cutting edges:

(1) just before the punch contacts work;
(2) punch begins to push into work, causing plastic deformation;

Sheet Metal Cutting - Shearing

Shearing of sheet metal between two cutting edges:

(3) punch compresses and penetrates into work causing a smooth
cut surface;
(4) fracture is initiated at the opposing cutting edges which
separates the sheet.

Conventionally sheared surface

Fineblanked surface

Shearing (Press Operations)

Smooth shearing a rod by putting it into compression during shearing

Slitting - Power shear for 6.5 mm steel

Shearing
Sheet metal cutting operation along a straight line between two
cutting edges

Typically used to cut large sheets

Shearing operation:
(a) side view of the shearing operation;
(b) front view of power shears equipped with inclined upper
cutting blade.

Shearing
Shearing (simple/square)
Both cutting blades are straight
Curved blades to produce different shapes
Blanking
Punching
Piercing
Notching
Trimming

Blanking and Punching

Blanking - sheet metal cutting to separate piece (called a blank)
from surrounding stock
Punching - similar to blanking except cut piece is scrap, called a
slug

Blanking

Punching

Blanking and Punching

Blanking - sheet metal cutting to separate piece (called a blank)
from surrounding stock
Punching - similar to blanking except cut piece is scrap, called a
slug

Punching
Punching is a metal fabricating process that removes a scrap
slug from the metal workpiece each time a punch enters the
punching die. This process leaves a hole in the metal workpiece
Characteristics:
Ability to produce holes in both strip and sheet metal during
medium or high production processes.
The ability to produce holes of varying shapes - quickly

Punching
The punching process forces a steel punch, made of hardened
steel, into and through a workpiece.
The punch diameter determines the size of the hole created in
the workpiece
Punching is often the cheapest method for creating holes in
sheet metal in medium to high production.

Punching

Punching and Piercing

A slug (the material punched out) is produced in punching
operations but not in piercing work
Piercing is forming a hole in sheet metal with a pointed punch
with no metal fallout (slug).
In this case, a significant burr or deformed sharp edge is created
on the bottom side of the material being pierced.

PIERCE
PUNCHES

Punching & blanking -Tools and Dies

Basic components of a
piercing and blanking die
set are: punch, die, and
stripper plate
Punches are normally made
from low-distortion or airhardenable tool steel so that
they can be hardened after
machining

Punching & blanking -Tools and Dies

Theoretically, punch should fit in die with a uniform
clearance approaches zero (practically- 5-7% of stock
thickness)
Uniform clearance should be maintained around the entire
periphery
Theoretically, punch should not enter die, but should stop
as its base aligns with top surface of die (practically- punch
enters slightly in die)

Punching & blanking -Tools and Dies

Punch tilted slightly to
reduce cutting force (shear
angle)
Shear angle reduces force
increases stroke length

Punching & blanking -Tools and Dies

Subpress dies (modular tooling) assembled and combined on
bed of press to pierce or blank large parts

Punching & blanking -Tools and Dies

Dies
single piece
component sections (that can be assembled)

simplifies production
simplifies replacement
flexibility of design changes
standard die components

Punching & blanking -Tools and Dies

Parts requiring multiple cutting type operation
Progressive die sets- two or more sets of punches and dies
mounted in line (one behind another, all facing in the same
direction)
Transfer dies move individual parts from operation to
operation within a single press
Compound dies combine processes sequentially during a
single stroke of the ram

Punching & blanking -Tools and Dies

Progressive die sets
First operation
strip stock is fed in first die,
where a hole is pierced and
ram descends
Second Operation
ram retracts and strip
advances, the pilot on
blanking punch aligns with
pierced hole
further descent of punch
blanks the completed
washer-pieces
At same time, first punch
pierces the hole for next
washer

Progressive piercing and blanking die for making a

square washer

Punching & blanking -Tools and Dies

Progressive die sets

Eleven station progressive die stages

Punching & blanking -Tools and Dies

Progressive die sets
Used for multiple combinations of piercing, blanking,
forming, drawing etc.
Quick and accurate position of work material
Simple construction
Economical to maintain and repair
Require final cut-off operation

Punching & blanking -Tools and Dies

Transfer die sets
Part handling must operate in harmony with press motions
to move, orient and position the pieces as they travel
through the die

Punching & blanking -Tools and Dies

Compound die sets
Piercing and blanking (or other combinations) occur
sequentially during a single stroke of ram

Part is blanked and subsequently pierced in the same stroke

The blanking punch contains the die for piercing.

Punching & blanking -Tools and Dies

Compound die sets

More complex
More breakage
More expensive
Precise alignment

Nibbling
Contour is progressively cut by producing a series of
overlapping notches (removing the material in small
increments)
Simple tools for complex shapes
Nibbling is used when the contour is long and a separate
punch is impractical and
uneconomical
Edge smoothness determined by
shape of tooling and degree of
overlap in successive cuts

Lancing
Metal cutting operation in which the metal is sliced or slit to
free up metal without separating it from the original sheet.
Does not create a slug
Save material and eliminate the need for scrap removal
Done in progressive dies

Trimming
Removal or Trimming of the Flash

Shaving

Finishing operation
Removal of the burrs left on product during the blanking or
punching/piercing operation
Greater dimensional accuracy
Close tolerance work

Notching
Cutting a specified small portion of material towards the edge
of the material stock

Cutoff
Separate a stamping or other product from a
strip or stock
Produces the periphery counter to the
workpiece

Dinking
Used to blank shapes from low strength
materials (rubber, fiber, cloth etc.)
(Hammer or mechanical press
acts on shank)

Design for punching & blanking

Design rules
Diameters of pierced holes should not be less than the
thickness of the metal (minimum 0.3 mm)
Minimum distance between holes or the edge of the stock
should be at least equal to the metal thickness
The width of any projection or slot should be at least 1
times the metal thickness (never less than 2.5 mm)
Keep tolerances as large as possible

Bending
Bending is the plastic deformation
of metals about a linear axis with
little or no change in the surface
area
Forming- multiple bends are made
with a single die
Spring-back is the unbending that
occurs after a metal has been
deformed

Bending
Bend Allowance is length of neutral axis in bend area and is used
for determination of blank length for a bend part
Lb = (R + kT)
Where,
is bend angle (rad),
T is sheet thickness,
R is bend radius,
k is constant (from (0.33 for R<2T) to 0.5 (for R>2T))
Ideal case k = 0.5

Bending
A 10 mm wide and 4 mm thick steel sheet is required to be bent at 3.14
radians at bend radius 10 mm. Determine the bend allowance?
Bend radius R = 10 mm
Sheet thickness t = 4 mm
Since R > 2t, k = 0.5
= 3.14 rad
Bend allowance = (3.14)(10 + 0.5*4) = 14.74 mm

Bending

(a) bending (b) rolling (c) Bending 90o

Bending

Bending
Minimum Bend Radius - the ratio at which a crack appears on outer
surface of bend
Expressed in terms of thickness (2T, 3T, 4T etc.)
R/Tmin = (50/(r-1)) ; Best Fit ----- R/T = (60/(r-1))
Where,
R is bend radius (Min Bend Radius R- at which crack occurs)
, T is sheet thickness, r is tensile reduction of area of sheet metal

50% tensile reduction of area can be

bent over itself

R/T Ratio versus % Area Reduction

Bending
Bending Force
Simple bending of a rectangular beam
Bending force is function of :
strength of material
length of bend (L)
thickness of sheet (T)
size of die opening (W)
Maximum bending force is
P = kYLT2 / W
Where, T is sheet thickness, R is bend radius,
k is 0.3 1.3, Y is yield stress

Bending
Bending Force
A 600 mm * 2.5 mm steel sheet is required to be bent at 900 using a V
die. Yield stress of the material is 500 MPa and the die opening as
10 times the material thickness. Estimate the force required for the
operation.
Solution : Here, Y = 500 MPa
L = 600 mm, t = 2.5 mm
k = 1.3 (for V die)
W = 25 mm
Bending force P = k.Y.L.t2 / W
= 1.3 x 500 x 600 x (2.5)2 / 25
= 97.5 KN

Bending
Bending Force
A 600 mm * 2.5 mm steel sheet is required to be bent at 900 using a
wiping die with radius = 3.75 mm. Yield stress of the material is 500
MPa and the die opening as 10 times the material thickness.
Estimate the force required for the operation.
Y = 500 MPa
L = 600 mm, t = 2.5 mm
k = 0.3 (for Wiping die)
W = 2.5+3.75.3.75 mm = 10 mm
Bending force P = k.Y.L.t2 / W
W
= 0.3 x 500 x 600 x (2.5)2 / 10
= 56.2 KN

Angle Bending (Bar Folder and Press Brake)

Bar folders make angle bends up to 150 degrees under 1.5 mm

sheet metal
Press brakes make bends in heavier sheets or more complex
bends in thin material

Press Brake

Heavier sheet and/or complex bends

Mechanical/Hydraulic with narrow/long bed and short strokes
Optional operations - Seaming, embossing, punching etc.
7 m long sheets
Die material
hardwood (low strength materials)
Carbon steels, gray-iron

Press Brake

Roll Bead Formed

(a) Bead forming with a single die (b) Bead forming with two dies, in a press brake

Bending
Springback
Ri/ Rf = 4(RiY/ET)3 - 3(RiY/ET) + 1
Where, Y is yield stress, E is elastic modulus
Spring back increases with decrease of E and increase of R/T
and Y

 Springback
Q. A 5 mm sheet is bent to a radius of 10 mm. Calculate the
radius of part after it is bent
(Yield stress = 205 MPa, E = 190 Gpa)
Ri / Rf = 4(RiY/ET)3 - 3(RiY/ET) + 1 (overbend or springback allowance)
RiY / Et
= (10 x 205 * 106) / (190 x 109 x 5) = 0.00216
Ri / Rf
= 4 (0.00216)3 3 (0.00216) +1
= .993

Bending
Springback

Remove the bent piece at stage (b) positive spring back

Upon unloading at stage (d) negative spring back (inwardly)
because it is being unbent from stage c
The amount of this inward (negative) spring back can be
greater than the amount of positive spring back

Bending
Springback

Bending
Springback

High Temprature

Considerations for Bending

If the punch radius is large and the bend angle is shallow,
large amounts of spring back are often encountered
The sharper the bend, the more likely the surfaces will be
stressed beyond the yield point
Parts with multiple bends should be designed with most of
them at same bend radius (less setup time and tooling cost)
Bends should be made with the bend axis perpendicular to
the rolling direction (fracture in hard material)

Considerations for Bending

The minimum inner radius should be at least 1 X material thickness
Minimum flange width should be at least 4 times the stock thickness
plus the bending radius (damage to tooling or operator)

Tolerance should not be less than 0.8mm

Considerations for Bending

Forming Near Holes When a bend is made too close to a
hole, the hole may become deformed (teardrop)
For a hole < 1" in diameter the minimum distance "D" = 2T + R
For a slot or hole > 1" diameter then the minimum distance "D" =
2.5T + R

A. Teardrop

B. hole < 1

C. hole > 1

Air-Bend, Bottoming, and Coining Dies

Bottoming dies contact and

compress the full area
within the tooling
Angle of the bend is set by
the geometry of the tooling
+ springback

Air bend dies produce the

desired geometry by simple
three-point bending
If bottoming dies go beyond
the full-contact position, the
operation is similar to
coining

Air-bend (left) and bottoming (right)

press brake dies

Roll Forming
Roll forming is a process
by which a metal strip is
progressively bent as it
passes through a series of
forming rolls
Only bending takes place
during this process, and
all bends are parallel to
one another
A wide variety of shapes
can be produced, but
changeover, setup, and
adjustment may take
several hours

Roll Forming
Progressive bending
of metal strips as it
passes through series
of forming rolls
(80 m/min)
Any material that can
be bent can be rolled

Eight-roll sequence for the roll forming of a box channel

Roll Bending
Roll bending is a continuous form of three-point bending
Plates, sheets, beams, pipes
Lower rolls driven
Upper roll controls degree of curvature
Forming Rolls

Tube Bending

Wet Sand
Flexible mandrels
Pressure bulging
Key parameters: outer diameter of the tube, wall thickness, and
radius of the bend

Tube Bending

Draw Bending, Compression Bending, and Press Bending

(a) Draw bending, in which the form block rotates

(b) moving tool compresses the workpiece against a stationary form
(c) press bending, where the press ram moves the bending form.

Tube Bending

Production of fittings for plumbing

(expanding tubular blanks)

Seaming and Flanging

Seaming is a bending operation that can be used to join the
ends of sheet metal in some form of mechanical interlock
Common products include cans, drums, and containers
Flanges can be rolled on sheet metal in a similar manner as
seams

Various types of seams used on sheet metal.

Straightening
Opposite of bending
Done before subsequent forming to ensure the use of flat or
straight material
Various methods to straighten material
Roll straightening (Roller levering)
Stretcher leveling- material is mechanically gripped and stretch
until it reaches the desired flatness

Method of straightening rod or sheet by passing it through a set of straightening rolls

Drawing and Stretching Processes

Drawing refers to the family of operations

where plastic flow occurs over a curved axis
and the flat sheet is formed into a threedimensional part

Deep Drawing and Shallow Drawing

Deep drawing is typically
used to form solid-bottom
cylindrical or rectangular
containers from sheet metal
Shallow drawing - depth is
less than diameter

Deep Drawing and Shallow Drawing

Key variables:

Blank and punch diameter

Punch and die radius
Clearance
Thickness of the blank
Lubrication
Hold-down pressure

Limitations of Deep Drawing

Typical limits to drawing operations
Wrinkling (movement of blank into die cavity induce
compressive stresses in flange)
Tearing (walls elongates and tend to thin)
Earing (Edges of cups may become wavy)?

Limitations of Deep Drawing

Shallow Drawing little change in circumference and small
area is confined by blankholder
Deep Drawing more change in circumference
More wrinkle and tear -Thin material

Deep Drawing
Deep Drawability (LDR)
LDR = Do/Dp
Where, Do max. blank diameter, Dp is punch diameter

Ability of a sheet metal for successful drawing

operation is defined by normal anisotropy (R)
R = Width strain / Thickness strain
Cold rolled sheets have anisotropy
in planer direction
Rave = (R0+ 2R45+ R90)/4
Where angles are relative to
rolling direction

Deep Drawing
Earing is caused by planer anisotropy of sheet (R)
R = (R0 -2R45+R90)/2

at R = 0, no ears are formed

Limitations of Deep Drawing

Different techniques can be used to overcome these limitations
Simple shapes Multiple operations
Complex shapes - Draw beads
Vertical projections and matching grooves in the die and
blankholder
Trimming may be used to reach final dimensions

Limitations of Deep Drawing

Reverse redrawing starting cup is placed over a tubular die
and punch acts to turn it inside out
Forward redraw - material undergoes reverse bending as it
flows into the die

Draw beads

Control flow of blank in die cavity

Ironing
Process that thins the walls of a drawn cylinder by passing it
between a punch and a die
Die and Punch Set Used is Similar to that of Drawing
Operation Except that the Clearance Between the Die and
Punch is Smaller than that Used in the Drawing Operation.
The Material Gets Compressed Between Punch and Die which
Reduces the Thickness and Increases the Height.
The Wall Thicknesses can be Reduced to as Much as 50% in a
Single Ironing Operation.

Embossing
Press working process in which raised lettering or other
designs are impressed in sheet material
Drawing and bending of the material
Die set consists of a die and punch with the desired contours,
so that when the punch and die meet, the clearance between
them is same as that of the sheet thickness
Providing dimples on sheets to increase their rigidity
Decorative sheet work used for panels

Embossing
Bending and Embossing

 Closeddie forging
operation (the flow of the
material occurs only at the
top layers and not in the
entire volume)
Coining die consists of the
punch and die which are
engraved with the
necessary details required
on both sides of the final
object.
The blank is compressed
by the die with a very high
pressure (5 to 6 times
strength of material) is
applied due to which very
fine details are obtained
on the surface.

COINING

Spinning
Produces rotationally symmetrical shapes
Spheres, hemispheres, cylinders, bells, and parabolas
Sheet metal is rotated and shaped over a male form and
gradually moving force is applied (blank takes shape of form)
Setup Centre lathe
Head stock hard wood form block (desired shape)
Tail stock Blank ( freely rotating, hard wood or metal)

Spinning
After Proper Clamping, the Blank is Rotated to its Operating
Speed.
Spinning Speed Depends on the Blank Material, Thickness
and Complexity of the Desired Cup.
Then the Hard Wood or Roller Type Metallic Tool is Pressed
and Moved Gradually on the Blank so that it Conforms to the
Shape of the Form Block.
Spinning is Comparable to Drawing for Making Cylindrical
Parts.

Spinning
Spinnability
as the ability of a metal to undergo shear spinning
deformation without exceeding its tensile strength and
tearing
Related to tensile reduction of area

Spinning Types
1. Conventional spinning

Conical and curvilinear shapes

Normally at room temperature

Spinning Types
2. Shear Spinning
Part diameter is maintained where as thickness is reduced
Considerable forces
Considerable heat
Requires cooling
Tooling tool steels
No wastage of material
Balancing required

Spinning Types
3. Tube Spinning
Thickness is reduced by spinning them on cylindrical mandrel
using rollers
Reduction depends on tensile reduction of area of the material
Both external or internal
Both forward or backward

Tool and Die Materials

High strength, impact toughness, wear resistance at room and
elevated temperatures

Tool and Die Materials

Shearing
Cold
Hot
Press Working
Deep Drawing
Coining

D2, A2, A9, S2, S5, S7

H11, H12, H13
Zn alloys, 4140 steel, CI, Comp., A2, D2, O1
W1, O1, Ci, A2, D2
W1, O1, A2, D2, D3, D4, H11, H12, H13

Safety devices

Barrier guards
Prevent operators exposure to nip points and pinch points
Fixed, adjustable or self-adjusting
Mechanical, electric, hydraulic, and optical interlocks are
provided untill barrier guards are in place

1. Spring-type interlock
shuts off power to machine
when guard door is opened
2. Guard can only be
removed by removing the
Plug
Source : Triodyne , Inc.

Safety devices
Dead-man Control: power is automatically
shut off in the event of operator passes out or
dies e.g. belt strap in elevated cranes
Presence setting devices

Safety devices
Maintenance Zero mechanical state
Locking out
Personal protective equipment ( goggles, face shields, ear
plugs, helmets, gloves, aprons etc.)

Machining

Machining
Machining
A subtractive process used to get desired shape, size, and
finish by removing surplus material in the form of chips
by a cutting tool and by providing suitable relative motion
between the workpiece and cutting tool
Process of finishing by which jobs are produced to the
desired dimensions and surface finish by gradually
removing the excess material from the preformed blank in
the form of chips with the help of cutting tool (s) moved
past the work surface (s).