Biol 1306

Dextromethorphan

Dextromethorphan

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How does the body react during a juice
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1.4 What Is Science?

Science is the systematic inquiry through
observation and experiment into the
origins, structure, and behavior of living
and nonliving environments

1.4 What Is Science?

Science is based on the principle that all
events have natural causes
The belief that all events can be traced to
natural causes that we can comprehend
(natural causality)

1.4 What Is Science?

The scientific method is an important tool of
scientific inquiry
The scientific method consists of six interrelated
elements

Observation
Question
Hypothesis
Prediction
Experiment
Conclusion

1.4 What Is Science?

The six steps of scientific inquiry
1. Observation of a specific phenomenon
2. The observation, in turn, leads to a question
3. The question leads to formulation of a
hypothesis, based on previous
observations, which is offered as an answer
to the question

1.4 What Is Science?

The six steps of scientific inquiry (continued)
4. The hypothesis leads to a prediction, which is
the expected outcome of testing if the hypothesis is
correct
5. The prediction is tested by carefully designed
additional observations or carefully controlled
manipulations called experiments
6. The experiments produce results that either support
or refute the hypothesis, allowing the development
of a conclusion

1.4 What Is Science?

Biologists test hypotheses using controlled
experiments
Two types of situations are established
A baseline or control situation in which all possible
variables are held at a constant
An experimental situation in which one factor, variable,
is manipulated to test the hypothesis to determine
that this variable is the cause of an observation

Science is useless unless communicated

1.4 What Is Science?

Scientific theories have been thoroughly tested
A scientific theory is a general and reliable
explanation of important natural phenomena that has
been developed through extensive and reproducible
observations and experiments

Ulcers
A Case Study in the
Scientific Method

15

Ulcers

16

CQ1: What do you think causes

ulcers?
A: Stress.
B: Excessive stomach acids.
C: Bacteria.
D: A bad diet and alcohol use.
E: Being overweight.

17

What Causes Ulcers?

Design an experiment to test if the excess
acid hypothesis is true.
In your small groups, design the
experiment. Remember, be specific about
how you would treat your groups and what
you would measure!
18

CQ2: Which is a good way to test the

excess acid hypothesis?
A: Examine ulcer patients of a range of ages and
measure their stomach acid levels.
B: Have volunteers drink alcohol and measure their
stomach acid levels.
C: Lower stomach acid levels of some volunteers
(using drugs/antacids), and measure numbers of
ulcers in all volunteers.
D: Examine patients of a range of ages and measure
the number of ulcers in each person.
E: Put volunteers through a stress test and then
measure their stomach acid levels.
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CQ3: What step in the scientific

method does this test represent?
A: Making observations.
B: Developing a hypothesis.
C: Determining predictions.
D: Testing a hypothesis.
E: Assessing support for a hypothesis.

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A Possible Study Design

Doctors divide patients into two groups:
Group 1 received antacids and
were instructed to take them
3x/day

Group 2 received sugar pills

and were instructed to take
them 3x/day

After 3 months, the number of ulcers per

patient is assessed.
Predict what the results would look like if
the excess acid theory was supported.
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# Ulcers/ patient

Draw this graph: Predict what the results would

look like if the excess acid theory was supported
by the results of this study:

Group 1
Group 2
Treatment Group

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# Ulcers/ patient

# Ulcers/ patient

CQ4: Which graph most closely matches

the results you predicted?

Group 1
Group 2
Treatment Group

# Ulcers/ patient

Group 1
Group 2
Treatment Group

# Ulcers/ patient

Group 1
Group 2
Treatment Group

Group 1
Group 2
Treatment Group

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 Unfortunately, this type

of controlled
experiment was NOT
conducted.

BUT, patients who took

antacids had
decreased ulcer
symptoms.
If the patients stopped
taking the antacids their
ulcers returned.
Image by: Midnightcomm

24

Dr. J. Robin Warren: (pathologist)

Examines stomach
biopsies of patients
with various stomach
ailments.

25

CQ5: The slides that Dr. Warren examined had

smudges that were not clearly visible under low
power, so he attached a high-power lens to his
microscope. What do you think he was able to
see then?
A: Many cells at once.
B: Only one cell at a
time.
C: Organelles within the
cells.
D: Bacteria.
E: Viruses .

LOW
POWER

26

Dr. Warren thought he saw:

Helicobacter pylori
(a new species of
bacteria)
But no one else
believed him!
The black squiggly spots on the slide
are bacteria that Dr. Warren observed
In his biopsy slides.

27

CQ6: Dr. Warrens colleagues did not believe

there were bacteria in the stomach. Why do you
think other pathologists did not believe bacteria
were in the stomach biopsies?
A: Bacteria are never found inside the human body.
B: The pH of the stomach is too acidic for any
bacteria to survive.
D: Ulcers and stomach cancer are caused by age,
stress and diet bacteria have nothing to do with
the problems the patients came to the hospital for.

28

So, Dr. Warren:

Used a special stain
that highlights
bacteria on his
slides.
This convinced his
colleagues that the
bacteria were there.

29

Talk to your neighbor

Dr. Warren thinks H. pylori causes
ulcers.
What is another hypothesis to explain
why Dr. Warren was finding bacteria on
his slides? (there are at least three
alternative hypotheses...)

30

Alternative explanations
(hypotheses):
1. The biopsy specimens were contaminated
AFTER samples were taken from the patients.
2. The bacteria live in the stomach, but do no
damage.
3. The bacteria are an opportunistic species that
arrives AFTER ulcers have already weakened
the stomachs defenses.

31

Dr. Barry J. Marshall Joins Dr.

Warrens Research
Hypothesis: Bacteria CAUSE stomach
ulcers.

If you were working with Drs. Warren &

Marshall to design a study to determine
whether the bacteria caused ulcers, how
would you do it?
32

Their First Survey Study:

100 stomach ulcer patients surveyed
(biopsy taken).
100% had H. pylori present.

33

CQ7: The doctors treated ulcer patients

with antibiotics to see if the disease
stopped. What is missing from their study?

A: An experimental treatment.
B: A control group.
C: An independent variable.
D: A dependent variable.
E: A hypothesis.
34

Important Aspects of
Experimental Design
Testable hypothesis, i.e., a way to measure a
response and a way to divide groups up into:
Control and Treatment Groups
Control is group that does not get the
hypothesized treatment.
Treatment is group that does get the
hypothesized treatment.
35

The Importance of Controls

Why do we need controls? Explain to
your neighbor

36

Number of ulcers
after 2 months

If they set up their antibiotic study with a treatment

group receiving antibiotics and a control group
receiving a placebo (no antibiotics), what results
would you expect if the original excess acid
hypothesis was supported?

Control

Experimental
37

Con

Exptl

Number of ulcers
after 2 months

Con

Con

Exptl

Exptl

Number of ulcers
after 2 months

Number of ulcers
after 2 months

Number of ulcers
after 2 months

CQ8: What results would you expect if the old

excess acid hypothesis were supported?

Con

Exptl

38

Number of ulcers
after 2 months

What results would you expect if Drs.

Warren and Marshalls bacteria cause
ulcers hypothesis is supported?

Control

Experimental

39

Number of ulcers
after 2 months

Con

Con

Exptl

D
A

Con

Number of ulcers
after 2 months

Exptl

Exptl

Number of ulcers
after 2 months

Number of ulcers
after 2 months

CQ9: What results would you expect if the bacteria

cause ulcers hypothesis were supported?

Con

Exptl

40

Actual Results of Warren &

Marshalls Study
When treated with antibiotics, 80% of patients
were permanently cured of their ulcers.
To further demonstrate the cause and effect
relationship, Dr. Marshall (who did NOT suffer
from ulcers), swallowed a flask of H. pylori from
the lab.
Within a week he was suffering from symptoms of
gastritis and had H. pylori populations in his stomach!
He cured himself with an antibiotic treatment.
41

CQ11: If you were shown the results of the

Warren & Marshall antibiotic study, you
would conclude:
A: The excess acid hypothesis is supported and is

the best explanation for the causation of ulcers.

B: The bacteria cause ulcers hypothesis is

supported and is the best explanation for the
causation of ulcers.
C: The excess acid hypothesis has not been
overturned, but bacteria might have something to
do with ulcers.

D: This study supports the bacteria cause ulcers

hypothesis, but I need more evidence.
42

EPILOGUE

43

Medical doctors worldwide were

NOT easily convinced
Drs. Warren and Marshall had trouble
getting their results published in scientific
journals and presenting results at scientific
meetings.
It took over 15 years and many more
studies from researchers all over the
world, before the bacteria cause ulcers
hypothesis was accepted by the medical
community.
44

Drs. Warren & Marshall win the 2005

Nobel Prize in Medicine & Physiology
The Nobel Prize committee recognized
Warren & Marshalls work changed peptic
ulcers from one of the worlds most
common chronic, debilitating diseases to
one easily cured with a simple drug
regimen.
Opened new avenues of research microbial causes of other chronic
inflammatory diseases.
Also increased understanding of links
between chronic infection, inflammation,
and cancer.
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