Professional Documents
Culture Documents
www.elsevier.com/locate/epsl
Received 19 May 2004; received in revised form 5 November 2004; accepted 7 December 2004
Available online 12 January 2005
Editor: S. King
Abstract
Earlier studies have shown that the amplitude difference of the M2 gravity tidal component (TGA) between the measured
and calculated response for a viscoelastic Earth is significantly correlated to the effective elastic thickness (Te) of the
lithosphere. Using a regression equation obtained from a global distribution, data from TGA were integrated with those
obtained by other methods (gravitytopography coherence and thermo-mechanical analysis) providing a spatial coverage
sufficient to establish regional Te patterns for South America and Africa. A comparison and association between the Te
distributions for both continents indicates that for the African plate, the effective elastic thickness map clearly shows a
remarkable dichotomy of the Neoproterozoic rocks and reworked older rocks. But for the case of South American plate that
is moving faster than the African plate, lower Te values are observed only for areas where extensive tectonics with intense
volcanism has acted, suggesting that a colder mantle underlies this continental plate, while a hotter asthenosphere is observed
beneath the African plate. This is in part attributed to its relatively slow motion which prevented dissipating the earlier
developed high temperature.
D 2004 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: effective elastic thickness; tidal gravity anomaly; Gondwana; asthenosphere thermal state
1. Introduction
398
M.S.M. Mantovani et al. / Earth and Planetary Science Letters 230 (2005) 397412
2. Methodology
2.1. Te from isostatic and thermo-mechanical analysis
In the isostatic analysis, Te is determined by
comparing the observed amplitude of the Bouguer
anomaly with its expected value for a locally
compensated topography. Forsyth [12] introduced
the coherence function taking into account the statistically independent subsurface loading, and making use
of the relationship between the Bouguer gravity and
topography as a function of the wavelength. The wave
number at the transition between coherent and
incoherent topography and gravity is a measure of
flexural rigidity, and hence of lithosphere effective
elastic thickness Te.
Admittance analysis [13], which considers compensation only for surface loading, underestimates Te
when compared to the coherence analysis [12] which
places loads both on the surface and at the Moho.
Thermo-mechanical analysis takes into account additional parameters such as temperature, pressure,
mineralogy, xenoliths composition, age, and geometry
of geological structures, and may underestimate Te
where intraplate tectonic stresses exist. In addition,
where there is little power in the topography then any
spectral estimation technique will be biased to strong
values [14]. However, a recent study applied to
southern Africa shows that this bias can be taken into
account using a wavelet transform approach to the
analysis of gravity and topography data [15].
Assuming the lithosphere as an isotropic elastic
plate, Te data from coherence analyses are available,
for South America and Africa, over large areas (e.g.,
[1624]) or along extended profiles (e.g., [2530]).
Evaluations of Te that consider the lithosphere as a
broken elastic plate (e.g., [31]), and from thermomechanical analysis (e.g., [32]) are also available.
In general, the resultant topography of an extensional tectonic regime (e.g.: rifted areas, continental
sedimentary basins) and for large cratonic areas
allows one to perform 2D regional gravity surveys,
while in subduction areas and collisional tectonic
zones Te is preferentially obtained along profiles.
The spatial distribution of Te estimates determined
by isostatic response models or by thermo-mechanical
analysis is not uniform over continental areas. This is
so because in many situations it is not possible to
M.S.M. Mantovani et al. / Earth and Planetary Science Letters 230 (2005) 397412
399
rTe
s
11:22TGA2 228:3r2TGA
TGA
7:39 7:72
cos2 /
cos4 /
2
The regression model (Eq. (1)) is shown by the solid
line in Fig. 1. The dashed lines delimit the F1
standard deviation interval for predicted Te values,
according to Eq. (2).
The regression analysis was based on worldwide
selected data, both from the point of view of tidal
quality data and reliability of the corresponding
coherence Te estimates [11].
This new tool is applied to the 50 tidal gravity
stations presently available on the South American
plate, and to 34 available for the African plate. The
corresponding Te estimates are presented in Tables 1
and 2.
Data from isostatic response analysis and from
tidal gravity anomaly are merged to compose a larger
Te data set and to compare their distribution in the two
400
M.S.M. Mantovani et al. / Earth and Planetary Science Letters 230 (2005) 397412
Table 1
Te from tidal gravity for Africa
Table 2
Te from tidal gravity for South America
Id
Lat
Lon
TGA
Te
Std
Id
Lat
Lon
TGA
Te
Std
3014
3451
3102
3806
3420
3901
3495
3801
3118
3030
3421
3031
3410
3399
3401
3010
3415
3505
3325
3807
3210
3005
3400
3312
3000
3321
3040
3020
3090
3112
3300
3311
3500
3601
9.0
2.6
33.5
32.4
2.1
22.3
17.8
26.0
22.8
2.6
1.5
3.3
4.4
18.8
12.7
15.6
4.2
15.1
12.4
33.9
26.3
24.1
13.5
12.6
29.9
6.2
6.8
2.0
29.2
36.8
18.1
14.4
26.0
18.9
38.7
29.8
5.1
20.8
28.6
17.1
31.1
28.0
5.5
36.9
30.2
38.6
18.6
7.3
8.0
32.5
15.1
39.3
1.5
18.9
12.8
32.6
2.1
12.2
31.3
5.0
39.2
45.4
13.5
3.0
16.0
17.0
32.6
47.6
1.21
0.58
0.10
0.07
0.59
1.57
0.07
0.58
0.61
0.81
1.02
0.21
1.48
1.07
0.28
0.13
0.63
1.94
1.97
0.50
1.88
0.51
1.38
0.37
0.18
0.14
0.73
1.13
0.00
0.60
0.73
0.56
1.79
0.18
87
76
68
64
76
98
64
78
78
51
47
62
91
86
71
68
76
102
102
78
24
55
91
72
61
68
78
46
65
82
80
76
27
62
7
6
7
7
6
8
6
7
7
6
6
6
7
7
6
6
6
8
8
7
9
7
7
6
7
6
6
7
7
8
7
6
9
6
6911
6975
7118
7119
7201
7202
7203
7250
7251
7252
7253
7254
7281
7303
7305
7306
7307
7308
7309
7310
7311
7312
7313
7314
7315
7316
7317
7319
7408
7409
7410
7411
7412
7450
7451
7500
7505
7506
7601
7805
7810
7812
7813
7814
7815
7816
7817
7818
7819
7895
14.73
10.65
9.94
10.71
10.51
10.55
8.81
4.65
10.39
12.62
7.90
3.45
5.17
23.56
25.45
29.67
20.46
20.77
15.61
16.62
6.53
22.12
5.06
22.40
3.17
1.50
12.97
23.10
16.43
11.99
6.76
3.73
14.82
0.19
2.18
16.49
17.77
17.79
20.29
34.57
37.32
31.67
27.47
31.55
24.73
41.12
54.82
45.83
36.40
31.67
61.15
61.40
84.05
85.23
66.93
71.50
70.86
74.10
75.54
81.69
72.49
76.56
52.68
46.73
49.24
53.82
54.62
42.87
56.13
49.26
37.14
51.41
42.77
43.65
59.83
48.50
38.48
46.96
71.57
76.84
79.84
73.24
74.94
78.50
79.87
68.13
63.19
63.16
70.04
58.41
59.08
63.89
58.78
68.68
65.49
71.42
68.33
67.48
64.20
55.93
0.44
0.03
0.20
1.23
0.69
1.59
1.08
0.16
0.89
0.55
0.72
0.13
0.03
0.38
0.32
1.51
0.08
1.18
0.22
0.68
0.37
0.14
1.15
0.53
0.47
1.31
0.56
0.14
0.41
0.21
0.68
1.02
0.47
0.80
0.21
0.53
0.38
0.38
0.90
1.31
0.20
0.04
0.84
0.96
0.34
0.85
0.52
0.62
0.66
0.95
74
66
69
43
78
37
46
63
81
55
78
68
65
57
58
100
67
89
61
78
72
68
45
54
74
88
76
68
73
69
77
83
74
79
69
75
73
73
83
99
71
64
47
89
73
92
38
43
83
88
6
6
6
7
6
7
7
6
6
6
6
6
6
7
7
8
6
7
6
6
6
6
7
7
6
7
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
7
8
7
7
7
8
7
8
11
9
8
8
Id is the station number; Lat and Lon are the coordinates of the
station; TGA is the M2 tidal gravity anomaly (micro Gal); Te is the
Effective Elastic Thickness (km) by Eq. (1); Std is the standard
deviation (km) by Eq. (2).
Id is the station number; Lat and Lon are the coordinates of the
station; TGA is the M2 tidal gravity anomaly (micro Gal); Te is the
Effective Elastic Thickness (km) by Eq. (1); Std is the standard
deviation (km) by Eq. (2).
M.S.M. Mantovani et al. / Earth and Planetary Science Letters 230 (2005) 397412
401
Fig. 2. Effective elastic thickness of South America and Africa obtained by the Krigging interpolation method. Data from isostatic response
analysis and from tidal gravity anomaly are merged to compose a larger Te data set and to compare their distribution in the two continents,
positioned for 10 Ma after break-up. Distribution of data and estimated uncertainty of the interpolated Te values are shown in Fig. 3.
402
M.S.M. Mantovani et al. / Earth and Planetary Science Letters 230 (2005) 397412
M.S.M. Mantovani et al. / Earth and Planetary Science Letters 230 (2005) 397412
403
Fig. 4. Schematic representation of the main tectonic units in Africa (modified after [3] and [36]).
that the small thickness of the supra-crustal metamorphic covers (bschist beltsQ) of these mobile belts
and/or their allocthonous character (over imposing the
cratonic basement) provided for these high observed
Te signatures.
Another high effective elastic thickness (74 km)
portion is recorded in the southern part of the
West Africa craton, more precisely the LeoMan
Shield (mostly in Senegal) where Archean nuclei
and Paleoproterozoic rocks prevail. Additional little
404
M.S.M. Mantovani et al. / Earth and Planetary Science Letters 230 (2005) 397412
Fig. 5. Distribution of ring complexes (Proterozoic to Tertiary) and their relationship to the Pan-African tectonic structure of Africa. The cratonic
domains are distinguished from the areas with tectono-thermal activities related to the Pan-African belts (Based on the scheme of Fig. 4). Dots
are the main igneous complexes (modified after [3639]).
M.S.M. Mantovani et al. / Earth and Planetary Science Letters 230 (2005) 397412
5. Analysis of results
5.1. Extensional tectonic regime structures
As emphasized above, the lower value of effective
elastic thickness (Teb30 km) in Fig. 2 correspond to
Pan-African basement zones where Permo-Triassic,
CretaceousEocene, and OligoceneRecent rifts
evolved (ex. East Africa rifts, Niger/Benue Through
Delta, etc.) and Phanerozoic volcanism (ex. Afar,
Cameroon Line, etc.) in different stages. Here, the
comparison of our map in Fig. 2 with Figs. 4 and 5 is
very interesting for the focusing of our discussions.
For the region of the Eastern African System of
Rifts, Te determinations are mainly given by many
authors focusing different objectives [9,15,17,24,
28,3941]. Inversion of the coherence for the Kenyan
rift yielded a best fitting elastic thickness of 25 km
(D=1.41023 N m): much of this area is covered with
extrusive volcanics from the rift and volcanic cones
(including Mt. Kenya, Elgon, and Kilimanjaro) which
act as surface loads on the lithosphere. The intrusive
volcanic rock assemblages were classified as highdensity loads (e.g. dykes within the Gregory rift) and
low-density loads (e.g. dykes of the Kavirondo rift)
and the topography of the dome was attributed
primarily to surface volcanic loading, while a low
density (hot region or partial molten mantle) was
associated to deep subsurface loads. Ebinger et al.
[17] analyzed 4 tectonic features or provinces: the
Afar Plateau (Te=2149 km; 3 sub-regions), the East
African Plateau (Te=2764 km; 10 sub-regions),
stable cratons (Te=6480 km; 3 sub-regions), and
magmatic areas (without rifts Te=43 km; 1 sub-
405
406
M.S.M. Mantovani et al. / Earth and Planetary Science Letters 230 (2005) 397412
described by [18]. The three basins contain megasequences initiated in Late Jurassic to Early Cretaceous. The Chad basin, in particular, is located above
Early Cretaceous rifts which are connected at depth
to the Atlantic margin via the Benue Trough [3].
Coherence studies indicate that the lithosphere
underlying the Congo basin has a Te value in excess
of 100 km, whereas the Chad and Iullmedden overlie
substantially weaker lithosphere (Te=2030 km). The
contrasting value compared with that given in [19] is
related to the size of the analyzed area and a relative
low topography relief, for which spectral analysis
cannot be applied. A Te=84 km value for the Chad
basin reported for a coherence analysis of superimposed adjacent areas is rejected by these authors
due to the inclusion of mirrored wavebands which
may have caused an artificial value. Newman and
White [7] concluded that the lithosphere underlying
the Congo basin is strong, whereas the Chad and
Iullmedden basins as well as the respectively
adjacent Hoggar and Darfur Domes overlie substantially weaker lithosphere, suggesting that this vast
area has been previously weakened [47]. These areas
belong to an ancient basement that was reworked
during the Pan-African orogenic cycle; many rifts
and plutonicvolcanic centers are present in these
areas (Fig. 5).
Analyzing the isostatic anomalies, Newman and
White [7] suggested that uplifts may be related to
convective upwelling in the asthenosphere involving
lateral density contrasts; this implies the existence of
thermal anomalies in the mantle underneath.
5.2.2. South America
The larger intracratonic sedimentary basins of
South America were analyzed by [22], Te=1266
km, and by [23], Te=2458 km. The Parnaiba basin
covers an area of approximately 600 000 km2 of the
western part of Northeast Brazil; its maximum thickness comprises about 3500 m of Silurian to Cretaceous sediments, intruded by magmatic rocks of
Permo-Triassic to Juro-Cretaceous age. The lower
Te values for the Parnaiba basin correspond to the
smaller areas used for coherence inversion; looking to
the shape of coherence plots, the Te=58+4/6 km
value is preferred [23].
The Parana basin, located in central-south-eastern
South America covers an area of about 1,700,000
M.S.M. Mantovani et al. / Earth and Planetary Science Letters 230 (2005) 397412
407
408
M.S.M. Mantovani et al. / Earth and Planetary Science Letters 230 (2005) 397412
M.S.M. Mantovani et al. / Earth and Planetary Science Letters 230 (2005) 397412
409
410
M.S.M. Mantovani et al. / Earth and Planetary Science Letters 230 (2005) 397412
Acknowledgments
The authors are grateful to Dr. Scott King, Cindy
Ebinger, and another unknown reviewer for comments and corrections that highly improved the
original manuscript. ORB and ICET provided access
to the tidal gravity database. Figures, cited as
extracted from other authors were redrawn by A.
Rugenski. CNPq, FAPESP, and CAPES financially
supported this research, through exchange cooperation among institutions, travel expenses, and graduate scholarship.
References
[1] D.E. James, M.J. Fouch, S. VanDecar, S. van der Lee,
Kaapvaal seismic group, Tectospheric structure beneath southern Africa, Geophys. Res. Lett. 28 (2001) 2485 2488.
[2] C.J. Ebinger, Y. Poudjom Djomani, E. Mbede, A. Foster, J.B.
Dawson, Rifting Archean lithosphere: the EyasiManyara
Natron rifts, East Africa, J. Geol. Soc. (Lond.) 154 (1997)
947 960.
[3] J.J. Lambiase, The framework of African rifting during the
Phanerozoic, J. Afr. Earth Sci. 8 (2/3/4) (1989) 183 190.
[4] G. Ranalli, Rheology of the Earth: Deformation and Flow
Processes in Geophysics and Geodynamics, Allen & Unwin,
London, 1987, p. 365.
[5] M.K. McNutt, Implications of regional gravity state of stress in
the Earths crust and upper mantle, J. Geophys. Res. 85 (B11)
(1980) 6377 6396.
[6] C.J. Hawkesworth, S. Kelley, S.P. Turner, A. LeRoex, B.
Storey, Mantle processes during Gondwana break-up and
dispersal, J. Afr. Earth Sci. 28 (1) (1999) 239 261.
[7] R. Newman, N. White, Rheology of continental lithosphere inferred from sedimentary basins, Nature 385
(1997) 621 624.
[8] D.L. Anderson, Hotspots, polar wander, Mesozoic convection
and the geoid, Nature 297 (1982) 391 393.
[9] W.J. Morgan, Hotspot tracks and the opening of the Atlantic
and Indian Oceans, in: C. Emiliani (Ed.), The Sea, vol. 7,
Wiley, New York, 1981, pp. 443 487.
[10] M.S.M. Mantovani, W. Shukowsky, S.R.C. de Freitas,
Tectonic pattern of South America inferred from tidal
gravity anomalies, Phys. Earth Planet. Inter. 114 (1999)
91 98.
[11] W. Shukowsky, M.S.M. Mantovani, Spatial variability of tidal
gravity anomalies and its correlation with the effective elastic
thickness of the lithosphere, Phys. Earth Planet. Inter. 114
(1999) 81 90.
[12] D.W. Forsyth, Subsurface loading and estimates of the flexural
rigidity of continental lithosphere, J. Geophys. Res. 90 (1985)
12623 12632.
[13] M.K. McNutt, Compensation of oceanic topography: an
application of the response function technique to the surveyor
area, J. Geophys. Res. 84 (1979) 7589 7598.
[14] A.B. Watts, E.B. Burov, Lithospheric strength and its relationship to the elastic and seismogenic layer thickness, Earth
Planet. Sci. Lett. 213 (2003) 113 131.
[15] C.P. Stark, J. Stewart, C.J. Ebinger, Wavelet transform
mapping o effective elastic thickness and plate loading:
validation, using synthetic data and application to the study
of Southern African tectonics, J. Geophys. Res. 108 (B12)
(2003) 2558 2577.
[16] T.D. Bechtel, D.W. Forsyth, V.L. Sharpton, R.A.F. Grieve,
Variations in effective elastic thickness of the North American
lithosphere, Nature 343 (1990) 636 638.
[17] C.J. Ebinger, T.D. Bechtel, D.W. Forsyth, C.O. Bowin,
Effective elastic plate thickness beneath the East African
and Afar plateaus and dynamic compensation of the uplifts,
J. Geophys. Res. 94 (B3) (1989) 2883 2901.
M.S.M. Mantovani et al. / Earth and Planetary Science Letters 230 (2005) 397412
[18] R.W. Hartley, P.A. Allen, Interior cratonic basin of Africa:
relation to continental break-up and role of mantle convection,
Basin Res. 6 (1994) 95 113.
[19] Y.H. Poudjom Djomani, J.M. Nnange, M. Diament, C.J.
Ebinger, J.D. Fairhead, Effective elastic thickness and
crustal thickness variations in west central Africa inferred
from gravity data, J. Geophys. Res. 100 (B11) (1995)
22.047 22.070.
[20] M.S.M. Mantovani, W. Shukowsky, S.E. Hallinan, Analise da
espessura elastica efetiva no segmento litosferico Rio de
LaPlata-Dom Feliciano, An. Acad. Bras. Cienc. 67 (2) (1995)
200 220.
[21] C.M. Doucoure, M.J. de Wit, M.F. Mushyandebvu, Effective
elastic thickness of the continental lithosphere in South Africa,
J. Geophys. Res. 101 (B5) (1996) 11.291 11.303.
[22] R.M. Vidotti, Lithospheric structure beneath the Parana and
Parnaiba basins, Brazil, from regional gravity analyses, PhD,
The University of Leeds, School of Earth Sciences, UK (1998)
96 pp.
[23] M.A. de Souza, Regional Gravity Modeling and Geo-history
of the Parnaba Basin (NE Brazil), PhD thesis, Univ. of
Newcastle upon Thyne, (1996) 126 pp.
[24] R. Hartley, A.B. Watts, J.D. Fairhead, Isotasy of Africa, Earth
Planet. Sci. Lett. 137 (1996) 1 18.
[25] J. Stewart, A.B. Watts, Gravity anomalies and spatial
variations of flexural rigidity at mountain ranges, J. Geophys.
Res. 102 (B3) (1997) 5327 5352.
[26] D. Whitman, Moho geometry beneath the eastern margin of
the Andes, northwest Argentina and its implications to the
effective elastic thickness of the Andean foreland, J. Geophys.
Res. 99 (B8) (1994) 15.277 15.287.
[27] A.B. Watts, S.H. Lamb, J.D. Fairhead, J.F. Dewey, Lithospheric flexure and bending of the Central Andes, Earth
Planet. Sci. Lett. 134 (1995) 9 21.
[28] C.J. Ebinger, N.J. Hayward, Soft plates and hot spots: views
from Afar, J. Geophys. Res. 101 (B10) (1996) 21.859 21.876.
[29] N.M. Upcott, R.K. Mukasa, C.J. Ebinger, Along-axis segmentation and isostasy in the Western rift, East Africa, J. Geophys.
Res. 101 (B2) (1996) 3247 3268.
[30] L. Coudert, M. Frappa, C. Viguier, P. Arias, Tectonic
subsidence and crustal flexure in the Neogene Chaco basin
of Bolivia, Tectonophysics 243 (1995) 277 292.
[31] G. Fan, T.C. Wallace, S.L. Beck, C.G. Chase, Gravity anomaly
and flexural model: constraints on the structure beneath the
Peruvian Andes, Tectonophysics 255 (1996) 99 109.
[32] L.L. Lavier, M.S. Steckler, The effect of sedimentary cover on
the flexural strength of the continental lithosphere, Nature 476
(1997) 476 479.
[33] G. Davis, Statistics and Data Analysis in Geology, 2nd edition,
John Wiley & Sons, NY, 1986, p. 646.
[34] M.S.M. Mantovani, W. Shukowsky, S.R.C. de Freitas, Tidal
gravity anomalies as a tool o measure rheological properties of
the continental lithosphere: application to the South American
Plate, J. South Am. Earth Sci. 14 (2001) 1 14.
[35] C. Hartnady, P. Joubert, C. Stowe, Proterozoic crustal
evolution in Southwestern Africa, Episodes 8 (4) (1985)
236 240.
411
[36] J.R. Vail, Ring complexes and related rocks in Africa, J. Afr.
Earth Sci. 8 (1) (1989) 19 40.
[37] A.M. Goodwin, Precambrian Geology. The Dynamic Evolution of the Continental Crust, Academic Press, London,
1991, p. 666.
[38] P.G. Eriksson, The 2.72.0 Ga volcano-sedimentary record of
Africa, India and Australia: evidence for global and local
changes in sea level and continental freeboard, Precambrian
Res. 97 (1999) 269 302.
[39] C. Petit, C.J. Ebinger, Flexure and mechanical behavior of
cratonic lithosphere: gravity models of East African and
Baikal rifts, J. Geophys. Res. 105 (B8) (2000) 19.151 19.162.
[40] C.J. Ebinger, G.D. Karner, J.K. Weissel, Mechanical
strength of extended continental lithosphere: constraints
from the western rift system, East Africa, Tectonics 10
(1991) 1239 1256.
[41] N.M. Upcott, Structural segmentation of continental rifts as
seen from ship and land gravity data: examples from East
Africa, PhD thesis, (1994) 248 pp., University of Leeds,
England.
[42] J. Ritsema, H.J. vanHeijst, J.H. Woodhouse, Global transition
zone tomography, J. Geophys. Res. 109 (B2) (2004)
101029 101047.
[43] J. Ritsema, H.J. vanHeijst, New seismic model of the upper
mantle beneath Africa, Geology 25 (1) (2000) 63 66.
[44] R. Montelli, G. Nolet, F.A. Dahlen, G. Masters, E.R. Engdahl,
S.H. Hung, Finite frequency tomography reveals a variety of
plumes in the mantle, Science 303 (2004) 338 343.
[45] E. Debayle, B.L.N. Kenneth, Anisotropy in the Australasian
upper mantle from Love and Rayleigh waveform inversion,
Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 184 (2000) 339 351.
[46] J. Ritsema, J. van Heijst, J.H. Woodhouse, Complex shear
wave velocity structure imaged beneath Africa and Iceland,
Science 286 (1999) 1925 1928.
[47] A.E. Ibrahim, C.J. Ebinger, J.D. Fairhead, Lithospheric
extension northwest of the central African shear zone in
Sudan from potential field studies, Tectonophysics 255 (1996)
79 97.
[48] C.J. Hawkesworth, M.S.M. Mantovani, P.N. Taylor, Z. Palacz,
Coupled crustmantle systems: evidence from the Parana of
South Brazil, Nature 322 (1986) 356 359.
[49] D.W. Peate, M.S.M. Mantovani, C.J. Hawkesworth, Geochemical stratigraphy of the Parana CFB: borehole evidence,
Rev. Bras. Geocienc. 18 (2) (1988) 212 221.
[50] S. Turner, M. Regelous, S. Kelley, C.J. Hawkesworth, M.S.M.
Mantovani, Magmatism and continental break-up in the South
Atlantic: high precision 40Ar39Ar geochronology, Earth
Planet. Sci. Lett. 1221 (1994) 333 348.
[51] A.J. Nunn, J.R. Aires, Gravity anomalies an lexure of the
lithosphere at the Middle Amazon Basin, Brazil, J. Geophys.
Res. 93 (B1) (1988) 415 428.
[52] D.S. Weeraratne, D.W. Forsyth, K.M. Fisher, Evidence for an
upper mantle plume beneath the Tanzanian craton from
Rayleigh wave tomography, J. Geophys. Res. 108 (B9)
(2003) 2427 2446.
[53] C. Cingolani, R. Varela, L. Dalla Salda, J. Bossi, N. Campal,
L. Ferrando, D. Pineyro, A. Schipilov, RbSr geochronology
412
[54]
[55]
[56]
[57]
[58]
[59]
[60]
[61]
M.S.M. Mantovani et al. / Earth and Planetary Science Letters 230 (2005) 397412
from the Rio de La Plata Craton of Uruguay, South American
Symposium on Isotope Geolog, June 1518, Campos do
Jordao, SP, 1997, pp. 7 75 (Extended abstract).
L.A. Hartmann, J.A.D. Leite, N.J. McNaughton, J.O.S. Santos,
Deepest exposed crust of BrazilSHRIMP establishes three
events, Geology 27 (1999) 947 950.
N. Ussami, E.C. Molina, Flexural modeling of the Neoproterozoic Araguaia belt, Central Brazil, J. South Am. Earth
Sci. 12 (1999) 87 98.
C.C.G. Tassinari, K.M. Mellito, L.V. Rodrigues, The geochronological map of the Amazonian craton in Brazil, South
American Symposium on Isotope Geolog, June 1518,
Campos do Jordao, SP, 1997, pp. 326 329 (Extended
Abstracts).
W. Teixeira, Evolucao tectonotermal proterozoica do craton
de Sao Francisco, com base em interpretacoes geocronologicas, KAr, Simposio sobre o Craton de Sao Francisco
Evolucao Tectonica e Metalogenetica, Salvador, BA, vol. 2,
1993, pp. 18 20.
K.D. Nelson, A unified view of craton evolution motivated by
recent deep seismic reflection and refraction result, Geophys.
J. Int. 105 (1991) 25 35.
H. Lyon-Cahen, P. Molnar, G. Suarez, Gravity anomaly and
flexure of the Brazilian Shield beneath the Bolivian Andes,
Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 75 (1985) 81 92.
H. Lyon-Cahen, P. Molnar, Constraints on the structure of the
Himalaya from an analysis of gravity anomalies and a
flexural model of the lithosphere, J. Geophys. Res. 88 (1983)
8171 8191.
M. Barazangi, B.L. Isaacks, Spatial distribution of earthquakes
and subduction of he Nazca Plate beneath South America,
Geology 4 (1976) 686 692.